ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

RAMACHANDRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

STUDENT LAB MANUAL

Year :
Lab Code :
Regulations : R23
Class : I B. Tech I/II Semester
Branch :

Prepared by
Physics Department

Name of the Student :

Program : B. Tech
Student ID/ Roll :

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Institution
Vision:
To emerge as a “Centre of excellence” offering high quality Technical Education
and Research Opportunities to learners and also develop complete personality of graduates
with good communication, discipline, lifelong learning, leadership qualities, ethics and
global standards there by making them professionally deft and intellectually adept to
contribute for the advancement of environment and society.
Mission:

• To impart high quality technical education by providing the state-of-the art

infrastructure, core instruction and well experienced and qualified faculty.
• To develop highly motivated engineering professionals with good knowledge,
communication skills, human and ethical values, requisite skills and competence.
• To produce highly successful graduates who can contribute to the profession to
resolve the societal and environmental issues in the society.

Course Outcomes

After successful completion of lab, Student can be able to

CO-1 Operate optical instruments like travelling microscope and spectrometer.

CO-2 Estimate the wavelengths of different colours using diffraction grating.
CO-3 Plot the intensity of the magnetic field of circular coil carrying current with
distance.
CO-4 Evaluate dielectric constant and magnetic susceptibility for dielectric and
magnetic materials respectively.
CO-5 Calculate the band gap of a given semiconductor.

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Certificate

Department of Physics

Register number …………..………………

Certified that this is a bonafide record of work done by the candidate

Mr/Ms ………………………………of B.Tech-……………in Engineering
physics laboratory during the academic year 20 -20 .

Lecturer in-charge

University Examination held on …………..………….

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PO’S

PO.NO PO STATEMENT
Engineering Knowledge: Apply knowledge of mathematics and science, with fundamentals of Computer
PO1
Science & Engineering to be able to solve complex engineering problems
Problem Analysis: Identify, Formulate, review research literature and analyze complex engineering problems
PO2 and reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences and engineering
sciences
Design/Development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system
PO3 components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety and the cultural societal and environmental considerations
Conduct Investigations of Complex problems: Use research–based knowledge and research methods
PO4 including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
Modern Tool Usage: Create, Select and apply appropriate techniques, resources and modern engineering and
PO5 IT tools including prediction and modelling to mechanical related complex engineering activities with an
understanding of the limitations
The Engineer and Society: Apply Reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health,
PO6 safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice
Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal
PO7
and environmental contexts and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development
Ethics: Apply Ethical Principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
PO8
engineering practice
Individual and Team Work: Function effectively as an individual and as a member or leader in diverse teams
PO9
and in multidisciplinary Settings
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
PO10 community and with society at large such as able to comprehend and with write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations and give and receive clear instructions.
Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
PO11 management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multi-disciplinary environments
Life-Long Learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent
PO12
and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change

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Index

S. No. List of Experiments Page No. Marks Sign

Awarded
I NEWTON’S RINGS 11-17

II WAVELENGTH OF LASER LIGHT 18-22

III MELDE’S EXPERIMENT 23-27

IV COMPOUND PENDULUM 28-31

V PLANCK’S CONSTANT 32-37

VI DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 38-43

VII STEWART & GEE’S METHOD 44-49

VIII FOUR PROBE METHOD 50-54

IX HALL EFFECT EXPERIMENT (Virtual Lab) 55-57

X THERMISTOR (Virtual Lab) 58-61

XI NUMERICAL APERTURE 62-65

XII WEDGE METHOD 66-69

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INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
1. All students should come in uniform and wear the student identity card.
2. Students should bring their own pen, pencil, eraser, scale, calculator, lab manual and record. Do
not borrow them from others.
3. Students should maintain silence in the laboratory.
4. Students should not roam while doing the experiment.
5. After completing the experiment, every student should maintain lab documents like an
observation book, a lab manual and a lab record and get them evaluated regularly.
6. Students should bring their record for the completed experiment by the next Lab for evaluation
from the concerned Lab mentor.
7. Marks will be awarded to the students for their day - day performance and for record writing.
8. Award of marks: Total: 100 marks
Internal: 30 marks
Daily performance in the lab: 15 marks
Record & Viva: 15 marks
External: 70 marks
Procedure: 20 marks
Experimental work & Result: 30 marks
Viva voce: 20 marks
9. 100% attendance is the pre-condition to become eligible for the Lab internal and external
examination.
10. Students should handle the equipment carefully in the laboratory. They should pay for the
breakage they have done.

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Expt. No.: 0 Date:

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS LAB
(A) VERNIER CALIPERS
Least count:
Every measuring instrument has a limit to measure the dimension of an object. The minimum amount of
measurement that can be done by an instrument called least count.
In case of ordinary meter scale, it is one millimeter, but there is a possible to increase the sensitivity and
accuracy of that meter scale by introduce a supplementary scale called Vernier scale. The Vernier
calipers is such a instrument which is made out of two scales, one is main scale and other one is Vernier
scale. The Vernier scale can slide on the main scale.
The least count of Vernier scale can be measure by using Vernier principle that is
If N is the no. of divisions on Vernier scale, then
“(N-1) divisions on main scale=N divisions on Vernier scale”
If S and V are the values of one main scale and Vernier scale divisions, then
=> S (N-1) = NV
=> N(S-V) = S
=> S-V = S/N
Least count of Vernier calipers (L.C.) = 1 division of the main scale(S) – 1 division of the Vernier scale
(V)
Least count (L.C) = S / N =
Diagram:

Fig. Vernier calipers

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Precautions:
1. The objects must be gripped gently between the jaws.
2. Parallel error is avoided while noting the readings.
3. All the readings are noted in one system of units.

(B) Screw Gauge

Screw gauge will work on the principle of screw and nut. In a screw, rotatory motion is
converted in to liner motion. The distance between any two consecutive threads is called pitch of
the screw. It is equal to the distance advanced on the pitch scale for one complete rotation of the
head of the screw.
Pitch of the screw =
Least count the screw gauge is defined as the distance advanced on the pitch scale for rotation of
one division of the head scale.
Least count =
Zero error:
When the two studs of the screw gauge are in contact,
i. If the zero of the head scale coincides with the index line as shown in Fig (a), there is no
zero error.
ii. If the zero of the head scale is below the index line as shown in the Fig (b), then error is
positive and the correction is negative.
iii. If the zero of the head scale is above the index line as shown in the Fig(c), then error is
negative and the correction is positive.
Diagram:

Fig. Screw gauge

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Fig. Screw gauge zero errors

Other Vernier instruments:

In the laboratory there are other instruments which can be used to compute the measurements
with the aid of Vernier scales for example travelling microscope, the weighing scales and the
spectrometer. The travelling microscope combines magnified optical positioning with a ruler
accuracy of 0.01mm. For the other two instruments some other parameter has been equated with
a length scale.
(C)Travelling Microscope
The travelling microscope is an instrument well-suited for the purpose of measuring small
vertical or horizontal distances with high accuracy. It consists of a compound micro-scope that is
capable of independent horizontal and vertical movements. The amount of movement in the
vertical direction can be obtained from the scale M1 and the vernier V1 whereas that in the
horizontal direction can be obtained the scale M2 and the vernier V2. The microscope may be
raised or lowered along a vertical pillar PN and its axis may be fixed horizontally, vertically, or
in between them by the screw S1. The screw S2 is used to move the pillar PN horizontally. The
object is viewed through the eye piece E when the objective lens O is turned towards the object.
The focal length of the objective generally lies between 3 to 4 cm. The focusing of the
microscope is accomplished by a screw attached to the body of the microscope. The cross-wire
of the eye piece is focused by moving eye piece in or out. Four screws at the base of instrument
are used for its leveling. Before using the instrument note the vernier constants of the both the
verniers V1 and V2. Generally, the vernier constants of V1 and V2 are the same.
Observations:
• Value of 1 main scale divisions (S) = ————
• Number of divisions on the Vernier scale (N) = ——————
• Least count = L.C = S/N =

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Diagram:

Fig; Travelling microscope

Table-1: To determine the Diameter of the bore of capillary tube (d)

Travelling Microscope readings in (cm)

Diameter
Left side of the bore Right side of the bore
of the
S. No
Total Total bore
M.S.R V.C. b= n × L.C reading M.S.R V.C. b= n × L.C reading D=RR~RL
(a) N RL (a) n RR
(a + b) (a + b)

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Expt. No.: Date:

NEWTON’S RINGS
Aim:
To determine the radius of curvature of a Plano - convex lens by forming Newton’s rings
Apparatus:
• Traveling microscope, (18 cm long scale, Vernier reading to 0.001 cm)
• Sodium vapor lamp (35W, with transformer)
• Plano-convex lens,
• Two Plane glass plates,
• Black cloth or paper and
• Retort stand.
Formula:
The radius of curvature of a given Plano- convex lens is
Dm 2 − Dn 2
R=
4 (m − n) cm
where Dm= Diameter of the m th ring
Dn = Diameter of the n th ring
λ = Wave length of the given monochromatic light source (Sodium light source λ =5890 Ǻ).
Slope
R=
From graph 4 cm
Theory:
An air film of varying thickness is formed, wherever a plano-convex lens is placed with its
convex surface on a plane glass plate. When such a film is illuminated normally with a
monochromatic light, then circular rings are formed in the reflected light. These rings are known
as Newton’s rings.
The path difference between the reflected rays is ∆=2t + λ/2 where t is the thickness of the air
film. Therefore, the condition for minima is 2t = n λ --------- (1)
Let rn is the radius of the nth order dark ring,
From the Fig.-(a)
r2 = (2R-t) t where R is the radius of curvature of Plano- convex lens
If R>>t,
Hence, r2 = (2R) t -------- (2)
From Eqs. (1) and (2) we have n λ = r2/R

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With the help of a traveling microscope we can measure, the diameter of the nth order dark ring
Dn, Then rn = and = 4n λ R
The value of Dn, is calculated from the slope of the graph.
Diagram:

Fig. Experimental arrangement of Newton’s rings

Fig. Geometrical representation of Newton’s rings

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Procedure:
1. A Plano- convex lens is placed on a plane glass plate as the convex surface is contact with
the plane glass plate such that an air film is created
2. Along with black paper put the above arrangement on the platform of the traveling
microscope.
3. Now allow the sodium light normally on the thin air film with the help of plane glass plate
which is inclined at angle of 45o with the vertical
4. Focus the microscope until the Newton’s rings are clearly visible and observe the central
spot as dark. Move the microscope’s vertical pillar horizontally on the base such that the
point of intersection of Cross-wires coincides with the central dark spot.
5. By counting the central spot as zero, move the microscope to the left side using the slow-
motion screw up to 10 rings. When the vertical cross wire is tangential to the 10th ring,
note down the main scale reading and Vernier coincidence.
6. Now move the microscope towards the center of the ring system and make the vertical
cross wire coincide with 8th, 6th, 4th and 2nd ring and note down the corresponding
readings of M.S.R. and V.C. as above.
7. Now move the microscope towards the right side of the central spot and note the readings
for 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th .... etc. as was done on left side.
8. The difference between the readings of particular order of ring on the left side and right
side gives the diameter of that ring.
1. Find the square of the diameters of rings and calculate the difference between the
successive rings square of the diameters. Note down the average of Dm- Dn. The radius of
curvature of Plano- convex lens can be obtained from the formula
Dm 2 − Dn 2
R=
4 (m − n) cm
2. From the slope of the graph drawn between n Vs diameter of ring, the radius of curvature
is calculated.

Precautions:
1. The traveling microscope should move only in one direction to avoid error due to back-
lash
2. The central spot should be dark
3. The experimental setup should not be disturbed throughout the experiment.

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Observations:
Table -1: To determine the diameter of the Newton’s dark rings D:
• Least Count of the travelling microscope (L.C.) = (S/N) = (0.05/50) = 0.001cm

D = d1 ~ d2
SNO ORDER MICROSCOPE READINGS
D2
OF THE LEFT RIGHT
RING
MSR VC TOTAL MSR VC TOTAL
d1 = (MSR d2 = (MSR +
+ (LC*VC)) (LC*VC))

1 2 4.55 40 4.5 4.4 30 4.43 0.07 0.0141

2 4 4.6 20 4.6 4.4 10 4.41 0.19 0.0441

3 6 4.75 50 4.8 4.35 30 4.3 0.42 0.1764
4 8 4.8 20 4.8 4.35 40 4.39 0.41 0.1849
5 10 4.75 48 4.7 4.3 20 4.32 0.38 0.2209

Experiment done by student

D = d1 ~ d2
SNO ORDER MICROSCOPE READINGS
D2
OF THE LEFT RIGHT
RING
MSR VC TOTAL MSR VC TOTAL
d1 = (MSR d2 = (MSR +
+ (LC*VC)) (LC*VC))

Model Graph:
Plot a graph n Vs such that the order of the fringes n on x – axis and square of the diameter of
the corresponding rings on y - axis, which is a straight line. Therefore, by measuring the slope of
that straight line, we can calculate the radius of curvature R of the given convex lens.

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Fig. Plot of n verses

Calculations:
Theoretical:
Dm 2 − Dn 2
R=
4 (m − n)
𝑫𝟐𝟒 − 𝑫𝟐𝟐
R=
𝟒×𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟑×𝟏𝟎−𝟖 ×(𝟒−𝟐)

(𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟒𝟏−𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟏)
R=
(𝟒×𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟑×𝟏𝟎−𝟖 ×𝟐)

R = 63.634 cm
Graphical:
𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆
R=
𝟒𝝀

𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟓
R=
𝟒×𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟑×𝟏𝟎−𝟖

R = 63.634 cm

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Result:
The radius of curvature of the given convex lens R = _________ Cm
From graph R = __________ Cm

Remarks:

CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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Expt. No.: Date:

Wavelength of laser light source
Aim:
To determine wavelength of laser by using plane transmission diffraction grating
Apparatus:
• Diode LASER,
• Power supply,
• Plane transmission diffraction grating(15000LPI)
• Scale,
• Screen,
• Graph paper.
Formula:

• The condition for nth order diffraction Principal maxima is given by (e + d ) sin  = n

Here, (e + d ) is width of each slit or grating element; n is order of diffraction spectrum.

xn
sin  =
x n2 + D 2
From Fig,
x
Where n is the distance of nth order maxima from zero order maxima and D is the distance
from grating to screen.

sin  1  xn 0
= =  A
Nn Nn  xn2 + D 2 
Therefore, the wavelength of the laser light  
Theory:
A diffraction grating consists of a number of narrow and uniformly spaced parallel slits separated
by opaque regions. Generally, a plane glass plate on which a number of equidistant parallel lines
(15000 lines per inch) drawn with a fine diamond pointer can be used as a transmission grating.
When a light is incident normal to the grating surface, then it is transmitted through the slits (or
in between parallel lines) and is obstructed by the opaque portions (by the parallel lines).The
appreciable bending of incident light occurs at the edges of the slits and produce diffraction
pattern on the screen, whenever the width of the slit or spacing between lines is order of the
wave length of incident light. The diffraction pattern consists of a central maximum and first
order, second order, etc.

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The condition for diffraction maxima in the grating is (e + d )sinθ = nλ where e is width of the
slit and d is distance between two slits and n is the order of maxima and
(e + d) is referred as
1
N=
grating element. If N is the total number of lines per cm on the grating,
(e + d )

Diagram:

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Observations:
Table: To determine the wavelength of light
• Number of lines on the grating per cm is N = (15000/2.54) = 5905.5
Distance
Distance between the nth
Order
order maxima Distance of the nth
between
of order maxima from
S. screen on either side   sin  0
=
xn
maxim central maximum sin  =   A
No. and of central  xn + D 
2 2
Nn
um 𝑿𝒏 (𝑹) + 𝑿𝒏 (𝑳)
Grating maximum 𝑿𝒏 =
(n) 𝟐
(D) cm
Xn(L) Xn(R)
1 1 53.5 19 21 20 0.35 5926 AO
2 1 40 17 17 17 0.33 5650 AO

Experiment done by student

Distance
Distance between the nth
Order
order maxima Distance of the nth
between
of order maxima from
S. screen on either side  xn  sin  0
maxim central maximum sin  =   = A
No. and of central  xn + D 
2 2
Nn
um
maximum 𝑿𝒏 (𝑹) + 𝑿𝒏 (𝑳)
Grating 𝑿𝒏 =
(n) 𝟐
(D) cm
Xn(L) Xn(R)

sinθ 
λ= A
Therefore, the wave length of the spectral line Nn
We know that grating refers to a set of parallel lines with equal spacing. When such arrangement
was made on a plane glass plate, then it is called optical grating. Each line on the slit is acting as
an obstacle to the light propagation and light undergoes diffraction. The plane transmission
diffraction grating used in laboratory consists of 15000 lines per inch.
When light falls on grating surface it is diffracted and diffraction spots were observed on either
side of central maxima as shown in Fig. The distance of each order spot from central bright spot
x
must be equal. If n is the distance of nth order maxima from zero order maxima
xn
sin  =
x + D2
2
n

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(Central bright spot) and D is the distance from grating to screen,

Therefore, the wavelength of the laser light

=
(e + d ) sin  = (e + d )  xn 0
A
n n  xn2 + D 2 
Procedure:
1. Arrange the laser source and grating on the table at the same height as shown in fig.
2. Adjust the grating such that we see clear diffraction pattern on screen or wall. It will be
observed that central maxima will be of maximum intensity and the other maxima are of
decreasing intensities.
3. Measure the distance of grating from screen and note down it as D in observation table.
4. Measure the distance between the corresponding maxima of the same order left and right
side to the central spot (2x cm). Find xn and note down in observation table. .
5. Vary the slit distance from the screen i.e, take the reading at different D. The
corresponding xn is to be measured.
6. The value of wavelength is calculated for each value obtained using the formula and the

xn
sin  =
x n2 + D 2
average value of wavelength is determined
Precautions:
1. Clean the grating surface with soft cloth and do not touch the surface with fingers till the
experiment is over.
2. Mark spots of various orders on graph paper with pencil at the center of that spot.
3. Do not see the LASER light with naked eye, because it causes loss of sensation of vision
Calculations:

𝟐𝟎
sin θ =
√𝟐𝟎𝟐 +𝟓𝟑.𝟓𝟐

sin 𝜃 = 0.35
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 𝟎.𝟑𝟓
λ= = = 5.926 × 10−5𝑐𝑚 = 5926 AO
𝒏𝑵 𝟏×𝟓𝟗𝟎𝟓.𝟓

𝟓𝟗𝟐𝟔+𝟓𝟔𝟓𝟎
Average λ= = 5788 AO
𝟐

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Result:
The wavelength of laser light using plane diffraction grating was found to be
__________________ AO

Remarks:

CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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Expt. No.: Date:

Melde’s Experiment
Aim:
To determine the frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork using Melde’s apparatus in
transverse and longitudinal arrangement.
Apparatus:
• Electrically maintained tuning fork, (4-6 V DC ,2Amps)
• A stand with clamp and pulley,
• Battery eliminator, (4V, 2Amps)
• Connecting wires,
• Meter scale,
• Sewing thread,
• Weight hanger with slotted weights (each 50g),
Formulae:
The frequency of the electric vibrator (n)

• In case of transverse mode of vibration is

1 T
n=
2l m
• In case of longitudinal mode of vibration is
1 T
n=
l m
Where, l = Resonating length of the one loop of the thread (cm)
T = Tension in the string (dynes)
m = Linear mass density= Mass of the string (Ms)/Length of the string (Ls) (g/cm)
Theory:
The Melde’s apparatus consists of electrically maintained tuning fork, whose shrunk is fixed to
the heavily weighted iron stand. A bent metal strip is attached to the one of the prongs of the
fork. This metal piece is in contact with a metal screw (s) which can be worked through a fixed
nut. The battery eliminator, plug key and rheostat are connected in series with the electromagnet.
A one end of the sewing thread is attached to the end of a prong and it is passed over a
frictionless pulley fixed near the edge of the table. The tension is providing in the thread by
hanging the slotted weight to the other end.

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When the tuning fork is vibrated, it produces the progressive waves in the thread. These waves
will be reflected at the pulley and interfere with the forward waves, produces a stationary wave.
If the frequency of the vibrator is the same as one of the natural frequencies i.e. at the resonance,
the vibrational amplitude will be maximum and the thread will be divided into number of loops
with well-defined nodes corresponding to that particular frequency.
The progressive waves can be classified in to two types by based on the mode of propagation of
the waves.1. Transverse waves 2. Longitudinal waves. In transverse wave the particle vibrate
perpendicularly where as in a longitudinal wave the particle vibrates parallel to the direction of
the propagation of the wave.
Procedure:
a) For Transfers mode
1. Make the arrangement of the Melde’s apparatus for transverse mode as shown in the
figure, i.e., electrical tuning fork and the length of the thread are in the same direction.
Hence in this case the vibrations of the tuning fork are in perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the waves.
2. Stretch the thread by placing a slotted weight (say100 g) in the weight hanger and it is
attached to the one end of the thread which is placed over the pulley. Measure the tension
in the thread by using equation T = Mg dynes.
3. Switch on the power supply, start the vibrations in the tuning fork and adjust the position of
the pulley, so that the string is set into resonant.
4. Note the number of loops (p), resonating length (l) by measuring with meter scale and the
mass of the slotted weights (M) in the table.
5. Repeat the above procedure by increasing the load in steps of 50 g and measure the
corresponding values of T, l and p.
1 T
n=
6. Calculate the frequency of the electric tuning fork from the equation 2l m Hz
Transverse arrangement

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Observations:
(a) For transverse arrangement:

S.No Total No of Loops Resonating Resonating Tension in

Suspended (P) length of length of thread √𝑻
Mass(m) thread for P thread for T = mg 𝒍
loops (L) each loop (dynes)
(l = L/P)
1 10 + 17 6 99 16.5 26460 9.858
2 20 + 17 5 95 19 36260 10.02
3 30 + 17 4 86 21.5 46060 9.982

• Linear density (mass per unit length) of the given thread 0.0044g/cm
√𝑻
• Average of 𝒍
= 9.9533
𝟏 𝑻
• Frequency of electric vibrator 𝒏 = √ = 75.08 cycles per sec (or) Hz
𝟐𝒍 𝒎

Experiment done by student

S.No Total No of Loops Resonating Resonating Tension in

Suspended (P) length of length of thread √𝑻
Mass(m) thread for P thread for T = mg 𝒍
loops (L) each loop (dynes)
(l = L/P)
1
2
3

• Linear density (mass per unit length) of the given thread 0.0044g/cm
√𝑻
• Average of 𝒍
=
𝟏 𝑻
• Frequency of electric vibrator 𝒏 = √ = ________ cycles per sec (or) Hz
𝟐𝒍 𝒎

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b) For Longitudinal mode:

1. In this case the vibrations of the prong of the tuning fork are parallel to the direction of
propagation of the waves along the thread i.e. tuning fork and length of thread are both in
perpendicular direction as shown in figure.
2. The procedure remains the same as described in the case of transverse mode and calculate
1 T
n=
the frequency of the electric tuning fork from the equation l m Hz

Longitudinal arrangement

Observations:
(b) For longitudinal arrangement:
S.No Total No of Loops Resonating Resonating Tension in
Suspended (P) length of length of thread √𝑻
Mass(m) thread for P thread for T = mg 𝒍
loops (L) each loop (dynes)
(l = L/P)
1 10 + 17 3 96 32 26460 5.083
2 20 + 17 5 93 18.6 36260 10.293
3 30 + 17 2 92 46 46060 4.665

• Linear density (mass per unit length) of the given thread 0.0044g/cm
√𝑻
• Average of 𝒍
= 6.6

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𝟏 𝑻
• Frequency of electric vibrator 𝒏 = √ = 99.4 cycles per sec (or) Hz
𝒍 𝒎

Experiment done by student

S.No Total No of Loops Resonating Resonating Tension in
Suspended (P) length of length of thread √𝑻
Mass(m) thread for P thread for T = mg 𝒍
loops (L) each loop (dynes)
(l = L/P)
1
2
3

• Linear density (mass per unit length) of the given thread 0.0044g/cm
√𝑻
• Average of 𝒍
=
𝟏 𝑻
• Frequency of electric vibrator 𝒏 = √ = _______cycles per sec (or) Hz
𝒍 𝒎

Precautions:
1. The thread should be uniform and inextensible.
2. Well defined loops should be obtained by adjusting the tension with milligram weights.
3. Frictions in the pulley should be least possible.

Result:
The mean frequency of the electric vibrator
1. In transverse mode ___________ Hz
2. In Longitudinal mode __________Hz

Remarks:

CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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Expt. No.: Date:

COMPOUND PENDULUM
Aim:
(i) To determine the acceleration due to gravity (g) by means of a compound pendulum.
(ii) To determine radius of gyration about an axis through the center of gravity for the compound
pendulum.
Apparatus:
Compound pendulum, knife edges, telescope, stop watch and meter scale.
Definition of ‘g’:
When a body is left to free fall, then it acquires a constant acceleration and move towards earth,
due to earth’s gravitation. Now the constant acceleration acquired by that freely falling body is
called acceleration due to gravity.
Formula:
The acceleration due to gravity is given by
𝒍
𝒈 = 𝟒𝝅𝟐 ( ) 𝑪𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐
𝑻𝟐
Here l = length of the pendulum
T = Period of oscillations

The radius of gyration is given by

𝑷𝑸
𝑲= 𝑪𝒎
𝟐
Here EF is determined from graph
Description:
The bar pendulum consists of a metallic bar of about one meter long. A series of circular holes
each of approximately 5 mm in diameter are made along the length of the bar. The bar is
suspended from a horizontal knife-edge passing through any of the holes (Fig.). The knife- edge,
in turn, is fixed in a platform provided with the screws. By adjusting the rear screw, the platform
can be made horizontal.

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Procedure:
1. Suspend the bar using the knife edge of the hook through a hole nearest to one end of the
bar. With the bar at rest, focus a telescope so that the vertical cross-wire of the telescope
is coincident with the vertical mark on the bar.
2. Allow the bar to oscillate in a vertical plane with small amplitude (within 40 of arc).
3. Note the time for 20 oscillations by a precision stop-watch by observing the transits of the
vertical line on the bar through the telescope. Make this observation three times and find
the meantime t for 20 oscillations. Determine the time period T.
4. Measure the distance d of the axis of the suspension, i.e., the hole from one of the edges of
the bar by a meter scale.
5. Repeat operation 1 to 4 for the other holes till C.G of the bar is approached where the time
period becomes very large.
6. Invert the bar and repeat operations 1 to 4 for each hole starting from the extreme top.
7. Draw a graph with the distance d of the holes as abscissa and the time period T as ordinate.
The nature of graph will be as shown in Fig.
Draw the horizontal line ABCDE parallel to the X-axis. Here A, B, D and E represent the
point of intersections of the line with the curves. Note that the curves are symmetrical about a
vertical line which meets the X-axis at the point G, which gives the position of the C.G of the
bar. This vertical line intersects with the line ABCDE at C. Determine the length AD and BE and
𝑨𝑫+𝑩𝑬
find the length L of the equivalent simple pendulum from 𝑳 = 𝑪𝒎
𝟐

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Find also the time period T corresponding to the line ABCDE and then compute the value of g.
Draw several horizontal lines parallel to X-axis and adopting the above procedure find the value
of g for each horizontal line. Calculate the mean value of g.
Similarly, to calculate the value of K, determine the length AC, BC or CD, CE of the line
ABCDE and compute √𝑨𝑪 × 𝑩𝑪 𝑶𝒓 √𝑪𝑫 × 𝑪𝑬. Repeat the procedure for each horizontal line.
Find the mean of all K.
Observations:
Table-I:
SNO Distance of the Time for 20 oscillations Period of oscillation
point of suspension t(Sec) T (Sec) = t/20
measured only
Trail-I Trail-II Mean
from one end of
(t1) (t2) (t)
the bar (l Cm)
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20
5 25
6 30
7 35
8 40
9 45
10 50 ------ ------
11 55
12 60
13 65
14 70
15 75
16 80
17 85
18 90
19 95

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Table-II:
SNO Period of Length of equivalent simple pendulum 𝒍
oscillation 𝑻𝟐
T (Sec) AD BE Mean value
𝑨𝑫 + 𝑩𝑬
𝒍=
𝟐

Precautions:
1. Ensure that the pendulum oscillates in a vertical plane and that there is no rotational motion
of the pendulum.
2. The amplitude of oscillation should remain within 40 of arc.
3. Use a precision stop-watch and note the time accurately as far as possible.
4. Make sure that there is no air current in the vicinity of the pendulum.
Calculations:

Result:
The acceleration due to gravity (g) = _______________ Cm/Sec2
Radius of gyration (K) = __________________Cm
Remarks:

CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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Expt. No.: Date:

Planck’s constant
Aim:
To study the spectral response of photo cell and determine the Planck’s constant
Apparatus:
• Planck’ constant experiment kit or following equipment
• Digital Ammeter (0-10µA)
• Photo cell
• Light source (60 Watt)
• Digital regulated power supply (0-10V)
• Digital voltmeter (0-10V)
• Optical filters (Blue, green, yellow color filters)
• Patch cards.
Formula:
𝒆(𝑽𝟏 −𝑽𝟐 )
Planck’s constant 𝒉= 𝑱 𝑺 (𝑶𝒓) 𝒉 = 𝒆(𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆) 𝑱 𝑺
(𝝑𝟏 −𝝑𝟐 )

Where,
e = charge of the electron (1.6 * 10-19C)
V1 = Stopping potential of corresponding wave length λ1
V2 = Stopping potential of corresponding wave length λ2
From graph
• Planck’s constant (h) = slope (m) (charge of the electron)
Theory:
Einstein explained photo electric effect by quantum theory of light. If light photon of energy (h)
is incident on the photo metal then
1. A part of energy is used just to remove an electron from the photo metal, which is work
function (Wo) of the photo metal.

2. The remaining part of energy is used to give the kinetic energy (½ mv2) to the electron.
The photo electric equation can be written as
h = Wo +1/2 mv2
h = Wo + eVo
Therefore, Vo= (h/e) v - (h/e) v0

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The above equation represents straight line having slope (h/e) and y- intercept (h/e)
If the frequency of incident radiation is greater than the threshold frequency of the metal then
photoelectric effect is observed.
The photoelectric current is proportional to the intensity of the incident light and kinetic energy
of the emitted electrons is proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation.
The negative potential at which the photoelectric current stops is known as stopping potential
Vo. The stopping potential is proportional to the frequency of incident radiation.

Circuit Diagram:

Observations:
Table: To determine the stopping potential for different filters.

S.NO FILTER COLOURS FREEQUENCY STOPPING POTENTIAL

(Hz)
1 Blue 6.66x1014 0.9
2 Green 5.45x1014 0.7
3 Orange 5x1014 0.4
4 Red 4.62x1014 0.3

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Experiment done by student

S.NO FILTER COLOURS FREEQUENCY STOPPING POTENTIAL

(Hz)
1 Blue 6.66x1014

2 Green 5.45x1014

3 Orange 5x1014

4 Red 4.62x1014

Procedure:
1. Connect the Planck’s constant set up as shown in the above diagram.
2. Switched it ON set zero in the micro ammeter by zero adjustment in the open circuit
position or no light incident on the photocell keeping the anode potential at zero.
3. Connect the mercury lamp with the choke provide with the set up and switched it ON.
4. Open the shutter of photo cell and align it with the slit of mercury lamp such that the
micro ammeter shows maximum current.
5. Note the photo current for different filters (say red, blue, and green) at different negative
potentials in the table.
6. Apply a small negative anode potential say 50 mV and note the corresponding photo
current. Increasing the anode potential say 50 mV, 100,150 mV ——— and note the
corresponding photo current.
7. Repeat the experiment for different optical filters.
8. Plot a graph between negative anode potential (on X-axis) and the corresponding
photocurrent on (on Y-axis) for different frequency of light optical filter.
9. Find the sloping potentials for each wavelength from graph and calculate the value of
Planck’s constant for each wavelength using equations
Precautions:
1. The experiment should be performed in a dark room to avoid any straight light to
photocell.
2. The photocell, source of light and filters should be aligning perfectly.
3. The observations must be taken at small interval of anode potential.
4. The stopping potential must be measured by graph to avoid error exist due to the non-
linearity of the display device.
5. The experiment must be performed at least with three filters.

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Model Graph:
A graph is drawn between frequency () of light on x-axis and stopping potential (V0) on y-axis,
then from slope (m) of graph Planck’s constant (h)can be determined.

Calculations:

Experimental:

For Blue and Orange colours => V1 = 0.4, V2 = 0.9 & 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝑯𝒛, 𝒗𝟐 =
𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝑯𝒛

e = 1.66× 10^(-19) C
𝒆(𝑽𝟏 ~ 𝑽𝟐 ) (𝟏.𝟔×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 ×𝟎.𝟓)
Һ= = = 4.819×10-34 J-S
(𝒗𝟏 ~ 𝒗𝟐 ) (𝟔.𝟔𝟔−𝟓)×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒

Graphical:
Һ = (e × Slope) = (1.6 × 10-19×0.3142 × 10-14) = 5.02 × 10-34 J-S

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Result:
• The experimentally observed value of Planck’s constant h =_______________ J-S
• Graphically observed value of Planck’s constant h =_______________ J-S
• Standard value of Planck’s constant h = 6.625x10-34 J-S

Remarks

CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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Expt. No.: Date:

Dielectric Constant
Aim:
To determine the dielectric constant of the dielectric material in the given capacitor using a
RC charging and discharging circuit
Apparatus:
• Power Supply (0-5V, DC)
• Digital Voltmeter, (0-5V, DC)
• Timer
• Resistor (Carbon composed, (say 100kΩ, 150 kΩ,200kΩ---)
• Capacitor (Electrolyte, 5V, say200µF, 300µF,----)
• Connecting wires
Formula: T1 . d
• The dielectric constant (k) (or)  r = 2
0.693 0 AR
(10 )
−6

where, d is the separation of plates, A is the area of plates, Ԑ0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m is the
permittivity of free space, R is the resistance of resistor used in the circuit in ohm(Ω) and
T1/2 is time in seconds.
Theory:
A dielectric material (dielectric) is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied
electric field. Examples of dielectrics are porcelain (ceramic), mica, glass, plastics, and the
oxides of various metals. These materials are commonly used to increase the charge storage
capacity of the capacitor by inserting them in between the plates of the capacitor.
If A is area of plates of the capacitor and d is separation of plates, the capacitance of the capacitor
 A
C0 = 0
with vacuum is expressed as d ------- (1) where  r is permittivity of free space. If the
same the capacitor is filled with a dielectric material the capacitance of the capacitor with
 A  0 r A k 0 A
C= = =
dielectric material is expressed as d d d ------- (2) where  is permittivity of

medium it is equal to
 =  r 0 (or )  = k 0 , k or  r called as dielectric constant.
The dielectric constant is the characteristic property of the dielectric materials; its value equal to
the ratio of the capacitance of the capacitor filled with a given dielectric material C to the
capacitance of an identical capacitor in a vacuum without dielectric material (C0). The dielectric
constant also known as relative permittivity, symbolized by the Greek letter kappa k or  r is

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 C
r = =
expressed as  0 C0 without dimensions. The value of dielectric constant for Vacuum: 1;
Glass: 5-10; Mica: 3-6.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig: Circuit for Dielectric Constant

Observations:
Table: To determine the voltage across the capacitor

TIME (sec) VOLTAGE(V)

CHARGING DISCHARGING
0 0.05 4.07
10 1.55 2.34
20 2.61 1.44
30 3.19 0.90
40 3.54 0.56
50 3.76 0.33
60 3.89 0.21
70 3.98 0.13
80 4.03 0.08
90 4.06 0.05
100 4.07 0.03

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Experiment done by student

TIME (sec) VOLTAGE(V)
CHARGING DISCHARGING
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

Procedure:
Charging mode:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit by choose the set of R&C.
2. The voltage across the capacitor for time T=0 is noted as zero.
3. The Toggle switch is closed to position A to initiate charging of the capacitor and
simultaneously a timer is started.
4. The voltage (V) across the capacitor is noted for every 5 second until the voltage across the
capacitor becomes almost constant. The values of time and voltage are tabulated.
Discharging mode:
1. The stop-clock is reset to zero. The voltage across the capacitor corresponding to time T=0
is noted. Now the toggle switch is closed to position B to initiate discharging of the
capacitor and simultaneously the timer is started
2. The voltage (V) across the capacitor is noted for every 5 second until the voltage across the
capacitor becomes almost constant. The readings are tabulated.
3. Repeat same for different sets of R and C values and tabulate the readings.
4. A plot of Voltage (V) versus Time (T) is drawn on the same graph for both charging and
discharging of the capacitor and find the time T½ at which the two curves are intersected.
5. Given the length (l) and breadth (b) of the dielectric material the area (A) is calculated.
Given separation of plates d (dielectric material thickness), the dielectric constant of the
material of the given capacitor is calculated using the formula

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Model graph:
The two exponential curves are drawn on the same graph by taking the Time (t) on X-axis and
Voltage (V) on Y-axis for both charging and discharging of the capacitor as shown in fig. T½ be
the time at a point where the two curves are intersected.

Calculations:
• Thickness of the dielectric material d = 0.075mm = 0.075*10-3 m
• Area of the dielectric material A = 235*10-6 m2

From graph:
T1/2 = 14 sec

T1 . d
The dielectric constant (k)
(or)  r = 2
0.693 0 AR
(10 )
−6

(𝟏𝟒×𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟓×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )
k= = 3.311
(𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑×𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 ×𝟐𝟑𝟓×𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ×𝟐𝟐𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟑 )

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Calculations:
• Thickness of the dielectric material d = 0.075mm = 0.075*10-3 m
• Area of the dielectric material A = 235*10-6 m2

From graph:
T1/2 =

T1 . d
The dielectric constant (k)
(or)  r = 2
0.693 AR
(10 )
−6

k=

Precautions:
1. For best result we must design a circuit with large values of R&C to get maximum time
constant.
2. Use the short wires connect the condenser in the circuit
3. There should not be any leakage of charge

Results: The dielectric constant (k)

• For a capacitor C = C1, k = __________

Remarks:

CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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Expt. No.: Date:

STEWART – GEE’S EXPERIMENT

Aim: To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular current
by Stewart and Gee’s method putting a graph.

Apparatus: Battery, rheostat, ammeter, one way key and a revising key connecting wires

Theory: The intensity of magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil of a radius a
having n turns at a distance x from the center of the coil, in S.I unit is given by

𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒊𝒂𝟐
𝑩= 𝟑 𝑶𝒆
𝟏𝟎(𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 ) 𝟐

Where I is the current in a amperes flowing through in the coil.

If the field B is perpendicular to horizontal component of field H (0.38 Oe) and is deflection
magnetometer then

B = BH = H tanθ

Hence graph between tanө and x will be similar to the graph between B and x.

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:

1. Place the instrument on the table so that the arms of the magnetometer lie roughly east and
west and the magnetic needle lies at the centre of the vertical place coil the eye a little above the
coil and rotate the instrument, in horizontal plane till the coil, the needle end its image in the
mirror provided at the base of the compass box all lie in the same vertical plane. The coil is the
set roughly in magnetic meridian. Rotate the compass box so that the pointer lies on the o-o line.

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2. Connect the galvanometer to a battery, a rheostat, a one-way key and an ammeter through
reversing key.

3. Adjust the value of the current so that magnetometer gives deflection of order of 60o -70o.
Reverse the current and again note the deflection in two cases agrees closely, the coil lies exactly
in the magnetic meridian. if the mean deflection in the two cases does not agree clearly, slightly
turn the instrument till the direction with the current and the reversed current agree closely.

4. Now slide the magnetometer along the axis and find the position where the maximum
deflection is obtained. In this position the centre of the needle coincides with the centre of the
vertical coil.

5. Note the position of the arm against the reference mark and also the value of the net current
and again read both ends. Shift the magnetometer by 5 cm and note the reading of magnetometer,
keeping the current constant at the same value both for direct and reverse current. Take
observation by shifting the magnetometer by 5 cm at a time.

6. Similarly repeat the observation by shifting the magnetometer in the opposite direction and
keeping the current constant at the same value.

7. To plot a graph to show how the field varies along the axis of the coil, plot the graph between
tan ө and x. it will be similar to the graph B and x.

Observation table: H = 0.38Oe, i = 0.2A, n = 50 and a = radius of coil = 10.11 cm

S. No. Distance Left Side Right Side

Θ=(θ1+θ2+θ3+θ4)/4

Θ=(θ1+θ2+θ3+θ4)/4
from
center Direct Reversed Direct Reversed
H tanӨ

H tanӨ
Mean

Mean
x(cm)
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4

1 0 65 65 68 65 65.75 0.843 65 65 68 65 65.75 0.843

2 5 60 60 61 61 60.5 0.671 55 55 57 56 55.75 0.558
3 10 41 40 42 44 41.7 0.338 40 36 39 37 38 0.296
4 15 16 19 24 21 20 0.138 11 17 22 20 17.5 0.119
AVERAGE(L) 0.497 AVERAGE(R) 0.454

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Experiment done by student

S. No. Distance Left Side Right Side

Θ=(θ1+θ2+θ3+θ4)/4

Θ=(θ1+θ2+θ3+θ4)/4
from
center Direct Reversed Direct Reversed

H tanӨ

H tanӨ
Mean

Mean
x(cm)
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4

1 0
2 5
3 10
4 15
AVERAGE(L) AVERAGE(R)

Precautions:

1. No magnet or magnetic substance or current carrying conductor should lie near the apparatus.

2. The plane of coil should be set vertical and in magnetic meridian.

3. The current should be kept constant and should be reversed for each observation.

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Calculation:

For θ = 65.75 => H×tanθ = 0.38×tan (65.75) = 0.843

For θ = 60.5 => H×tanθ = 0.38×tan (60.5) = 0.671

For θ = 41.7 => H×tanθ = 0.38×tan (41.7) = 0.338

𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟒
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑯 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟓 𝑶𝒆
𝟐
𝑩𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟓 𝑶𝒆

For θ = => H×tanθ =

For θ = => H×tanθ =

For θ = => H×tanθ =

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑯 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 =

𝑩𝑯 =

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𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒊𝒂𝟐 (𝟐 × 𝝅 × 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐 )

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝑩 = 𝟑 𝑶𝒆 = 𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟏 𝑶𝒆
𝟏𝟎(𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟐 𝟏𝟎(𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐 + 𝟎)𝟐

𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒊𝒂𝟐 (𝟐 × 𝝅 × 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐 )

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟓, 𝑩 = 𝟑 𝑶𝒆 = 𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟕 𝑶𝒆
𝟏𝟎(𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 ) 𝟐 𝟏𝟎(𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐 + 𝟓𝟐 ) 𝟐

𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒊𝒂𝟐 (𝟐 × 𝝅 × 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐 )

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝑩 = 𝟑 𝑶𝒆 = 𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟑 𝑶𝒆
𝟏𝟎(𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 ) 𝟐 𝟏𝟎(𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝟐 )𝟐

𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒊𝒂𝟐 (𝟐 × 𝝅 × 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐 )

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓, 𝑩 = 𝟑 𝑶𝒆 = 𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑶𝒆
𝟏𝟎(𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟐 𝟏𝟎(𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟓𝟐 )𝟐

(𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟖)

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑩 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟕 𝑶𝒆
𝟒
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟕 𝑶𝒆

Result:

1. Intensity of the field is maximum at 0. If we move away from 0 towards right or left, the
intensity of magnetic field decreased. The curve is first concave towards 0 but the curvature
becomes less and less, quickly changes sign at p and q and afterwards becomes convex towards o
the point of inflection p and q where the curvature its sign lies at distance are from the center.
Hence distance between p and q is radius of the coil.

2. The distance where the field due to coil become equal to horizontal component due to earth’s
field can be determined from the graph between H tanө and x

B = BH = __________ Oe

3. The radius of the coil is given by PQ = 20 cm

Remarks:

CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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Expt. No.: Date:

FOUR PROBE METHOD

Aim: To determine the resistivity of semiconductors by Four probe Method.

Apparatus: The experimental set up consists of probe arrangement, sample, oven 0-200°C,
constant current generator, oven power supply and digital panel meter (measuring voltage and
current). Four probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used apparatus for the
measurement of resistivity of semiconductors. This method is employed when the sample is in
the form of a thin wafer, such as a thin semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. The
sample is millimeter in size and having a thickness w. It consists of four probes arranged linearly
in a straight line at equal distance S from each other. A constant current is passed through the
two probes and the potential drop V across the middle two probes is measured. An oven is
provided with a heater to heat the sample so that behavior of the sample is studied with increase
in temperature.

The figure shows the arrangements of four probes that measure voltage (V) and supply current
(A) to the surface of the crystal.

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THEORY: At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional to its

length L and inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.

R = ρ(L/A) -------(1)

Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.

A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a

conductor and insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their characteristic property of
decreasing electrical resistivity with increasing temperature. According to band theory, the
energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into two bands, valence band and the
conduction band. In the presence of an external electric field, it is electrons in the valence band
that can move freely, thereby responsible for the electrical conductivity of semiconductors. In
case of intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in between the conduction band minimum
and valence band maximum. Since conduction band lies above the Fermi level at 0K, when no
thermal excitations are available, the conduction band remains unoccupied. So, conduction is not
possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite. As temperature increases, the occupancy of conduction
band goes up, thereby resulting in decrease of electrical resistivity of semiconductor.

Resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method

1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.

2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current- carrying
electrodes most of the carriers recombine near electrodes so that their effect on conductivity is
negligible.

3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.

4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at points that lie in a straight
line.

5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the semiconductor should be small
compared to the distance between the probes.

6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is hemispherical
and small in diameter.

7. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting and non-conducting. A

conducting boundary is one on which material of much lower resistivity than semiconductor has
been plated. A non-conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the semiconductor is in
contact with insulator.

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Fig: 2 show the resistivity probes on a die of material. If the side boundaries are adequately far
from the probes, the die may be considered to be identical to a slice. For this case of a slice of
thickness w and the resistivity is computed as

ρ = ρo/f(w/s) ---------(2)

W = Thickness = 0.05 cm

S = probe distance = 0.2 cm

f(w/s) =G7(W/S) = 5.89

The function, f(w/S) is a divisor for computing resistivity which depends on the value of w and S
We assume that the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample thickness is greater than the
distance between the probes,

ρo = 2ΠS(V/I) ----------(3)

Where V – the potential difference between inner probes in volts.

I – Current through the outer pair of probes in ampere

S – Spacing between the probes in meter

Procedure:

1. Select the semiconductor material from the combo box.

2. Select the source current from the slider. Restrict the slider based on the range of current.

3. Select the Range of oven from the combo box.

4. Set the temperature from the slider.

5. Click on the Run Button to start heating the oven in a particular interval, from the default 250C
to the temperature that we set already Click on the Wait button to stop heating.

6. Click on the Set button to display the temperature that we set in the oven.

7. Click on the Measure button to display the present temperature in the oven.

8. Select the range of voltmeter from the combo box.

9. Measure the Voltage using Voltmeter.

10. Calculate the Resistivity of semiconductor in eV for the given temperature using equation (2)
and (3). 11. A Graph is plotted with Temperature along x-axis and resistivity of semiconductor
along y-axis.

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Procedure for Real Lab In real lab:

four probes are placed on the sample as shown in Fig:1. Connections are made as shown in the
simulator. A constant current is passed through the outer probes by connecting it to the constant
current source of the set up. The current is set to 8mA. The voltage developed across the middle
two probes is measured using a digital milli-voltmeter. The trial is repeated by placing the four
probe arrangement inside the oven. The oven is connected to the heater supply of the set up. For
different temperatures, upto 1500C, the voltage developed is noted and tabulated. The distance
between the probes(S) and the thickness of the crystal (W) are measured. The values of (W/S)
are calculated and the value of the function f(W/S) is taken from the standard table.

Using equation (2) and (3), Calculate ρ for various temperatures.

Observation table:

Temperature (ToC) Voltage V (V) Current I (mA) R=V/I Resistivity (ρ)

35 131.6 2 65.8
40 127.2 2 63.6
45 119.0 2 59.5
50 110.8 2 55.4 11.865
55 103.2 2 51.6
60 94.4 2 47.2
65 85.8 2 42.9
Average of (R = V/I) 55.142

Experiment done by student

Temperature (ToC) Voltage V (V) Current I (mA) R=V/I Resistivity (ρ)

Average of (R = V/I)

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Resistivity can be calculated by using the equation given below.

Here we take,

Distance between the probes, S = 0.2cm and

Thickness of the sample, W = 0.05cm

From standard table f(w/S) = 5.89

Average value of (V/I) = (65.8+63.6+59.5+55.4+51.6+47.2+42.9)/7 = 55.142 ohm

ρo = 2ΠS(V/I) = 2×3.14×0.2×55.14 = 69.294 ohm-cm

ρ = ρo/f(w/s) = 11.865 ohm-cm

Calculations:

Average value of (V/I) =

ρo = 2ΠS(V/I) =

ρ = ρo/f(w/s) =

Result:

The resistivity of the given semiconductor by Four probe Method (ρ) = ____________ ohm-cm

Remarks:

CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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Expt. No.: Virtual Lab-1 Date:

HALL EFFECT EXPERIMENT

Aim: To calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration of the sample material.

Apparatus: Two solenoids, Constant current supply, four probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall effect
apparatus (which consist of Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital milli voltmeter and Hall
probe).

Theory: If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential

difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field and
current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall effect is an important
tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly determines both the sign
and density of charge carriers in a given sample.

Fig.1 Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor.

CCG – Constant Current Generator, JX – current density
ē – electron, B – applied magnetic field
t – thickness, w – width
VH – Hall voltage

If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge carriers
(say electrons) toward the y-direction. This results in accumulation of charge carriers at the top
edge of the sample. This set up a transverse electric field Ey in the sample. This develop a
potential difference along y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH and this effect is called Hall Effect.

𝑽𝑯 × 𝒕 𝟏
𝑯𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑹𝑯 ) = =
𝑰×𝑩 𝒏𝒆

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Procedure:
COMBO BOX
Select procedure: This is used to select the part of the experiment to perform.
1) Magnetic field Vs Current.
2) Hall effect setup.
Select Material: This slider activates only if Hall Effect setup is selected. And this is used to
select the material for finding Hall coefficient and carrier concentration.

SLIDER
Current: This slider used to vary the current flowing through the Solenoid.
Hall Current: This slider used to change the hall current
Thickness: This slider used to change the thickness of the material selected.

BUTTON
Insert Probe/ Remove Probe: This button used to insert/remove the probe in between the
solenoid.
Show Voltage/ Current: This will activate only if Hall Effect setup selected and it used to
display the Hall voltage/ current in the digital meter.
Reset: This button is used to repeat the experiment.

Procedure for doing the simulation:

HALL EFFECT APPARATUS
• Select Hall Effect Setup from the Select the procedure combo box
• Click Insert Hall Probe button
• Placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the
simulator.
• Set "current slider" value to minimum.
• Select the material from “Select Material” combo-box.
• Select the Thickness of the material using the slider Thickness.
• Vary the Hall current using the slider Hall current.
• Note down the corresponding Hall voltage by clicking “show voltage” button.
• Then calculate Hall coefficient and carrier concentration of that material using the
equation
𝑽𝑯 × 𝒕 𝟏
𝑯𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑹𝑯 ) = =
𝑰×𝑩 𝒏𝒆
• Repeat the experiment with different magnetic file.

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Hall
Trial Magnetic Field Thickness Hall Voltage
current, RH
No: (Tesla T) (t) m mV
mA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Procedure for doing real lab:

• Connect ‘Constant current source’ to the solenoids.
• Four probe is connected to the Gauss meter and placed at the middle of the two solenoids.
• Switch ON the Gauss meter and Constant current source.
• Vary the current through the solenoid from 1A to 5A with the interval of 0.5A, and note
the corresponding Gauss meter readings.
• Switch OFF the Gauss meter and constant current source and turn the knob of constant
current source towards minimum current.
• Fix the Hall probe on a wooden stand. Connect green wires to Constant Current
Generator and connect red wires to milli voltmeter in the Hall Effect apparatus
• Replace the Four probe with Hall probe and place the sample material at the middle of
the two solenoids.
• Switch ON the constant current source and CCG.
• Carefully increase the current I from CCG and measure the corresponding Hall voltage
VH. Repeat this step for different magnetic field B.
• Thickness t of the sample is measured using screw gauge.
• Hence calculate the Hall coefficient RH.
• Then calculate the carrier concentration n.
Simulator link: https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=282&sim=879&cnt=1

Result:
Hall coefficient of the material = _____________
Carrier concentration of the material = _____________ m-3

Remarks:
CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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Expt. No.: Virtual Lab-2 Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMISTOR

Aim: To plot the characteristics of thermistor and hence find the temperature coefficient of
resistance.

Apparatus: Thermistor, rheostat, voltmeter, multimeter, oil bath arrangement.

Theory: A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance strongly depends on temperature.

The word thermistor is a combination of words “thermal” and “resistor”. A thermistor is a
temperature-sensing element composed of sintered semiconductor material and sometimes
mixture of metallic oxides such as Mn, Ni, Co, Cu and Fe, which exhibits a large change in
resistance proportional to a small change in temperature. Pure metals have positive temperature
coefficient of resistance, alloys have nearly equal zero temperature coefficient of resistance and
semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Thermistors can be classified into two types:

Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor: -resistance increase with increase in
temperature.
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor: -resistance decrease with increase in
temperature.

The thermistor exhibits a highly non-linear characteristic of resistance vs. temperature.

PTC thermistors can be used as heating elements in small temperature-controlled ovens. NTC
thermistors can be used as inrush current limiting devices in power supply circuits. Inrush
current refers to maximum, instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first
turned on. Thermistors are available in variety of sizes and shapes; smallest in size are the beads
with a diameter of 0.15mm to 1.25mm.

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There are two fundamental ways to change the temperature of thermistor internally or externally.
The temperature of thermistor can be changed externally by changing the temperature of
surrounding media and internally by self-heating resulting from a current flowing through the
device.

The dependence of the resistance on temperature can be approximated by following equation,

𝟏 𝟏
𝜷( − )
𝑹 = 𝑹𝑶 𝒆 𝑻 𝑻𝑶

R is the resistance of thermistor at the temperature T (in K)

R0 is the resistance at given temperature T0 (in K)

𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹−𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹𝑶
β is the material specific-constant 𝛽 = 𝟏 𝟏
−
𝑻 𝑻𝑶

𝜷
Temperature coefficient 𝜶 =−
𝑻𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
A graph plotted with 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹𝑶 in Y axis and − in X axis for NTC and PTC is shown
𝑻 𝑻𝑶
below. The slope of graph gives value of β.

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Procedure:
For Real Lab
• Connections are made as shown in the figure.
• Place the thermistor in an oil bath using the heating arrangement.
• Note the room temperature (T0).
• Turn on the power supply and fix to a constant voltage.
• Note the current readings using a digital multi meter or a milliammeter.
• Corresponding resistance is found, using equation R =V/I and is noted as R0.
• Vary the temperature of the oil bath using the heating arrangement.
• Note the current readings at regular intervals of temperatures.
• Corresponding resistances R is found using the same equation.
• From the readings, logR-logR0, (1/T) -(1/T0) is calculated.
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹−𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹𝑶
• Value of β is calculated from equation 𝜷 = 𝟏 𝟏
−
𝑻 𝑻𝑶
𝜷
• Temperature coefficient of resistance is found from the equation, 𝜶 = − .
𝑻𝟐
• Repeat the experiment for another voltage.

For Simulation:
• Click on ‘show circuit diagram’ for displaying the circuit.
• Place the mouse pointer over the components and click to drag wire.
• After getting connected, click on ‘Power On’ button in the variables region to start and
maintain a constant voltage.
• Select the desired room temperature and choose any thermistor from drop down menu.
• Corresponding current reading is shown in milliammeter.
• Resistance for that value of voltage is found out using equation, R =V/I.
• Increase the temperature using the slider shown in variables region.
• Repeat the experiment for different values of voltages and different thermistors.

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Observations:

Voltage Temp Temp Current Resistance 𝟏 𝟏 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹 𝜷 𝜷

− 𝜶=−
(V) (°C) (K) I (mA) RO (Ω) 𝑻 𝑻𝑶 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹𝑶 𝑻𝟐

Simulator link: https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=282&sim=1511&cnt=1

Result:

The material constant of thermistor, β = ___________

The temperature coefficient of thermistor, α = ____________(K-1)

Remarks

CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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Expt. No.: Date:

NUMERICAL APERTURE(NA)

Aim:

To determine the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fiber with the help of Fiber Optic
Apparatus.

Apparatus: Fiber optic LED light source, FO cable ½ meter, NA jig (L shape with scale on one
side and connector on other side), NA screen & Mandrel (Plastic Tube)

Formula:

Numerical aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light can be collected by
the optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the incident medium and the sine
of the maximum ray angle.

Light Propagation through optical fiber

Using Snell’s law, the maximum angle within which light will be accepted into and guided
through optical fiber is

NA = n0 Sin (θmax) = (n12 – n22)1/2

NA = Sin (θmax) [since n0 = 1 for air]

where θ max is the half acceptance angle, n0 the refractive index of air and n1 and n2 are the
refractive indices of the core and the cladding respectively. If the incident angle

θ <θmax, theray undergoes multiple internal reflections at core and cladding interface and it is
called theguided ray.

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Experiment:

Numerical Aperture of Plastic Fiber Experimental Setup

Jig jag

SCREEN
FO LED
LIGHT OF CABLE

Procedure:

1. Connect one end of the ½ meter OF cable to OF LED and the other end to the NA jig as
shown.
2. Plug the AC main. Light should appear at the end of the fiber on the NA jig.
3. Hold the white screen with 4 concentric circles (10,15,20 & 25 mm diameter) vertically
at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the emitting fiber coincide with 10 mm
circle. Note that the circumference of the spot (outer most) must coincidewith the circle.
A dark room will facilitate good contrast record L (the distance of the screen from the
fiber end) and note the diameter (W) of the spot.
4. Compute NA from the formula
𝑾
𝑵𝑨 =
√𝟒𝑳𝟐 + 𝑾𝟐
5. Tabulated the reading and repeat the experiment for 15mm, 20mm & 25mm diametertoo.
6. In case the fiber is under filled, the intensity within the spot may not be evenly
distributed. To ensure even distribution of light in the fiber, first remove twist on the fiber
and then wind 5 turns of the fiber on the mandrel as shown. Use an adhesivetape to hold
the winding in position. Now view the spot, the intensity will be more evenly distributed
within the core.

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Observation Table for NA

S No L (cm) W (cm) NA Θ(Degrees)

1. 6×0.2 = 1.2 (10/10) = 1 0.384 22.58°

2. 8×0.2 = 1.6 (15/10) = 1.5 0.424 25.11°

3. 11×0.2 = 2.2 (20/10) = 2 0.413 24.39°

4. 13×0.2 = 2.6 (25/10) = 2.5 0.433 25.65°

Experiment done by student

S No L (cm) W (cm) NA Θ(Degrees)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Precautions:

OF cable connections should be carefully done.

Glass optical fibers are thin, delicate and should be handled carefully.

Care should be taken so that laser light should not directly fall into the eye.

As far as possible, experiment should be conducted in dark room environment.

Calculations:
𝑾 𝟏
𝑵𝑨 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟒 & 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟒) = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟖°
√𝟒𝑳𝟐 +𝑾𝟐 √𝟒×𝟏.𝟐𝟐 +𝟏𝟐

𝑾 𝟏.𝟓
𝑵𝑨 = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟒 & 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟒) = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟏𝟏°
√𝟒𝑳𝟐 +𝑾𝟐 √𝟒×𝟏.𝟔𝟐 +𝟏.𝟓𝟐

𝑾 𝟐
𝑵𝑨 = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟑 & 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟑) = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟑𝟗°
√𝟒𝑳𝟐 +𝑾𝟐 √𝟒×𝟐.𝟐𝟐 +𝟐𝟐

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𝑾 𝟐.𝟓
𝑵𝑨 = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟑 & 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟑) = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟔𝟓°
√𝟒𝑳𝟐 +𝑾𝟐 √𝟒×𝟐.𝟔𝟐 +𝟐.𝟓𝟐

𝟎.𝟑𝟖𝟒+𝟎.𝟒𝟐𝟒+𝟎.𝟒𝟏𝟑+𝟎.𝟒𝟑𝟑
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝑨 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟑 & 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟑) = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟑𝟗°
𝟒

Result:

NA of given optical fiber = _________

Acceptance angle = 2θ = _________

Remarks:

CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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Expt. No.: Date:

PARALLEL FRINGES
Aim:
To determine the thickness of the given thin paper strip or diameter of a given wire or hair by
forming parallel interference fringes due to a wedge-shaped air film.
Apparatus:
• Two plane glass plates of same size.
• Traveling microscope
• Sodium vapor lamp (35W, with transformer)
• Retort stand,
• Reflecting glass plate,
• Thin wire or hair or paper.
• Black cloth
Formula:
The thickness or diameter of the wire or hair
𝒍
𝒅= 𝑪𝒎
𝟐𝜷
where λ = Wave length of the given light source (for Sodium vapor lamp = 5893 AO)
l = Distance between thin wire or hair and the point of contact of the glass plate.
β = Fringe width.
Theory:
When a thin object like a wire or hair is fixed between the two plane glass plates in such a way
that the two glass plates are touch at one end and separated at the other end, a thin air or wedge-
shaped film will be formed between the glass plates. If monochromatic light is incident normally
on the air film the light reflected from top and bottom of surface of a thin film. The reflected rays
are interfering with each other and produce equidistant alternating dark and bright parallel
fringes.
The path difference between two reflected rays is ∆ = 2t-λ/2, where ‘t’ is the thickness of the
film. The conditions for minima (bright fringes): 2 t = n λ
and for maxima (dark fringes): 2t = (m + 1/2) λ
Consider nth dark ring is formed at a distance xn (xn= tn/θ) and (n+1)th dark ring is formed at a
distance x(n+1)(x(n+1)=tn+1/θ), The distance between the two fringes or fringe width β = x(n+1)- xn =
λ/2ϴ where ‘ϴ’be the angle of the wedge shaped film. Let d is the diameter of the wire or hair
and l is the length of the wedge then from the fig.
tan θ =d / l,
For smaller angles tanθ ≈ θ = d / l.

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Therefore, the fringe width β = (λl/2d)

Diagram:

(a) (b)
Fig. Experimental arrangement of Wedge method

Observations:
Table -1: To determine the fringe width
• Least count of Vernier of the traveling microscope (L.C.) = 0.001cm
SNO FRINGE MICROSCOPE READINGS WIDTH
NO OF 5
MSR VC VC*LC TOTAL
FRINGES
(a) (b) (a+b)
(cm)
1 0 7.2 40 0.04 7.24 0.06
2 5 7.15 30 0.03 7.18 0.06
0.04
3 10 7.1 20 0.02 7.12
0.07
4 15 7.05 30 0.03 7.08
0.04
5 20 7.0 10 0.01 7.01
6 25 6.95 20 0.02 6.97

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• Average width of the 5 fringes(x) = 0.054 cm

• Average width of the one fringe (β) = x/5 = 0.0108 cm
• The distance between the thin wire or hair and point of contact of the glass plates or
length of air film l = 6.5 cm
Experiment done by student
SNO FRINGE MICROSCOPE READINGS WIDTH
NO OF 5
MSR VC VC*LC TOTAL
FRINGES
(a) (b) (a+b)
(cm)
1 0
2 5
3 10
4 15
5 20
6 25
• Average width of the 5 fringes(x) =
• Average width of the one fringe (β) = x/5 =
• The distance between the thin wire or hair and point of contact of the glass plates or
length of air film l =

Procedure:
1. The given wire or hair is inserted between the two glass plates at one end and the other end
is tied.
2. Place this set up on the black paper which is laid on the platform of the traveling
microscope. Keep that the length of the glass plate is parallel to the horizontal movement
of the microscope.
3. Focus the microscope until to observe the clear and sharp fringes. Consider one of the dark
fringes as reference fringe (say 0th fringe) and coincide the vertical cross wire of the
microscope with it. Tabulate the corresponding readings.
4. Move the microscope by 5 fringes away from the reference fringe, and note down reading
for 5th order fringe.
5. Similarly note the readings for every 5 fringes (10th, 15th, 20th, 25th and 30th fringe) in
table-1

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6. The difference between the corresponding two readings 0th and 5th, 10th and 15th etc.
gives width of the 5 fringes. Find average width of the 5 fringes and then find the width of
the one fringe.
7. Find the distance between the point of contact of the two glass plates and thin object ‘l’ by
move the microscope horizontally.
8. The thickness of the thin object d can be calculated by substituting the values of β, λ and l .
Precautions:
1. The traveling microscope should move only in one direction to avoid error due to back-
lash
2. The experimental setup should not be disturbed throughout the experiment
3. Object used should be thin and uniform without kinks.
Calculations:

𝟎.𝟎𝟔+𝟎.𝟎𝟔+𝟎.𝟎𝟒+𝟎.𝟎𝟕+𝟎.𝟎𝟒
X= = 0.054 cm
𝟓
𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟒
β = x/5 = = 0.0108 cm
𝟓

𝝀𝒍 (𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 ×𝟔.𝟓)

d= = = 0.01773 cm
𝟐𝜷 (𝟐×𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟖)

Result:
The thickness of the thin object d = ______________ Cm

Remarks:

CONDUCTED AWARDED SIGNATURE OF FACULTY IN-CHARGE

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