Module 2

The Language of Mathematics

Mathematical Language
and Symbols

Mathematics in the Modern World

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Overview

Mathematics as a language is composed of vocabularies consisting of symbols, words,

and grammar as well as a set of rules on the proper usage of the said elements. One needs to
learn and understand the mathematical language in order to think, comprehend, and to
communicate mathematically. There are two forms that can be used in communicating
mathematically: verbal and written, each may be either formal or informal.

Several reasons for using mathematical language are:

a. Statements of mathematics are clear;

b. Statements of mathematics are completely precise;
c. Statements of mathematics are concise;
d. Statements of mathematics are free from vagueness and ambiguities of ordinary
speech.

This module covers the lessons identified as the most essential under Chapter 2:
Mathematical Language and Symbols. Here, you will learn about set operations, propositions,
logical connectives, predicate, and quantifiers. Exercises are also provided to help you practice
and master the knowledge and skills necessary for your attainment of the learning outcomes.
How much you have learned from the said lessons will be determined in the last part of this
module. Have fun learning!

Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this module, you should be able to:
1. Illustrate the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics through examples;
2. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language;
3. Justify that mathematics is a useful language through citing concrete examples of its
applications;
4. Perform the operations on sets using proper notation;
5. Draw and interpret Venn diagrams of set operations, and use Venn diagrams to solve
problems on sets;
6. Determine the truth values of propositions in any context; and
7. Construct tables to determine the truth values of propositions;

Initial Activity (Accessing Prior Knowledge)

Answer the following questions:

 What is a language?
 What are the components of a language?
 Why do you think mathematics is considered a language?

Language is “a systematic means of communicating by using sounds or conventional

symbols” (Chen,2010). It is the code humans use as a form of expressing themselves and

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communicating with others. It is a system of words used in a particular discipline and is

composed of the following components:
 a vocabulary of symbols or words;
 a grammar consisting of rules on the use of these symbols;
 a community of people who use and understand these symbols; and
 a range of meaning that can be communicated with these symbols.

Since all of the components mentioned above are found in mathematics, we can therefore
say that mathematics qualifies as a language. In fact, mathematics as a language, is universal.
It is the only one shared by all human being regardless of culture, religion, or gender. Like any
language, mathematics has nouns (such as the name of the number 12), pronouns (such as the
variables x or y), verbs (such as “equals”), and sentences (such as 3x + 7 = 24). Mathematics
has its own vocabulary, grammar, rule, syntax, synonyms, negations, sentence structure,
paragraph structure, conventions, and abbreviations. It is designed in such a way that one can
write about numbers, sets, functions, and others, as well as the processes undergone by these
elements (like adding, multiplying, grouping, evaluating, etc). And like any language,
mathematics has its own symbols. There are ten digits (0, 1, 2, …, 9), symbols for operations
(+, −, ×,÷), symbols that represent values (x, y, z, etc.), and many other special symbols (=, <
, ≤, π, etc.).

A. Set Operations

Set theory is about identifying relationships between things that are grouped together for
some reason. The word set was first formally used in 1879 by Georg Cantor, a German
mathematician, to refer to a well-defined collection of objects. Each object in a set is called an
element or a member of the set. For instance, if C is the set of all regions in the Philippines,
then Region IV B MIMAROPA is an element of C. The symbol ∈ is used to denote that an object
is an element of a set, and the symbol ∉ is used to denote that an object is not an element of a
set.

Example 1: Let S = {a, b, c}. It follows that:

c ∈ {a, b, c} c∈S f ∉ { a, b, c} f∉S

Example 2: Let B be the set of first 10 positive odd integers. Then

B = {1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17,19}
So we can say that 9 ∈ B and 2 ∉ B.

Sets often have relationships with other sets. For example, it could be that you are a
member of both the set of college students and the set of students taking college math course.
Or you could be in the set of freshmen or in the set of sophomores, but not in both. You might
be in the set of students living off campus and the set of students who walk to class. Or maybe
you’re in the set of students who eat lunch in the canteen and the set of students who think that
egg sandwiches are too bland, but not in the set of people who put ketchup in their food. In such
cases, a system for displaying and organizing all of these complicated connections between sets
will come in handy through studying set theory.

Below are the operations involving sets.

1. Union of Sets
If A and B are any two sets, the union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set
containing of all the elements that are found in A or in B or in both A and B. In symbols,
A ∪ B = {x ǀ x ∈ A or x ∈ B }.
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Note: The notation {x ǀ x ∈ A or x ∈ B } reads: " the set of all x such that x is in A or x is in B”.

Example 3 :
a. Let A = {1, 2, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}
Then, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
b. Let D = {German Shepherd, Labrador} and E = {Bulldog, Rottweiler}
Then, D ∪ E = {German Shepherd, Labrador, Bulldog, Rottweiler}

Note: Elements common to both sets are listed only once in the union.

The inclusive “or” in the definition means that if x ∈ A ∪ B, then at least one of these
conditions must be true: x can be found in A; or x can be found in B; or x can be found in A and
in B.

The figures below illustrate the union of two sets.

A B A B

Fig 1a. A and B are overlapping Fig 1b. A and B are disjoint sets.
or joint sets. (Some A are B) (No A are B.)

A B
B A

Fig 1c. B is contained in A. (All B Fig 1d. A is contained in B. (All A

are A.) are B.)

The illustrations above are called Venn diagrams, named after the English logician John
Venn who first devised it, representing the universal set as a rectangle and all of its subsets as
circles (or oblongs) within the rectangle. A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation for sets
and their fundamental operations. The shaded portion of each diagram here represents the
union of sets.

For a better understanding of the figures above, we introduce some important terms and
symbols in set theory.

Definition 1. Let A and B be sets. Then A is said to be a subset of B, written A ⊆ B, if

every element of A is an element of B. If A is not a subset of B, then we write A ⊈ B.

Example 4: Let A = {0,2,4,6,8}, B = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, and C = {1,2,3,4,5}. Then we say

that:
A ⊆ B; A⊈C

Example 5: {1, 2, 3, 4} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4}

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Notes:
 For every set A, we have A ⊆ A. (Every set is a subset of itself.)
 For A to not to be a subset of B, there must be at least one member of A that is not in B.

Definition 2: Let A and B be sets. Then A is a proper subset of B, written A ⊂ B, if

A is a subset of B and there exists at least one element in B that is not in A.

Example 6: Let A = {a, b} and B = {a, b, c}. Because every element of A is an element of B, we
have A ⊆ B. Now c ∈ B and c ∉ A. Therefore there exists an element in B that is not in A. It now
follows that A is a proper subset of B. That is, A ⊂ B, or in simple terms, A is fully contained in B.

Other examples:
In Figures 1a and 1b, we can say that 𝐴 ⊈ B, but in Figures 1c and 1d, we can say
that B ⊆ A and A ⊆ B, respectively. In fact, we can more appropriately say that B ⊂ A, and
A ⊂ B, respectively.
In example 4, we can say that A ⊂ B.
The set of all men is a proper subset of the set of all people.
{1, 3} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4}
The set of all even integers is a proper subset of the set of all integers.

As a side trip to the set of complex numbers, in connection with subsets and proper subsets, we
present the diagram of the subsets of Complex Numbers.

Figure 2 The Subset of Complex Numbers

The symbols that are conventionally used to denote these various sets of numbers are the
following:
ℕ The set of all natural numbers (i.e., all positive integers)
ℤ The set of all integers
ℤ∗ The set of all nonzero integers
𝔼 The set of all even numbers
ℚ The set of all rational numbers
ℚ∗ The set of all nonzero rational numbers
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ℚ+ The set of all positive rational numbers

ℝ The set of all real numbers
ℝ∗ The set of all nonzero real numbers
ℝ+ The set of all positive real numbers
ℂ The set of all complex numbers
ℂ∗ The set of all nonzero complex numbers

From the concept of proper subsets that we learned earlier, and using the diagram of the subset
of the complex numbers, we can verify that: ℕ⊂ℤ⊂ℚ⊂ℝ⊂ℂ

Other useful terms:

 Joint sets- are sets that have common elements
 Disjoint sets- are sets that do not have common elements
 Equal sets- sets that contain exactly the same elements
 Equivalent sets- sets that have the same number of elements

Try this!

Three experimental medications are being evaluated for safety. Each has a list
of side effects that has been reported by at least 1% of the people trying the
medication. This is a blind trial, so the medications are simply labeled A, B, and C.
The side effects for each are listed below.

A = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet}

B = {weight gain, nausea, nervousness, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
C = {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

Find each of the following sets.

1. A ∪ B
2. A ∪ C
3. A ∪ B ∪ C

Solution: Remember that to get the union of sets, we just collect altogether the elements of all sets
involved, but we list common elements just once, and never forget the braces
to indicate that the list is a set.

1. A ∪ B= { nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain, blurry
vision, fever, trouble sleeping}

2. A ∪ C= {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, blurry vision, fever,
weight loss, eczema}

3. A ∪ B ∪ C= { nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain, blurry
vision, fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema }

2. Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all elements
common to both A and B. In symbols,
A ∩ B = {x ǀ x ∈ A and x ∈ B }.

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Example 7:
a. Let A = {1, 2, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}
Then, A ∩ B = {4}
b. Let D = {German Shepherd, Labrador} and E = {Bulldog, Rottweiler}
Then, D ∩ E = { }

The following figures illustrate the intersection of two sets.

A B

Figure 3a. A and B are Figure 3b. A and B are disjoint

overlapping sets. (Some A are B.) sets. (No A are B.)

A B
B A

Figure 3c. B is contained in A. (All Figure 3d. A is contained in B. All

B are A.) B are A.)

Notice that there is no shaded portion in Figure 3b, because A and B are disjoint sets.

Definition 3: Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if A ∩ B = ∅.

(The symbol ∅ is called the null or empty set, which is a set that does not have any
element at all.)

Example 8: Let = {a, b, c, d, e} ; Y = {c, d, e, f, g, h}; and Z = {h, p, q, r}.

Then X ∩ Y = {c, d, e}
and X ∩ Z = ∅

Note: You can also represent an empty set by empty braces. So X ∩ Z = ∅ can be written as X ∩
Z = { }.

Example 9: If W = { 1, 2, 3 }and S = { a, b, c } then W ∩ S = ∅ or W ∩ S = { }.

Note: Do not use the symbols ∅ and { } together like this {∅} if you want to represent an empty
set because that would no longer be an empty set. This notation means that the set contains the
element ∅, which makes it “not empty”.

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Try this!

Three experimental medications are being evaluated for safety. Each has a list
of side effects that has been reported by at least 1% of the people trying the
medication. This is a blind trial, so the medications are simply labeled A, B, and C.
The side effects for each are listed below.

A = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet}

B = {weight gain, nausea, nervousness, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
C = {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

Find: 1. A ∩ B
2. B ∩ C
3. A ∩ B ∩ C

Solution: Remember that in taking the intersection of two sets, we are going to collect only the
elements that are common in both or all the sets involved.
1. A ∩ B = { nausea, nervousness}
2. B ∩ C = {nausea, blurry vision, fever}
3. A ∩ B ∩ C = {nausea}

3. Set Complement (or Absolute Complement)

The complement of a set is the set whose elements are found in the universal set but
are not found in the given set. The universal set (U) is the set which contains the elements
of all sets being considered. If A is the given set, then its complement A’ would have elements
in U that are not in A. In symbols,
A’ = {x ǀ x ∈ U and x ∉ A } or A’ = {x ǀ x ∈ (U - A)}.

A’ is represented by the shaded region in the figure below.

UU
A A’

Example 10:
a. Let U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7}
A’ = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}

b. Let U = {PSU college students} and A = {PSU engineering students}

A’ = {PSU college students who are not taking up engineering}

c. Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h} and A = {a, c, g, h}. Then A’ = {b, d, e, f}.

d. Let U = { x | x is a letter in the alphabet } and A = { x |x is a consonant }, then

A’ = { x | x is not a consonant } or
A’ = { x | x is a vowel }

d. Let U=ℤ. then 𝔼′ = the set of odd integers

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Note: The set of vowel letters and consonant letters of the alphabet are complementary sets.
Same thing with the set of even and odd integers. Complementary sets are two sets whose
union makes the Universal set.

Try this!

Three experimental medications are being evaluated for safety. Each has a list
of side effects that has been reported by at least 1% of the people trying the
medication. This is a blind trial, so the medications are simply labeled A, B, and C.
The side effects for each are listed below.
A = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet}
B = {weight gain, nausea, nervousness, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
C = {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

The universal set below is the set of all side effects reported by ANY user.
U = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain,
blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down}

Use this to find the following sets.

1. A’ ∩ C’ 2. (A ∩ B)’ ∩ C 3. B’ ∪ (A ∩ C’)

Solutions: Remember that to take the absolute complement of a set, we collect all elements of
the universal set that are not in the given set. In expressions containing ∪, ∩, ′, and grouping
symbols, we first evaluate those inside the grouping symbols. If there is more than one pair of
grouping symbols, we start from the innermost. Then we evaluate ′. In the absence of grouping
symbols, union (∪) and intersection (∩) usually have the same level of precedence.

1. A’ ∩ C’ = { weight gain, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema, motor
mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down} ∩ {night sweats, nervousness, swollen
feet, weight gain, trouble sleeping, motor mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down}
= {weight gain, trouble sleeping, motor mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling
down}

Note: The first step of the solution shows the complement of A and C. The second step shows
the intersection (∩) of the two complements.

2. (A ∩ B)’ ∩ C = {nausea, nervousness}’ ∩ {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever, weight
loss, eczema}
= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain, blurry vision, fever,
trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth, darting eyes,
uncontrollable falling down} ∩ {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever,
weight loss, eczema}
= {dry mouth, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

Note: Step 1 shows the intersection of A and B, as well as the elements of set C.
Step 2 shows the complement of the intersection of A and B, and we just copied set C.
Step 3 finally shows the intersection of the sets found in step 2.
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3. B’ ∪ (A ∩ C’)= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down} ∪ ({nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry
mouth, swollen feet} ∩ {night sweats, nervousness, swollen feet, weight gain, trouble
sleeping, motor mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down})
= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down} ∪ {night sweats, nervousness, swollen feet}
= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down, nervousness}

Note: Step 1: Take B’, copy A and take C’. Remember to enclose A and C’ in one group to avoid
error.
Step 2: Copy B’ and take the intersection of A and C’.
Step 3: Finally take the union of the sets found in step 2.

4. Set Difference (or Relative Complement)

The difference of set A from set B, denoted by B – A, is the set of all elements of set
B that are not in set A. The difference of set B from set A, denoted by A – B, is the set of all
elements of set A that are not in set B. Some books use the symbol A\B to represent the
relative complement of A with respect to B.
The illustrations below show set difference.

B-A A-B

Example 11:
Let A = {1, 2, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, then
B – A = {3, 5, 6} and A – B = {1, 2}

Try this!

Three experimental medications are being evaluated for safety. Each has a list
of side effects that has been reported by at least 1% of the people trying the
medication. This is a blind trial, so the medications are simply labeled A, B, and C.
The side effects for each are listed below.
A = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet}
B = {weight gain, nausea, nervousness, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
C = {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

Find: 1. A – B
2. B – C
3. (A – B) – C

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Solution: Remember that subtraction is not commutative, so we have to be careful with taking
A- B and B- A.
1. A- B= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet}
2. B- A= {weight gain, blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
3. (A- B)- C= {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet}- {dry mouth, nausea, blurry vision,
fever, weight loss, eczema}
={ night sweats, swollen feet }

Definition 4: Let S be a finite set with n distinct elements, where n ≥ 0. Then we

write n(S) = n and say that the cardinality of S is n. The cardinality or cardinal
number of a set is the number of elements in the set.

Example 12: Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} . Then n(A) = 5

Example 13: What is the cardinal number of the set of all positive integers, ℤ+ ?
Answer: n(ℤ+ ) = ∞

Application Problem: A PE instructor at Palawan State University conducted a survey to

determine the favorite sports of 84 students in her 2 freshmen classes. The individual
interviews showed the following: 44 liked basketball, 30 liked volleyball, 27 liked football,
15 liked both basketball and volleyball, 9 liked both volleyball and football, 10 liked both
football and basketball, 5 liked all three sports. How many of the students did not like any
of the three sports? How many of the students liked basketball only? How many of the
students liked football but not volleyball?

Solution:
This kind of problem is best approached by drawing a Venn diagram. The first thing to
consider is the number of sets involved and which of these sets are joint and which are
disjoint. Then values that fall within each region are found by working on the problem/
information backwards. Let us list down the things that we know about the problem.

 There were 84 freshmen students interviewed. (Universal set)

 Forty- four (44) students liked basketball. (Set B)
 Thirty (30) students liked volleyball. (Set V)
 Twenty- seven (27) liked football. (Set F)
 Fifteen (15) liked both basketball and volleyball. (B ∩ V)
 Nine (9) liked both volleyball and football. (V ∩ F)
 Ten (10) liked both football and basketball. (F ∩ B)
 Five (5) liked all three sports. (B ∩ V ∩ F)

Based on these information, we know that there are three sets involved and they are all
joint sets, so our Venn diagram will contain three overlapping circles. Some of you might
be wondering why it seems that the total number of data is more than the cardinality of
the universal set, which is 84. That is because you have double- counted some elements
in the intersections. So, it is important that we work backwards in solving this problem.

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This is the Venn diagram for the problem. To know how the numbers were derived,
and how double counting was avoided, let us list down the cardinality of the sets,
beginning from the intersection of all three sets, (B ∩ V ∩ F).

 n (B ∩ V ∩ F) = 5 (because 5 students liked all three sports)

 n (F ∩ B) = 10- 5=5 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F)
 n (V ∩ F) = 9- 5= 4 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F)
 n (B ∩ V) = 15- 5= 10 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F)
 n (F) = 27- 5-5- 4 = 13 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F,
5 in F ∩ B, and 4 in V ∩ F)
 n (V) = 30- 5- 10- 4= 11 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F,
10 in B ∩ V, and 4 in V ∩ F)
 n (B) = 44- 5-10-5= 24 (because 5 students have already been counted in B ∩ V ∩ F,
10 in B ∩ V, and 5 in F ∩ B)

If we add these values, we will get 72, which is not equal to the cardinality of the Universal
set. This means that there were students in the interview who answered that neither of
the three sports (basketball, volleyball, football) is their favorite. We put these students,
84- 72= 12, outside the circles but still inside the rectangle.

Now that we have the Venn diagram, all we have to do is locate which region is covered
by each of the operations in the problem. It is important that we know how to translate the
values that we see in the diagram into words. It is equally important that we know how to
translate verbal expressions into symbols. For instance, the questions in this problem can
be translated as:

How many of the students did not like any of the three sports? n(B ∪ F ∪ V)’
How many of the students liked basketball only? n(B – (F ∪ V))’
How many of the students liked football but not volleyball? n(F – V)

By translating the sentences into symbols, it made us easier to find the answer by
referring to the Venn diagram. Study the diagram and verify that:

1. n(B ∪ F ∪ V)’ = 12. That is, 12 of the students did not like any of the three sports.
2. n(B – (F ∪ V)) = 24. That is, 24 of students liked basketball only.
3. n(F – V) = 18. That is, 18 students liked football but not volleyball.
There is another set operation considered in this section. Forming this new set involves
a much different process than forming the union, intersection, or complement of sets.

Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair consisting of a and b
together with the specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is the second element.
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted A x B and read “A cross
B”, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a is in A and b is in B. Symbolically:

A x B = {(a, b)|a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

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Example 14: Let X = {1,2}, Y = {3,4}.

Then X × Y = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4)} and Y × X = {(3,1), (3,2), (4,1), (4,2)}

Example 15. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {u, v}.

a. Find A x B.
A x B = {(1, u), (2, u), (3, u), (1, v), (2, v), (3, v)}

b. Find B x A.
B x A = {(u, 1), (u, 2), (u, 3), (v, 1), (v, 2), (v, 3)}

c. Find B x B.
B x B = {(u, u), (u, v), (v, u), (v, v)}

e. How many elements are in A x B, B x A, and B x B?

A x B has six elements. Note that this is the number of elements in A times the number
of elements in B. B x A has six elements, the number of elements in B times the
number of elements in A. B x B has four elements in B times the number of elements
in B.

Note: If A ≠ B, then A × B ≠ B × A. Also, n(A × B) = n(A) ∙ n(B).

Bonus Concept: Let U = the set of real numbers. The coordinates axes are formed by two
intersecting perpendicular lines in order to graph U x U.

Try this!

Let Y = {a, b, c} and Z = {1, 2}.

1. Find Y x Z.
2. Find Z x Y.
3. Y x Y.
4. How many elements are Y x Z, Z x Y, and Y x Y?

Solutions: Remember that in cross- product, the order of elements is important: the first
coordinate must come from the first set, and the second coordinate must come from the second
set

1. Y x Z= {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}
2. Z x Y= {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
3. Y x Y= {(a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c)}
4. Y x Z has 3 x 2= 6 elements;
Z x Y has 2 x 3= 6 elements; and
Y x Y has 3 x 3= 9 elements.

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Learning check

Activity # 1

A. Given: U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
D = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
Find the following:
1. A ∪ B
2. A’∩ B
3. (B’∪ C) ∪ D
4. D – C’
5. (A ∪ D’)’

B. Workers are grouped into various categories. Set E is the set of workers under
20 years old, Set F is the set of foreign workers, and Set M is the set of male
workers. Describe the following sets in words:

a. E ‘ b. F ∩ M c. E ∪ M d. E ∩ F ∪ M

C. Solve the following problems using formulas and a Venn diagram.

1. A survey of 100 college students revealed the following information about
their enrolment in Mathematics, Political Science, and Sociology courses.
Twenty-six take Mathematics; 65 take Political Science; 65 take Sociology;
14 take Mathematics and Political Science; 13 take Mathematics and
Sociology; 40 take Political Science and Sociology; 8 take Mathematics,
Political Science and Sociology.
a. How many students take Mathematics as their only course?
b. How many students did not take any of the three courses?
c. How many students were taking Mathematics and Sociology, but not
Political Science?
d. How many students did not take either Mathematics or Political
Science?
2. After a genetic experiment, the number of pea plants having certain
characteristics was tallied, with the results as follows: 22 were tall; 25 had
green peas; 39 had smooth peas; 9 were tall and had green peas; 17 were
tall and had smooth peas; 20 had green peas and smooth peas; 6 had all
three characteristics; and 4 had none of the characteristics mentioned.
a. Find the total number of plants counted.
b. How many plants were tall and had peas that were neither smooth nor
green?
c. How many plants were not tall but had peas that were smooth and
green?
D. Let S = {2, 4, 6} and T = {1, 3, 5}. Use the roster notation to write each of the
following sets, and indicate the number of elements that are in each set:
a. S x T b. T x S c. S x S d. T x T

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B. Propositions

A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false but not

both. As a declarative sentence, it expresses a complete thought with a definite
meaning. A proposition’s truth value is denoted by T or 1 if it is true, and F or 0 if it is false. Some
books use the term “statement” to equally mean proposition.

Propositions are the basic building blocks of any theory of logic. Here are some
examples of propositions.

Example 1:
1. The main campus of Palawan State University is in Puerto Princesa City.
2. Quezon City is the capital of the Philippines.
3. Benguet is a part of the Cordillera Administrative Region.
4. 1 + 1 = 2.
5. 2 + 2 = 3.

Example 2: Below is some more sample propositions and their corresponding truth values.
p: 4 is an integer. True
q: √5 is a rational number. False
r: Tubattaha Reef is located in Cagayancillo, Palawan. True
s: 5 is less than 3. False
t: 7 is an even integer. False

Note: The small letters p, q, r, s, and t are used to name the propositions. They do not have
any significance other than labeling. Just like in example 1, we can write a proposition even
without labels.

Example 3: Take a look at this case:

Every even integer greater than 4 is a sum of two odd primes. (Goldbach’s conjecture)

So far, no one has been able to prove that the Goldbach’s conjecture is true. At the
same time, no one has proved that it is false. Nevertheless, it is a proposition because it is
either true or false, but not both.

Example 4. Below are sample sentences which are not propositions. The sentences are not
declarative, and it is meaningless to determine their truth values.
Will you go?
Have a nice day!
Be quiet.

Try this!

Which of the following are propositions? Give the truth value of the
propositions, otherwise, write “not a proposition”.
1. Check your solution.
2. A square is quadrilateral.
3. August is the 9th month of the year.
4. Have a nice day!
5. 5x + 1 = 2.

Answers:
1. Not a proposition
2. Proposition- True
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3. Proposition- False
4. Not a proposition
5. Not a proposition (We would need a value for x to decide whether this is true
or false. A separate lesson for expressions like this will be discussed later in
the chapter.)

A simple proposition conveys a single idea (like the examples above) while a
compound proposition conveys more than one idea. Compound propositions are formed from
existing propositions using logical operators or connectives. A logical connective is a word or
symbol that joins two sentences or propositions to produce a new one.

Examples of compound propositions:

s: I am old and still strong.
t: Either you are sick or will come to the party tonight.
n: If you study hard then you will pass the course.
P: Unicorns are not real.

The table below shows the different logical connectives and the corresponding key
words and symbol used.

Connective (Key
Type Symbol
Word)
Negation Not ~
Conjunction And ∧
Disjunction or ∨
Implication or
If…then… →
Conditional
Biconditional …if and only if… ↔

Among these, the negation (~) is the only one that is a unary operation because it involves
only one operand. The rest are binary operations.

Learning check

Activity # 2

Identify the propositions among the given statements. Write P if the statement is a
proposition, and Not P if not. Give the truth value of the propositions, otherwise, write
“not a proposition”.

1. How far is Unitop from NCCC? 6. There are 31 days in December.

2. There is life on Mars. 7. How are you feeling?
3. 𝑥 − 2 = 2𝑥, when 𝑥 = −2. 8. Don’t speak when your mouth is full.
4. You made it! 9. Mixing blue and yellow produces red.
5. Iran is a country in the Middle East. 10. 2x + 1 = 5.

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C. The Negation

When an original idea is denied, the resulting proposition is called its negation.
We use the symbol “~” or “¬” to mean “not”.

Example 5: Consider the proposition:

f: 3 is a prime number True
Its negation is ~f, and is written as:
~f: 3 is not a prime number False
~f: It is false that 3 is a prime number.

Statement ~f is obtained by negating proposition f, and the truth values of f and ~f are opposite.

Note that negations, like ~f, do not consist two propositions. Nonetheless, they are
considered here as compound proposition. The negation is called a unary operation.

Following is the truth value table for negation:

p ̴p

T F

F T

Note: The truth table of a proposition P made up of the individual propositions p1, …, pn lists all
possible combinations of truth values for p1, …, pn , T denoting true and F denoting false, and
for each of such combination lists the truth value of P.

Example 6: Consider the following statements/ propositions:

Let p: 2 is positive. True
Then ~p: It is not the case that 2 is positive. False
It is false that 2 is positive.
2 is not positive.

Example 7. Let p: 5 is even. False

5 is odd.
Then ~p: It is not the case that 5 is even. True
(or simply ~p: 5 is not even.)
~p: 5 is odd. (another way of writing the negation of p.)
5 is not even.
It is false that 5 is even.

Example 8: Let s: You failed the subject.

Then ~s: You passed the subject.
You didn’t failed the subject.

Note: Not all negations imply a negative idea.

Try this!

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Write the negation of each of the following propositions.

a. Unicorns are real. Unicorns are not real.

b. 7 + 21 > 35 7 + 21 ≤ 35
c. I look good today. I do not look good today.

Learning check

Activity # 3

Determine whether each sentence below is a proposition. If the sentence is a

proposition, write its negation. Otherwise, write “not a proposition”.

1. 2 + 5 = 19
2. Waiter, will you serve the nuts- I mean, would you serve the guests the nuts?
3. Peel me a mango.
4. Sarah and Matteo make a good couple.
5. This sentence makes sense.

D. The Conjunction

Definition: If two propositions are joined together by the connective and, the resulting
compound proposition is called a conjunction. The propositions composing conjunction
are called conjuncts.

The symbol used to mean “and” is Λ.

Note: Variables are used to represent or label propositions for easier symbolism. The
most common variables used are p, q, and r.

The truth value of the conjunction of two propositions, say p and q, is defined in the table
below:
p q pΛq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Based on the table, we remember that a conjunction is true only when both of its conjuncts
are true. Otherwise, the conjunction is false.

Following is a list of words that mean the same as “and” in the study of propositions:

but however whereas furthermore

still while nevertheless although
yet despite moreover

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Try this!

I. Consider the following propositions:

a: Prices are high.
b: Salaries are low.
c: Expenditure level is high.

Write the following conjunctions in symbolic form, then determine their truth value
assuming that a, b, and c, are true, false, and true, respectively

1. Prices are high; still, salaries are low.

2. The expenditure level is high despite salaries being low.
3. Prices are high,moreover, the expenditure level is quite high.

Solutions: After writing the conjunctions in symbols, remember the truth value of each conjunct
and go back to the truth value table to determine the truth value of the conjunction.

1. a ∧ b False
(The truth value table says that if at least one conjunct is false, then the conjunction is
false. See second row.)

2. c ∧ b False
(The truth value table says that if at least one conjunct is false, then the conjunction is
false. See third row.)

3. a ∧ c True
(The truth table says that if both conjuncts are true, then the conjunction is true.)

II. Write the truth table for the proposition (p ∧ q) ∧∼ p.

Solution:
Since there are two operands (p and q), there will be 22 = 4 rows in the truth table. If there
were three operands (say p, q, and r), the number of rows in the truth table will be 23 = 8. In
general, the number of rows of a proposition’s truth table is given by 2𝑛 , where n is the number
of operands or simple propositions involved.

P Q p∧q ∼p (p ∧ q) ∧∼ p

T T T F F

T F F F F

F T F T F

F F F T F
Read here to fully understand how the truth table for the compound proposition (p ∧ q) ∧∼ p is
constructed.

 The entries in the columns of p and q were derived using the tree diagram below:

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Had there been three simple propositions involved, the tree diagram will look like this:

 The entries in the p ∧ q column were derived using the truth table for conjunctions.
 The entries in the ~p column were derived by taking the opposite truth value of the entries
in each row of p.
 The entries in the (p ∧ q) ∧ ~p column were derived by applying the truth table for
conjunctions for the entries in the column of p ∧ q and the column of ~p. So here, we treat
(p ∧ q) as a simple proposition, hence the parentheses.
Note: The truth table derived for the problem above resulted to an entry of “all F” in the last
column. This happens when the proposition is a fallacy. On the other hand, if the last column
led to “all T” entries, then the proposition is a tautology. Moreover, if the last column led to a
combination of T and F, then the proposition is a contingency.

Learning check

Activity # 3

Determine the truth values of the following statements. Write True or False.

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(Hint: You have to know for yourself first the truth value of each conjunct.)

1. Red is a primary color, while orange is a secondary color.

2. 3 and 7 are even, and circles have 4 vertices.
3. (√30 > 5) ∧ (√30 < 7).
4. Blackpink is a South Korean girl group, but Lalisa Manoban is a Thai.
5. Squares have four equal sides and four right angles.
6. 2 is an even and a composite number.
7. 5 is a rational and a prime number.
8. Negative numbers are integers, and squares are rectangles.
9. (−3 > −2) ∧ (√3 > 2).
10. There are five vowels and twenty-one consonants in the English Alphabet.

E. The Disjunction

Definition: A disjunction is a compound proposition consisting of two propositions,

say, p and q, that are connected by “or”. Propositions “p” and “q” are called disjuncts.

We use the symbol “v” to stand for “or “, hence the disjunction just defined is written as
“p v q “.

The truth value of the disjunction of two propositions p and q is defined in the table below:

p Q p∨q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

The table indicates that a disjunction is true when at least one of the disjuncts is true and
becomes false when both disjuncts are false.

Below is a list of words that express disjunction besides “or”:

else
either … or
unless

Try this!

I. Consider the following propositions:

m: You are good in Mathematics.

n: You are good in English.
o: You like poetry.

Suppose m is true, n is false, and o is true, determine the truth value of each
of the following disjunctions.

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1. You are good in Math or you like poetry. (m v o)

2. Either you are good in Math or in English. (m v n)

Solutions:

1. True
(The table indicates that a disjunction is true when at least one of the disjuncts is true.)

2. True (The table indicates that a disjunction is true when at least one of the disjuncts
is true.)

II. Formulate the symbolic expression p ∨∼ q in words using

p: Lee takes Information Technology.
q: Lee takes mathematics.

Answer: Either Lee takes Information Technology or he does not take mathematics.

III. Given that proposition p is false, proposition q is true, and proposition r is false,
determine whether the compound proposition ∼ p ∨ ∼ (q ∧ r) is true or false. (Note: This does
not require a truth table.)

Solution: We will replace each proposition by their corresponding truth values and slowly work
on performing each operation.
∼ p ∨ ∼ (q ∧ r) given
T ∨ ∼ (F) p is false means that ∼ p is true; the conjuction of true (q) and
false (r) is false
T∨ T the negation of F is T
T disjunction is true is there is at least one true proposition

Therefore, the truth value of the compound proposition ∼ p ∨ ∼ (q ∧ r) is true.

Note: Some books call compound propositions like this a “statement formula”.

Learning check

Activity # 4

Determine the truth values of the following statements. Write True or False.
(Hint: You have to know for yourself first the truth value of each disjunct.)

1. 12 is a prime number or 15 is a prime number.

2. 6 is a multiple of either 2 or 3.
3. (√30 > 5) ∨ (√30 < 7).
4. UP Diliman is in Pasay City or De La Salle University is in Quezon City.
5. It is not true that 1 + 1 = 3 or 2 + 1 = 3.
6. Sugar is sweet or the sun is hot.
3
7. is an integer or a counting number.
4
8. Amphibians live either in water or on land.
9. 3 divides 9 or 15.
10. Counting numbers can be prime or even.

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F. The Conditional

Definition: If two propositions are connected by the pair “if … then” the resulting
proposition is called an implication or conditional proposition. The statement following
the word “if” and before “then” is called the antecedent or hypothesis while the statement
after the word “then” is called the consequent or conclusion.

The symbol used to denote the connective “if … then” is →. Thus, if p is the antecedent
and q the conclusion of an implication, the proposition is written as “p → q” and is read, “if p,
then q “ or “p implies q”

Following is a list of other expressions that have the same meaning as “if p, then q”:

q if p
q provided p
q given p
q in case p
p only if q
p only when q
p implies q
p is sufficient for q
q whenever p
when p, q
a necessary condition for p is q
a sufficient condition for q is p

Note: Unlike in conjunction and disjunction, where the order of the conjuncts or disjuncts does
not affect the truth value of the compound proposition, here in conditional proposition, order
matters. It is important that we know which phrase is the antecedent and which phrase is the
consequent because it will affect the truth value of the conditional proposition. It is easiest to
determine the antecedent and the consequent when the conditional proposition is expressed in
standard form “If p, then q”.

At this point, let us try to translate some conditional propositions into their equivalent “if p, then
q” format. Then let’s identify which phrase is the antecedent p and which is the consequent q.
Use the list given above and the tips given below to understand how this works.

Tips:
 The hypothesis is the clause following the word if.
 The “if p then q” formulation emphasizes the hypothesis, whereas the “p only if q”
formulation emphasizes the conclusion; the difference is only stylistic.
 “When” means the same as “if”.
 A necessary condition is just that: a condition that is necessary for a particular outcome
to be achieved. The conclusion expresses a necessary condition.
 A sufficient condition is a condition that suffices to guarantee a particular outcome. The
hypothesis expresses a sufficient condition.
 Given the conditional “p → q” proposition p is referred to as a sufficient condition for q
while q is a necessary condition for p.

Example 9:

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a. If I get a bonus, then I will buy a car.

Answer: Since the statement is already in the standard form, we just identify p and q.
p: I get a bonus.
q: I will buy a car.
I will buy a car, if I get a bonus. (q if p)

q if p

b. Mary will be a good student if she studies hard. (q if p)

q provided p
c. Mary will be a good student provided that if she studies hard.
Answer: If Mary studies hard, then she will be a good student.(If…..then)
p: Mary studies hard.
q: Mary will be a good student.

p only if q

d. John takes calculus only if he has a sophomore, junior, or senior standing.

Answer: If John takes calculus, then he has sophomore, junior, or senior standing.
p. John takes calculus.
q: John has sophomore, junior, or senior standing.
When p, q

e. When you sing, my ears hurt.

Answer: If you sing, then my ears hurt.
p: You sing.
q: My ears hurt.

a necessary condition for p is q

f. A necessary condition for PSU Bearcats to win the baseball in STRASUC Meet is that
they sign a right- handed relief pitcher.
Answer: If the PSU Bearcats win the baseball in STRASUC Meet, then they signed a right-
handed relief pitcher.
p: The PSU Bearcats win the baseball in STRASUC Meet.
q: The PSU Bearcats signed a right- handed relief pitcher.

a sufficient condition for q is p

g. A sufficient condition for Maria to visit France is that she goes to the Eiffel Tower.
Answer: If Maria goes to the Eiffel Tower, then she visits France.
p:Maria goes to the Eiffel Tower.
q:Maria visits France.

Caution: A common mistake of students in activities like this is including the words “if” and “then”,
or other compounding words in writing the component simple propositions. For instance, in
Example 5a, some students would write: p: If I get a bonus, and q: Then I will buy a car. In
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Example 5f., some students would write: p: A sufficient condition for Maria to visit France, and
q: She goes to the Eiffel Tower. These are incorrect. Observe how compounding words are
dropped in writing the component simple propositions in our answers. Also, do not forget to
“listen” to your proposition if it sounds right, or if it is grammatically correct.

Example 10: Write the following conditionals in symbolic form.

a. If two numbers are even, then their product is even.

b. x + 1 is odd provided x is even.
c. Two nonzero numbers are equal only if their reciprocals are equal.
d. Joey will pass the discrete mathematics exam if he studies hard.

Solutions:
a. Let m: Two numbers are even.
n: The product of two numbers are even.

Then, conditional (a) is written as m → n

b. Suppose t: x + 1 is odd
s: x is even

Hence, conditional (b) is written s → t.

c. Let p: Two nonzero numbers are equal.

q: The reciprocals of two numbers are equal.

Thus, conditional (c) can be written as p → q

d. Suppose u: Joey will pass the discrete mathematics exam.

v: Joey studies hard.

Then, conditional number (d) is written: v → u

Following is the truth value table for implication:

p q p→q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

Note: The table tells us that an implication is false only when the antecedent is true and the
consequent false. Otherwise, the implication is always true. A conditional proposition that is
true because the hypothesis is false is said to be true by default or vacuously true.

Try this!

I. Suppose propositions m, n, and s are assigned the truth values F, T, and F,

respectively. Determine the truth values of the following conditionals.
1. m → n
2. n → s
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3. s → m

Solutions:

1. Since the antecedent m is false, it follows that regardless of the truth value of the
consequent n, the conditional proposition m → n is true. In fact, it is true by default.

2. The antecedent n is true, while the consequent s is false. So the conditional

proposition n → s is false.

3. Since the antecedent s is false, it follows that regardless of the truth value of the
consequent m, the conditional proposition s → m is true. In fact, it is true by default.

II. Assuming that p and r are false and that q and s are true, find the truth value of the
statement formula: (p → q) ∧ (q → r)

Solution: We will replace each proposition by their corresponding truth values and slowly work
on performing each operation.
(p → q) ∧ (q → r) given
(F→T) ∧ (T→F) replace each proposition by corresponding truth value
(T) ∧ (F) apply the rules in the truth table for implication
F apply the rule in the truth table for conjunction

Therefore, the truth value of the statement formula (p → q) ∧ (q → r) is false.

III. Formulate the symbolic expression ~p → (q ∨ r) in words using

p: Today is Monday.
q: It is raining.
r: It is hot.

Answer: If today is not Monday, then it is raining unless it is hot.

(Answers may vary but the logical connectives must have the same meaning.)

Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive

Definition: Let p and q be propositions.

i. The proposition q → p is called the converse of the implication p → q.
ii. The proposition ~p → ~q is called the inverse of the implication of p → q.
iii. The statement ~q → ~p is called the contrapositive of the implication p → q.

Example 11: Let p: Today is Sunday.

q: I will go for a walk.

p → q: If today is Sunday then I will go for a walk.

Converse: q → p: If I will go for a walk then today is Sunday.

Inverse: ~p → ~q: If today is not Sunday then I will not go for a walk.
Contrapositive: ~q → ~p: If I will not go for a walk then today is not Sunday.

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Learning check

Activity # 5

1. Suppose a conditional proposition is true and its antecedent also true, what is
the truth value of its consequent?

2. If an implication is true and its consequent is false, what is the truth value of
its antecedent?

3. Let the propositions r and s be true and false, respectively.

r: Prices are high
s: Wages are high
Determine the truth value of the following conditionals.
a. Prices are high in case wages are high.
b. Prices are high only if wages are high.
c. Wages are high; hence inflation rate is high.

4. Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following conditional

propositions. (Hint: If applicable, write each conditional proposition in standard form
first.)
a. Rose may graduate if she has 120 hours of OJT credits.
b. A necessary condition for Bill to buy a computer is that he obtains P20,000.
c. A sufficient condition for Katrina to take the algorithms course is that she
passes discrete mathematics.
d. The program is readable only if it is well- structured.

G. The Biconditional

Definition: When two propositions, say p and q, are connected by the phrase “if and
only if”, the resulting compound proposition is called a biconditional or double
implication. The symbol used for “if and only if” is “↔”, hence, the biconditional “p if and
only if q” is written as “p ↔ q”. This compound proposition is the compact way of writing
“(p → q) and (q → p)”.

Sometimes a biconditional is read as “p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q” or

“q is a necessary and sufficient condition for p”.

Other words that could replace “if and only if” are:

when and only when

just in case
granted that and only granted that

UP Diliman is in Quezon City if and only if 2 + 2 = 4.

Truth value table for biconditional:

P q p↔q

T T T
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T F F

F T F

F F T

Note: Observe from the table that a biconditional is true provided the proposition written
on both sides of the symbol ↔ are both true or both false.

Bonus knowledge: It is traditional in mathematical definitions to use “if” to mean “if and only if”.

Example 12: If two sets A and B are disjoint sets then A ∩ B = ∅.

This definition of disjoint sets means that if A and B are disjoint sets then A ∩ B = ∅ and also if
A ∩ B = ∅ then A and B are disjoint sets.

Try this!

I. Write in symbols the biconditional “6x = 2 if and only if x = 1/3”, then determine
its truth value assuming that the proposition “6x = 2” is true while “x = 1/3” is false.

Solution: Let p: 6x = 2
q: x = 1/3
Then the biconditional in symbols is: p ↔ q. And since p and q have different truth values,
the biconditional proposition is false.

II. Construct a truth value table for the statement below:

(p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p )

Solution: Since the statement formula is composed of two operands p and q, the truth table will
have 4 rows.

(p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p )

p q p→q ̴q ̴p ̴q→ ̴p (p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p )

T T T F F T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

 The entries in the columns of p, q, p → q, ̴ q, and ̴ p are easily derived using our previous
knowledge of tree diagram, rules of implication, and rules of negation.
 The entries on the ̴ q → ̴ p column are derived by applying the rules for implication, but
this time, the antecedent is ̴ q while the consequent is ̴p.
 The entries on the last column (p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p) are derived by applying the rules
for biconditional where the component propositions are (p → q) and ( ̴ q → ̴ p). That is,
we take (p → q) and ( ̴ q → ̴ p) as two separate simple propositions.
 The last column resulted to “all T” entries so the statement formula (p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p)
is a tautology.

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Learning check

Activity # 6

1. Suppose the biconditional p ↔ q is given a true value and proposition p is

known to be false. What is the truth value of q?
2. Suppose the biconditional m ↔ n is assumed to be false while proposition n is
given a true value. What is the truth value of m?

H. Predicate Logic

The logic that we discussed previously is categorized as the statement or

propositional logic. We were interested only in the truth or falsity of the statement. The
structure of the statement was not taken into account. But there are many justified arguments
whose validity cannot be tested within the framework of propositional logic. For example,
consider the following statements:

p: 2 is an even integer
q: 5 is an even integer
r: 0 is an even integer

Observe that the three statements have similar patterns. In English usage, the pattern is
noun-verb-adjective. Note that the verb and adjective in all statements are the same. The part
which changes is the noun. In mathematics, that component of a statement which changes is
called a variable and we use small letters, like x, to represent such a component. Thus, we
obtain:

s: x is an even integer.

A statement involving a variable, like s, is called a predicate.

Note: The truth value of a predicate cannot be evaluated unless the variable, x in the
above example, assumes a particular value. Thus, a predicate is not a proposition. But when x
is replaced by a number, say 2, or 6, or 0, we obtain a proposition like the statements p and q
and r above since we can already determine the truth value of each. In particular, p and r are
true propositions, while q is a false proposition. The definition below formalizes this note.

Definition:
Let x be a variable and D be a set; P(x) is a sentence. Then P(x) is called a
predicate or propositional function with respect to the set D if for each value of x in D,
P(x) is a proposition; that is, P(x) is true or false. Moreover, D is called the domain of
discourse and x is called a free variable.

* The domain of discourse specifies the allowable values for x.

** A propositional function P, by itself, is neither true nor false. However, for each x in the domain of
discourse, P(x) is a proposition and is, therefore, either true or false.

Example 1: Here are some predicates in math:

1. Algebra:
Let D be the set of real numbers.
x2 + 1 = 5

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x+2>0
x x-1
+ =4
2 3

2. Trigonometry:
Let D be the set of angles in quadrant I.
Sin x = ½
Sin2 x – Sin x = 0
2 Cos x = 1

Example 2: Let P(n) denote the sentence “𝑛2 + 2𝑛 is an odd integer”, where the domain of
discourse is the set of positive integers, ℤ+ . Find the truth value of each of the following:
a. P(1)
b. P(3)
c. P(5)
d. P(2)
e. P(4)
f. P(6)

Solutions: We just replace x in the predicate by each indicated value taken from the domain.
a. P(1): 12 + 2(1) = 3, which is an odd integer. So, P(1) is true.
b. P(3): 32 + 2(3) = 15, which is an odd integer. So, P(3) is true.
c. P(5): 52 + 2(5) = 35, which is an odd integer. So, P(5) is true.
d. P(2): 22 + 2(2) = 8, which is an even integer. So, P(2) is false.
e. P(4): 42 + 2(4) = 24, which is an even integer. So, P(4) is false.
f. P(6): 62 + 2(6) = 48, which is an even integer. So, P(6) is false.

We can also have predicates involving two or more variables

Example 3: Let P(x, y) denote the sentence “x equals y+1”, and let the domain be the set of
integers, ℤ. Find the truth value of each of the following.
a. P(2, 1)
b. P(5, 4)
c. P(6, 4)

Solutions: We just replace x and y accordingly in the predicate by each indicated pair of values
taken from the domain. In symbols, our predicate is 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 1, so we have:
a. P(2, 1): 2 = 1 + 1
2=2 So, P(2, 1) is true.

b. P(5, 4): 5=4+1

5=5 So, P(5, 4) is true.

c. P(6, 4): 6=4+1

6≠5 So, P(6, 4) is false.

Try this!

Let P(x) denote the statement “x ≥ 10” and D be the set of integers. What are
the truth values of the following?

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1. P(9)
2. P(12)
3. P(-10)
4. P(10)
5. P(0)

Solutions: We just replace x in the predicate by each indicated value taken from the
domain.
1. 9 ≥ 10 makes a false proposition
2. 12 ≥ 10 makes a true proposition
3. -10 ≥ 10 makes a false proposition
4. 10 ≥ 10 makes a true proposition
5. 0 ≥ 10 makes a false proposition

Learning check

Activity # 8

1. Let Q(x) denote the statement “x is an integer”. What are the truth values of
the following?

a. Q(-1)
b. Q(0)
8
c. Q( )
2
d. Q(√-4)
e. Q(√4)

2. Let P(x, y) denote the statement “xy ≤ 15.” Determine the truth values of the
following:

a. P(5, 3)
b. P(-3, 5)
c. P(-3, -5)
d. P(-3, -6)
e. P(2, 7)

3. Let P(n): n2 + 1 = 5, and D: {-2, 0, 2}. Determine the truth value of P(n) for each
value in the domain.

I. Quantifiers

In addition to predicates, we deal with another term- quantifiers. There are two types
of quantifiers, universal and existential. As we have learned earlier, a predicate P(x) is not a
proposition until x is substituted by a value in the domain of discourse. But in this in this part of
the module, we shall learn that although P(x) is not a proposition, it can be turned into a
proposition through a process called quantification.

Consider the following statements:

1. Every man is a liar.
2. There exists a real gentleman.

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These statements are called quantified statements. The words “every” and “some” are called
quantifiers. Moreover, “every” is a universal quantifier and “some” is an existential quantifier.

Definition: Let P be a propositional function with domain of discourse D. The statement

for every x, P(x) is said to be a universally quantified
statement.
The symbol for a universal quantifier is ∀.

Thus the statement for every x, P(x) may be written ∀x P(x).

Note:
1. Other universal quantifiers are “all”, “any”, “everything”, “nothing”.
2. The statement ∀x P(x) is true if P(x) is true for every x in D.
The statement ∀x P(x) is false if P(x) is false for at least one x in D.
A value x in the domain of discourse that makes P(x) false is called a counterexample to
the statement ∀x P(x).

Example 4:
1. Let P(x): x 2 ≥ x and let D: the set of integers.
What is the truth value of ∀x: P(x)?

The universally quantified proposition ∀x: P(x) means that “For all integers x, x 2 ≥ x.”

Solution: To determine the truth value of this proposition, try to answer this question: “Is it true
that the square of an integer is always greater than or equal to itself?” If the answer is yes, then
the truth value of the proposition is true. But if you can think of at least one value of x that will
make the proposition false, then the universally quantified proposition is false.
Some of you might be thinking of substituting a few values to the predicate. That’s a good start
in finding a counterexample to prove the falsity of this quantified statement. But doing the same
thing to prove that this quantified statement is true is useless, actually impossible. Because you
will need to substitute ALL values in the domain and get ALL TRUE truth values before you can
say that this quantified statement is indeed true. So we advise students to practice logical
thinking and reasoning in answering questions like this. For instance, here, since the domain is
the set of integers, we know that the square of a positive integer is always greater than the
integer, itself. So, the quantified proposition is true for positive integers. What about with negative
integers? Well, we know that when you square a negative number, you get a positive number.
So the square of a negative integer is also always greater than the negative integer, itself. And
what about zero? Here comes the part of the symbol “or equal to” in ≥. So, with this, we can say
that this quantified proposition “For all integers x, x 2 ≥ x” is true. (Remember, we had to justify
its truth to ALL values in the domain!)

Example 5: Let P(x): x ≥ 3 and let D: the set of real numbers.

What is the truth value of ∀x: P(x)?

The universally quantified proposition ∀x: P(x) means that “For all real numbers x, x ≥ 3.”

Solution: To determine the truth value of this proposition, try to answer this question: “Is it true
that a real number is always greater than or equal to 3?” If you can think of at least one value
of x (in this case a real number) that will make the proposition false, then the universally

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quantified proposition is false. We call such value a counterexample. This problem is relatively
easy because we can think of a lot of counterexamples. There are many real numbers that are
not greater than or equal to 3. But one counterexample is enough to justify the falsity of this
quantified statement. We can have counterexample: 𝑥 = 0. Zero (0) is a real number and it is
not greater than or equal to three, so the quantified statement “For all real numbers x, x ≥ 3” is
false.

Note: It is easier to prove the falsity of a universally quantified proposition than its truth, because
you would only need one counterexample.

Definition: Let P be a propositional function with domain of discourse D. The statement

there exists x, P(x) is said to be an existentially quantified
statement.
The symbol for an existential quantifier is ∃.

Thus the statement there exists x, P(x) may be written ∃x P(x).

Note:
1. Other existential quantifiers are “some”, “there is”.
2. The statement ∃x P(x) is true if P(x) is true for at least one x in D.
The statement ∃x P(x) is false if P(x) is false for every x in D.

Example 6:
1. Let P(x): x 2 ≤ x and let D: the set of all real numbers.
What is the truth value of ∃x: P(x)?

The existentially quantified proposition ∃x: P(x) means that “For some real numbers x,
x 2 ≤ x.”

Solution: To determine the truth value of this proposition, try to answer this question: “Is it true
that there is at least one real number whose square is greater than or equal to itself?” If the
answer is yes, then the truth value of the proposition is true. But if you cannot think of at least
one value of x that will make the proposition true, then this existentially quantified proposition is
false.
Here, our domain is the set of real numbers, not just the set of integers. If it were just the
set of integers, we can take from our example 4 that this proposition is false. (Can you tell why?).
1
However, here, we can substitute fractions so by just trying out, say 𝑥 = , we will have:
2
1 2 1
( ) ≤
2 2
1 1
≤ (true)
4 2

With this, we say that the existentially quantified statement “For some real numbers x,
x 2 ≤ x” is true.

Note: It is easier to show that an existentially quantified proposition is true, rather than false,
because you would only need one example that shows it is true.

Example 7: Let P(x): x 2 < x and let D: the set of all integers.
What is the truth value of ∃x: P(x)?
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The existentially quantified proposition ∃x: P(x) means that “For some integers x, x 2 < x.”

Solution: To determine the truth value of this proposition, try to answer this question: “Is it true
that there is at least one integer whose square is less than itself?” If the answer is yes, then the
truth value of the proposition is true. But if you cannot think of at least one value of x that will
make the proposition true, then the existentially quantified proposition is false.
From example 4, we learned that in fact, the square of all integers are always greater
than or equal to the integer, itself. It means that the square of any integer will NEVER be less
than the integer itself. So this existentially quantified proposition “For some integers x, x 2 < x”
is false.

 Things to Remember!
1. To prove that the universally quantified statement ∀x P(x) is true, show that for every x in
the domain of discourse, the proposition P(x) is true. Showing that P(x) is true for only a
particular value of x does not prove that ∀x P(x) is true.
2. To prove that the existentially quantified statement ∃x P(x) is true, find one value of x in
the domain of discourse for which the proposition P(x) is true. One value suffices (is
enough).
3. To prove that the universally quantified statement ∀x P(x) is false, find one value of x (a
counterexample) in the domain of discourse for which the proposition P(x) is false. One
counterexample is enough.
4. To prove that the existentially quantified statement ∃x P(x) is false, show that for every x
in the domain of discourse, the proposition P(x) is false. Showing that P(x) is false for
only a particular value of x does not prove that ∃x P(x) is false.

This time, let us try to translate quantified statements to symbols.mConsider the following
statements:

1. All numbers are integers.

2. Some numbers are integers.

The word “all” in (1) can be symbolized by “Ɐ” and if the noun “numbers” is replaced by
variable s, we can rewrite (1) as

Ɐx : x is an integer (2)

Remember that the phrase “x is an integer” is the predicate and if this predicate is
symbolized as I(x), then (2) becomes

Ɐx : I(x) (3)

The symbols in last line is read as “For all x, x is an integer” and this is still synonymous
to statement (1).

For the 2nd statement the word “some” can be represented by the symbol “ⱻ”. Following
the pattern in statement (1), statement (2) can finally be written as,

ⱻx : I(x) (4)

This is read as “For some x, x is an integer.”

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Try this!

1. Evaluate the truth value of each quantified proposition, assuming the set {0, 2, - 2} as the
domain.

a. Ɐx : x(x2 – 4) = 0
b. ⱻx : x + 1 > 0
c. ⱻx : x(x2 – 4) = 0

Solutions: Since the domain is composed by only three elements, it is still tolerable to
plug in each of these values, if necessary, to the quantified propositions and decide its truth
value.

a. P(0): 0(02 – 4) = 0 true

P(2): 2(22 – 4) = 0 true
P(-2): -2[(-2)2 – 4] = 0 true
Since all values in the domain yielded a true truth value, we can say that this universally
quantified proposition is true.

b. P(0): 0 + 1 > 0 true

Since this is an existential quantifier, just one proof of truth of the statement is enough
to say that this existentially quantified proposition is true.

c. P(0): 0(02 – 4) = 0 true

Since this is an existential quantifier, just one proof of truth of the statement is enough
to say that this existentially quantified proposition is true.

2. Let P(n) be the propositional function “n divides 77”. Write each proposition below in
words and tell whether it is true or false. The domain of discourse is ℤ+ .
a. P(11)
b. ∀n P(n)
c. ∃n P(n)

Solutions:
a. We replace n by 11 and write:
“11 divide 77” , which is a true statement.

b. This is a universally quantified proposition.

“For all positive integers n, n divides 77” or simpy, “All positive integers divide 77”.

Counterexample: 8 (this may vary), since 8 is a positive integer which does not
divide 77.So the universally quantified proposition “All positive integers divide 77” is false.

c. This is an existentially quantified proposition.

“For some positive integers n, there exists n that divides 77” or simpy, “There exists
at least one positive integer that divides 77”.

Proof: 11 (this may vary), since 11 is a positive integer which divides 77. So the
existentially quantified proposition “There exists at least one positive integer that divides 77” is
true.

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Learning check

Activity # 9
1. Translate the following in symbolic form and state their domain.
a. All fishes are swimmers.
b. There are fruits that are sweet.
c. Every number is a real number.
d. Any mammal is not two-legged.

2. Evaluate the truth value of the following propositions, using the set {1, 3, 5, 7}
as the domain.
a. Ɐx : x2 is odd
b. ⱻx : (x + 1)2 > x2 + 1
c. ⱻx : 2(x – 1) is even
2x+1
d. Ɐx : belongs to the domain
3

EVALUATION

Let us now determine how much you understand from this module!

1. Let the universal set U = {x ǀ x ∈ natural numbers, 0 ≤ x ≤ 9}, A = {2, 4, 7, 9}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7,
9}, C = {2, 3, 4, 5}, D = {1, 6, 7}. Find the ff:
a. A’ ∪ C
b. (B ∩ C’) ∪ A
c. (U ∩ B’)’
d. A ∩ C ∩ D’
2. Among 500 graduating students, 210 of them smoke, 258 drink alcoholic beverages, 216 eat
between meals, 122 smoke and drink alcoholic beverages, 83 eat between meals and drink
alcoholic beverages, 97 smoke and eat between meals, and 52 engage in these bad health
practices. How many
a. smoke but do not drink alcoholic beverages?
b. eat between meals and drink alcoholic beverages but do not smoke?
c. neither smoke nor eats between meals?

3. Let A = {w, x, y, z} and B = {a, b}. Use the roster notation to write each of the following sets,
and indicate the number of elements that are in each set:
a. A x B
b. B x A
c. A x A
d. B x B

4. In a Music club with 15 members, 7 people played piano, 6 people played guitar, and 4 people
did not play either of these instruments.
a. How many people played both piano and guitar?
b. How many people played piano only?
c. How many people played guitar only?
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d. How many people did play piano or guitar?

5. Write each symbolic statement as an English sentence. Use p, q, r, s, and t as defined below.
p: Taylor Swift is a singer.
q: Taylor Swift is not a songwriter.
r: Taylor Swift is an actress.
s: Taylor Swift plays the piano.
t: Taylor Swift does not play the guitar.
a. (p ∨ r) ∧ q
b. p → (q ∧ ̴ r)
c. t ↔ ( ̴ r ∧ ̴ p)

6. Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Today is Friday, still it is raining.
b. It is not raining, yet I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am going to the basketball game.

I. Fill in the blanks with appropriate word, phrase, or symbol(s).

1. A sentence that can be judged either true or false is called __________.
2. A statement that conveys only one idea is called ________.
3. A statement that consists of two or more simple statements is called a __________.
4. Words such as all, none (or no) and some are examples of ____________.
5. The negation is symbolized by ~ and is read as __________.
6. The conjunction is symbolized by ∧ and is read as __________.
7. the disjunction is symbolized by ∨ and is read as _________.
8. The conditional is symbolized by → and is read as _________.
9. The biconditional is symbolized by ↔ and is read as ________.
10. In logic, words such as and, or, and if…then… are called ___________.
II. Write the negation of each statement.
1. Some telephones can take photographs.
______________________________________
2. All houses have two stories.
______________________________________
3. Some cars are hybrids.
______________________________________
4. All golf courses are green.
______________________________________
5. Some drivers are not safe.
______________________________________

III. Indicate whether the statement is a simple or a compound statement. If it is a compound

statement, indicate whether it is negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional, or biconditional
by using both the word and its appropriate symbol.

Examples: John likes scuba diving. (simple statement)

Greg will go to the circus or to the zoo. (compound, disjunction, ∨)

1. If you have cold, then you should eat some chicken soup.
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 

2. Time will go backwards if and only if you travel faster than the speed of light.
3. Louis Armstrong did not play the drums.
4. Bobby joined the Army, and he got married.
5. It is false that Mr. Cruz is a high school teacher and a grade school teacher.
6. The typhoon did million worth of damage to the province.
7. A judge announces to a convicted offender, “I hereby sentence you to five months of
community services or a fine of Php10,000”.

ANSWER KEY

A. Set Operations

Try this!
1. A ∪ B = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain, blurry
vision, fever, trouble sleeping}
2. A ∪ C = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, blurry vision,
weight loss, eczema}
3. A ∪ B ∪ C = {nausea, night sweats, nervousness, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight gain,
blurry vision, fever, trouble sleeping, weight loss, eczema}

Try this!
1. A ∩ B = {nausea, nervousness}
2. B ∩ C = {nausea, blurry vision}
3. A ∩ B ∩ C = {nausea}

Try this!
1. A’ ∩ C’ = {weight gain, trouble sleeping, motor mouth, darting eyes, uncontrollable falling
down}
2. (A ∩ B)’ ∩ C = {dry mouth, blurry vision, fever, weight loss, eczema}

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 

3. B’ ∪ (A ∩ C’) = {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet, weight loss, eczema, motor mouth,
darting eyes, uncontrollable falling down, nervousness}

Try this!
1. A – B = {night sweats, dry mouth, swollen feet}
2. B – C = {weight gain, nervousness, fever, trouble sleeping}
3. (A – B) – C = {night sweats, swollen feet}

Try this!
1. Y x Z = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}
2. Z x Y = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
3. Y x Y = {(a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c)}
4. Y x Z has 6 elements, Z x Y has 6 elements, and Y x Y has 9 elements.

B. Propositions

Try this!
1. not a proposition
2. proposition, true
3. proposition, false
4. not a proposition
5. not a proposition

C. The Conjunction

Try this!
1. a ∧ b, false
2. c ∧ b, false
3. a ∧ c, true

D. The Disjunction

Try this!
1. true
2. true

E. The Conditional

Try this!
1. true
2. true

F. The Biconditional

Try this!
Let p: 6x = 2 and q: x = 1/3.
p ↔ q is false.

G. The Negation

p q ̴p ̴q p→q ̴q→̴p (p → q) ↔ ( ̴ q → ̴ p)
T T F F T T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

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H. Predicate Logic

Try this!
1. false
2. true
3. false
4. true
5. false

I. Quantifiers

Try this!
1. true
2. true
3. true

REFERENCES

1. Aufmann, R. er.al. (2018). Mathematical in the Modern World Excursions. Manila,

Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc.
2. Bluman, A. G. (2003). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach. 5th Ed. McGraw
Hill, Inc.
3. CENGAGE (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.
4. DS Malik, MK Sen. Discrete Mathematical Structures.
5. Johnsonbaugh, R. Discrete Mathematics.
6. Guillermo, R.M. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Quezon City: Nieme Publishing
House Co. Ltd.
7. Lactuan, I. R. et. al. (2018). Instructional Material in Mathematics in the Modern World.
Puerto Princesa City: Palawan State University.
8. Nocon, R. C. & E. G. Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World. C & E
Publishing, Inc.
9. Nocon and Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World.
10. Stewart, I. Nature’s Numbers. http://ian-stewart-numerele-naturii.pdf
11. Walpole, M. and M. (2002). Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists. 7th Ed.
Prentice Hall Int’l. Inc.

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Module 3

Mathematics as a Tool

Data Management

Mathematics in the Modern World

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 

Overview

Hello students! How are you keeping up with our modular classes? I hope that you
are all doing fine. If not, please feel free to ask for our help  In this module, we are
going to review some concepts that you have learned from the Statistics courses you
took in your basic education. Specifically, this will cover the following topics: Descriptive
Statistics, Inferential Statistics and Planning or Conducting an Experiment or Study. We
will briefly discuss the measures of central tendency, measures of variation, normal
distributions, and linear regression and correlation.

This module is designed for you to finish in three weeks. Time management and self-
motivation is the key to accomplishing all designated tasks/activities of this module, to
achieve every objectives and outcomes of this course.

I hope you will be able to appreciate the importance of managing data as it is relevant
to the pandemic that we are struggling with right now. It can help us fight through this
battle and all other disasters which could strike us in the future. Stay safe everyone!

Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this module, you should be able to:

Use variety and appropriate statistical tools to process and manage numerical
data

Apply the methods of linear regression and correlation to predict the value of a
variable given certain conditions

Make use of statistical data in drawing important decisions

Initial Activity (Accessing Prior Knowledge)

I want you to access the DOH COVID-19 Tracker through the link
www.doh.gov.ph/covid19tracker and browse the webpage. If you can’t
access this page, refer to a screenshot below of a portion the webpage.
Of all the data being shown in this platform, can you identify which data
show average values? Can you interpret these? Do the graphs make sense to you? Do
they display a trend which could help us predict the behavior of the data in the next 7-
14 days or more?

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Review of Descriptive Statistics

Data management is an administrative process that includes acquiring,

validating, storing, protecting, and processing required data to ensure the accessibility,
reliability, and timeliness of the data for its users. Data are individual pieces of factual
information recorded and used for the purpose of analysis. It is the raw information from
which statistics are created. Statistics are the results of data analysis - its interpretation
and presentation. Statistics has two branches. The one that involves collection,
organization, summarization and presentation is called descriptive statistics. The branch
of statistics which involves interpretation and drawing conclusions is called inferential
statistics.

Typically, there are two general types of statistic that are used to describe data:
measures of central tendency and measures of variance. A measure of central
tendency, which is sometimes referred to as “averages”, describes a set of data by
identifying its central position. It provide us the value that is typical or representative of
the whole data set. In this module, will consider three types of averages: mean, median
and mode. In the first section of discussion, we will take a look at these measures
specifically on how to calculate them.

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Mean
The mean, also called the arithmetic mean, is the most Did you know?
frequently used measure of central tendency. It is obtained by
getting the sum of all values and divide it by the number of Seaweed can grow up to 12
values in the data set. So if we have 𝑛 values in the data set inches per day averagely.
and they have values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , the mean usually
An average person eats almost
denoted by 𝑥̅ (read as x bar) is: 1500 pounds of food a year.

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 The human eye blinks an

𝑥̅ = = average of 4,200,000 times a
𝑛 𝑛
year.
∑𝑥 The summation notation “Σ”
𝑥̅ = denotes the sum of all The most children born to one
𝑛
values in a given data set. woman is 69, she was a
peasant who lived a 40 year
life, in which she had 16 twins,
x is the variable usually used to represent the individual data values 7 triplets, and 4 quadruplets.

n represents the number of values in a sample

*Source: statisticbrain.com

To be precise, 𝑥̅ is known as sample mean. In some situations,

data are collected from small portions of a large group in order to represent the determined
information about the group. The whole group under consideration is called a population, while
any subset of the population is called a sample.
So if we want to compute for the value of the population mean, denoted by µ, we use the formula:
∑𝑥
𝜇=
𝑁
where N is the size of the population.

Example
1.) In a grocery store, price (₱) of bath soap products of different brands are the following:
35 46 40 31 39
Find the mean of the prices of these five brands of bath soap.

Solution
The five brands are all of the bath soap brands in the grocery store (population size N = 5). We use
μ to represent the mean.
∑ 𝑥 35 + 46 + 40 + 31 + 39
𝜇= =
𝑁 5
Thus, the mean of the prices of these five brands of bath soap is ₱38.20.

Example (cont.)

2.) The following are the ages (in years) of eight of the 67 employees of a small company:
25 32 61 42 39 48 56 29
Find the mean age of the employees.

Solution
Because the given data set only includes eight of the 67 employees of the company, it represents
the population. Hence, N = 8. The population mean is
∑𝑥 25 + 32 + 61 + 42 + 39 + 48 + 56 + 29 = 332 332
𝑥̅ = = = = 41.5 ≈ 42
𝑛 8 8
Thus, the mean age of all eight employees of this company is 42 years.

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Sometimes a data set may contain a few very small or a few very large values; such values are
called outliers or extreme values. Outliers may contain valuable information or be meaningless
aberrations caused by measurement and recording errors. A major shortcoming of the mean as
a measure of central tendency is that it is very sensitive to outliers.

Example

3.) The following are the savings (₱) of five siblings of a certain family (arranged from the
youngest to the eldest sibling):

2500 3000 2800 2900 35900

Notice that the eldest sibling’s savings (35900) is very large compared to the others. Hence,
this is an outlier. Show how this affects the value of the mean.

Solution
If we do not include the data of the eldest sibling, then the mean is
2500 + 3000 + 2800 + 2900
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = ₱2800
4
Now, if we include it to our data, then the mean is
2500 + 3000 + 2800 + 2900 + 35900
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = ₱9420
5
Thus, including the savings of the eldest sibling causes more than three times increase in the
value of the mean, which changes from ₱2800 to ₱9420.

Note: In the last example, where we included the outlier in the computation of the mean, it
seemed that the measure that we got does not provide us the value that is typical or
representative of the whole data set. The first computation seemed to be the more sensible
value. However, it is NOT acceptable to drop an observation just because it is an outlier. Outliers
can be legitimate observations and are sometimes the most interesting ones. It is important to
investigate the nature of the outlier before deciding whether or not to drop an outlier in the
analysis of data. Please check out the following link https://www.theanalysisfactor.com/outliers-
to-drop-or-not-to-drop/ for guidelines in dealing with outliers.

Learning check

Activity 1
Compute the mean of the following set of data values
a.) Anika went to the supermarket to buy some packed potatoes, with her uncertainty of
estimating the difference between the sizes of the packed potatoes, she looks at the
price tags and finds the following prices (₱)
125 142 132.5 201.25 160 172.75
b.) Archie collects stamps and glues them to his notebook. The following shows the
tally of his monthly collection from June to November
16 25 18 30 29 23

c.) The following shows the grades of a student in Physics, Math, English, Biology,
Chemistry and Filipino, respectively.
86 89 91 93 88 90

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Median
Another important measure of central tendency is the median. The median of the set of
scores is the middle value when the scores are arranged in order of increasing (or
decreasing) magnitude. Aside from being a measure of central tendency, it is also a positional
score as it divides the data set into two equal parts: one- half of the observations above it, and
the other half below or equal to it. To find the median of a data set, we first rank the data values
(arrange them in increasing or decreasing order), then get the median in one of the following
ways.
 If the number of scores is odd, the median is the number that is exactly in the middle of
the list.
 If the number of scores is even, the median is found by computing the mean of the two
middle numbers. That is, we add the two middlemost values and divide the sum by 2.
Example
1.) The following data give the age of students in a ballet class. Find the median age.
12 15 17 11 13 16 19
Solution

First, we rank the given data in an increasing order. Since there are seven (odd) values in this
data set as it was arranged accordingly, the fourth term is the middle term. Hence,
11 12 13 15 16 17 19
Median

The median age of the students in a ballet class is 15.

2.) The following are the number of smart phone users in 10 households in a certain
barangay:
7 9 4 10 5 6 5 8 12 5

Solution

Since there are ten values in this data set as it was arranged accordingly, the fifth term and
the sixth term are the middle term:
4 5 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 12
Median
To get the median, we get the average of the two middle terms
6+7
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = = 6.5
2
The median number of smart phone users among the 10 households in the barangay is 6.5.

Learning check

Activity 2
Compute the median of each of the following sets of data
a.) 3, 4, 7, 11, 12, 12, 15, 16
b.) -8, -5, -12, -1, 4, 7, 11
c.) 6, 4, 8.5, 9, 11, 8.25, 6.5, 8.75
d.) The following are the ages of the 5 siblings of the Reyes family. Find the age of the
middle child.
25 21 23 18 27
e.) In a supermarket, the following table shows the number of tissue roll of different
brands sold in a certain week (Brand 1 to Brand 8, respectively)
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25 12 5 17 20 13 9 21
 

Mode
Another measure of central tendency is the mode, which is the value that occurs most
frequently in a data set. There is no formula in finding the mode of an ungrouped data, it is just
found by inspection. When two scores occur with the same greatest frequency, each one is a
mode and the data set is bimodal. When more than two scores occur with the same greatest
frequency, each is a mode and the data set is said to be multimodal. It is also possible that a
data set has no mode; that is when no score is repeated more than the others. In this case, we
stipulate that there is no mode.

Example
1.) The following gives the general weighted average of the top 10 students with the highest
grades in a certain class.
95 93.5 91 89 92 94 91 93 90 91.5
Solve for the mode.

Solution
In this data set, all values appeared only once except for 91 which appeared twice. Because
91 has the highest frequency, hence
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 91

2.) The following are the number of ball pens that each of the eight students owned in a
certain group of friends: 1 3 2 0 2 1 3 5
Solve for the mode.

Solution
There are three data values with the highest frequency in this data set which are 1, 2, and 3.
Therefore, the data set is multimodal and the modes are:
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 1, 2, 3

Example
3.) A statistician conducted a survey in a certain barangay to obtain the profile of households
wherein the statistician gathered information about the appliances owned by each household.
The table below shows the summary of the number of appliances of by the households
Name of Appliance No. of Households
Television 35
Refrigerator 26
Microwave oven 10
Kitchen Stove 36
Washing Machine 15
Clothing Iron 30
What is the most popular appliance owned in that barangay?

Solution
Since the kitchen stove is the appliance that has the highest frequency, then the most popular
appliance owned in that barangay is kitchen stove.

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