Nature & Scope of Rehabilitation Psychology

What is Rehabilitation Psychology?

Rehabilitation has been described as a program that uses a combination of interventions to

empower individuals with disabilities and chronic health conditions with the aim to help them
achieve socially meaningful, personally fulfilling, and functionally effective interaction in their
daily lives. Rehabilitation psychology is a branch of psychology that is related to the study
and application of psychological knowledge, social principles and skills development for
persons with disabilities and chronic health conditions. Another definition of rehabilitation
psychology is it is the study and application of psychological principles on behalf of persons
who have disability due to illness or injury. The aim of Rehabilitation Psychology is to
maximize mental health, independent functional abilities, and social role participation across
the life span of individuals with disabilities and chronic health conditions. Rehabilitation
psychologists, often within teams, assess and treat cognitive, emotional, and functional
difficulties. They help people to overcome barriers to participation in life activities. They are
involved in practice and research with the broad goal of fostering independence and
opportunity for people with disabilities.

Definition
According to renowned psychologists, Maki and Riggar
American Psychological Association defined rehabilitation psychology as, ‘rehabilitation
psychology is the study and application of psychological principles on behalf of persons with
physical, sensory, cognitive, developmental or emotional disabilities.’
Rehabilitation psychology is a specialty area within psychology that focuses on the study
and
application of psychological knowledge on individuals with disability and chronic health
conditions with an aim of maximizing health and welfare, improving quality of life and social
participation across lifespan. In other words, rehabilitation psychology can be seen as an
important part of treating and preventing chronic health problems. It also involves practice,
research and advocacy which aim at promoting independence and opportunity for people
with disabilities.
Rehabilitation psychologists are trained and specialized to engage in a broad range of
activities including clinical practice, consultation, program development, research, teaching
and training, administration, development of public policy and advocacy related to people
with disability and chronic health conditions. As a result, rehabilitation psychology services
are spread across variety of settings including in acute care hospitals and medical centers,
inpatient and outpatient physical rehabilitation unit, nursing homes and assisted living
centers, and specialty clinic (for example, vision loss and low vision, cerebral palsy, multiple
sclerosis, or deafness) Some of these facilitiesare operated privately while others are aided
by the government such as for war veterans.

1.5 Scope of Rehabilitation Psychology

The scope and application of rehabilitation psychologist is wide, as rehabilitation
psychologist
address various domains of one’s everyday functioning, as per the World Health
Organization

 Assessment of an individual’s physical, personal, psychological, cognitive, and behavioral

factors and followed by developing an intervention plan accordingly.
 Assessment of an individual’s neuro-cognitive status, sensory difficulties, mood and
emotions, desired level of independence and interdependence, mobility and freedom of
movement, self-esteem and self-determination, behavioral control and coping skills,
individual’s capabilities and quality of life to understand the client’s perspective efficiently.
 It assesses the influence of culture, ethnicity, language, gender, age, developmental level,
sexual orientation, geographical location, socioeconomic status and assumptions of difficulty
on attitudes and the services which are given to the client.
 It explores the environmental barriers in participation and performance in day to day
activities including accommodations and adaptation in the existing social structure.
 It includes research and teaching of psychology students and other health trainees about
the requirements of people with special needs. It also focuses on development of policies for
health promotion, and advocacy for persons with disabilities and chronic health conditions.
 It provides services within existing networks of biological, psychological, social,
environmental, and political environments such as attorneys, courts, government agencies,
educational institutions, corporate facilities, or insurance companies.

1.6 Goals and Objectives of Rehabilitation

It aims at helping individuals achieve an optimal level of physical, psychological and
interpersonal functioning. In order words, rehabilitation psychology can be seen as an
important part of treating and preventing chronic and disabling health problems. It also
involves practice, research and advocacy with a broader goal of promoting independence
and opportunity for people with disabilities.

The following are the main objectives of rehabilitation:

 Develop services for meeting psychological and social needs
 Improve social, emotional relationships between handicapped
 Enlarge free movement in the physical and social environments of the disabled and
deprived.
 Study the social and psychological network of rehabilitation services centers with regards
to disability and the laws and regulations.
 Goals need to be achievable and based on regular patient assessment of physical and
non- physical consequences of the critical illness throughout their recovery.

To meet these objectives and goals, rehabilitation psychologists require intensive and
extensive training in the following areas:
 Unique aspects of rehabilitation psychology
 Psychological assessment of persons with disability
 Impact of the environment on the people who are disabled
 Intervention and remediation procedures
 Rehabilitation practices and management strategies

Rehabilitation psychologists can be trained in the several ways. The following are the main
ways in which they can be trained:
 In-service training
 Formal academic generic courses
 Short term courses
 Continuing education
1.7 Methods of Rehabilitation Psychology
A rehabilitation psychologist uses various methods to perform his or her own tasks. These
are:
 Administration of standardized and non-standardized tests to assess cognitive and
psychological functioning of the client, and use of behavioral observation and interviewing
skills to get detailed information about the client.
 Evaluation and treatment of both individual and family members for improving coping and
adaptation skills in both the client and the family members.
 Providing individual and group intervention by using counseling and psychotherapy,
cognitive remediation, behavioral management and enhancing use of assistive technology
for enhancing day to day functioning of the client.

1.8 Functions/ Role of Rehabilitation Psychologists

A rehabilitation psychologist performs several functions. Some being specific and some
being general functions in general. The functions are enlisted as follows:
 He or she provides a holistic development to the client by working on his or her biological,
psychological, social, environmental and even political environment of the client to assist the
client through optimal rehabilitation goals via intervention, therapeutic support, education,
consultation with other specializations, and advocacy.
 He or she focuses on improving functioning and quality of life of persons with special
needs by restoring patient’s physical functions and modifying the patient’s physical and
social environment.
 He or she provides clinical guidance and counseling services to both the individual in need
as well as his or her family, primary caregivers and other significant people in the individual’s
social life and community to help the patient achieve optimal physical, psychological and
interpersonal functioning.
 Rehabilitation psychology involves rehabilitation program development which includes
educating the public, developing policies for injury prevention and health promotion,
advocacy for persons with disabilities and chronic health conditions, research and teaching
of psychology students and other health trainees about the requirements of people with
special needs.
 Rehabilitation psychology involves case management which includes obtaining written
reports regarding client’s progress, developing rapport with physicians and other
rehabilitation health professionals and caseload management-which refers to the ability to
manage a number of clients, within a given amount of time and provide optimum services.
 It focuses on providing a community-based rehabilitation service activity for integration
and equalizing of opportunities in all aspects of the society.
 It involves vocational counseling and consultation which include services such as job
development and placement, career counseling, vocational planning and assessment.

There are some unique functions which a rehabilitation psychologist performs:

 Identification of co-morbidities in the client which can affect his or her functioning.
 Use of efficient assessment tools for developing effective intervention strategies.
 Identifying client’s strengths and abilities and developing on it and also identifying the risk
factors which need to be taken into consideration while providing an intervention.
 The psychologist should also take into consideration cost and availability of resources for
the client.

Rehabilitation psychologist serves a wider range of population which includes:

 Individuals with brain injuries
 Individuals with spinal cord injuries
 Geriatric population
 Individuals with neuromuscular disorder
 Individual with chronic pain disorder
 People with medical condition such as, Cancer, Multiple sclerosis, Developmental
disorder, Psychiatric disability, Substance abuse, Deafness or hearing loss, Intellectual
disability, Blindness and vision loss, Impairment by educational or other disadvantages.

Moreover, rehabilitation psychologist addresses behavioral and mental health issues faced
by individuals affected by injury or any chronic condition that can lead to disability across
lifespan. It includes issues such as:
 Emotional coping, mental and psychological status.
 Behavior that promotes positive adaptation to disability.
 Minor adjustment issues as well as severe psychopathology.

Role of Psychologist in Disability Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation of people with disabilities is a process aimed at enabling them to reach and
maintain their optimal physical, sensory, intellectual, psychological and social functional
levels. Rehabilitation provides disabled people with the tools they need to attain
independence and self determination.

Rehabilitation psychologists support individuals as they cope with the mental and physical
challenges their conditions present. They often teach their patients how to adapt and make
lifestyle choices that promote good health. Rehabilitation psychologists are concerned with
all of the factors in people’s lives that contribute to their wellness and recovery, from the
support they receive from family and friends to the relationships they have with their team of
treatment providers.

The following are the main areas in which a psychologist works:

 Rehabilitation psychologist study and work with individuals with disabilities and chronic
health conditions to help them overcome challenges and improve their quality of life.
 Rehabilitation psychologists support individuals as they cope with the mental and physical
challenges their conditions present. They often teach their patients how to adapt and make
lifestyle choices that promote good health.
 Intervening to reduce stress in the lives of vulnerable individuals, thus reducing the risk of
mental illness and preventing re-hospitalization. Psychologists can do this by teaching stress
management skills
 Researching the effects and managements of stress.
 Developing and applying measures to assess both the stress experienced by individuals
and the internal and external resources available to cope with that stress.
 Rehabilitation psychologists are concerned with all of the factors in people’s lives that
contribute to their wellness and recovery, from the support they receive from family and
friends to the relationships they have with their team of treatment providers.
 Rehabilitation psychologists assist individuals who have disabilities and chronic illnesses;
the disability may be congenital or acquired — for example, an accident or stroke.
 Psychologists provide psychotherapy and administer assessments.
 It is also work at the societal level to make the lives of the disabled better.
 Psychologists treat might be physical, such as addiction or chronic pain
 Psychologists might work in a number of different health facilities. This can include
hospitals, physical therapy centers, long-term care centers, drug and alcohol rehabilitation
centers, psychiatric hospitals, and mental health clinics.
b. Concepts of Ability & Disability

Ability is a basic capacity of a person for performing a wide range of different tasks,
acquiring knowledge, or developing a skill; what one has learned over a period of time from
both school and non school sources; one's general capability for performing tasks.

Your abilities refer to your “capacity to perform particular physical or mental tasks,”

Description
In psychology, "ability" refers to the capacity of an individual to perform certain tasks, solve
problems, or acquire new skills. Abilities can be broadly categorized into cognitive,
emotional, social, and physical domains. They are influenced by a combination of genetic
factors, environmental influences, and individual experiences. Abilities can range from basic
cognitive functions like memory and attention to complex skills such as language acquisition
and social interaction. Psychologists often assess and measure abilities using standardized
tests and observation methods. Understanding an individual's abilities can provide
valuable insights into their strengths, weaknesses, and potential areas for growth.

Application Areas
 Educational psychology
 Neuropsychology
 Occupational psychology
 Clinical assessment
 Talent development
 Rehabilitation
 Sports psychology

Examples
 Problem-solving ability in a puzzle-solving task
 Verbal ability in reading comprehension
 Emotional intelligence in understanding and managing emotions
 Social ability in forming and maintaining relationships
 Motor ability in playing a musical instrument

There are several models of ability, but one we often describe comes from psychologist and
ability expert John Carroll

Human ability refer to behaviors that reflect either what a person has learned or the
person's capacity to emit a specific behavior that includes achievement, aptitude,
and intelligence

Fluid ability refers to one of two (2) higher Order factors of intelligence conceived by
Cattell. Fluid ability refers to a person's genetically based intellectual capacity.

Fluid ability is the form of intelligence used when coping with novel problems and situations

Fluid Intelligence
  The ability to reason and solve problems involving novel information or procedures
using processes that are not learned or culture-bound.
Crystallized Intelligence
 The ability to communicate and reason using previously learned information and
procedures.
Quantitative Knowledge
 The ability to manipulate numeric symbols and reason procedurally with quantitative
information; includes mathematics achievement and knowledge.
Short-Term Memory
 The ability to hold information in immediate awareness and effectively use it within
seconds.
Visual Processing
 The ability to perceive, manipulate, analyze and synthesize visual stimuli; includes
visual memory and spatial relations.
Auditory Processing
 The ability to perceive, discriminate, analyze and synthesize patterns in auditory
stimuli; includes phonetic coding, memory for sound patterns, and ability to
discriminate tones.
Processing Speed
 The speed with which information is attended to and processed; involves rapid,
automatic cognitive processing.
Long-Term Retrieval
 The ability to store information in long-term memory and accurately retrieve it later.
Reading/Writing
 The ability to read and understand written material accurately and efficiently and to
write in a clear and organized manner with proper grammar, punctuation, and
spelling.
Decision/Reaction Time or Speed
 The quickness with which problems of moderate difficulty are accurately encoded
and mentally manipulated; includes simple reaction time and semantic processing
speed.
Other Types of Abilities
This list is obviously limited to cognitive abilities, which have to do with thinking. There are
other abilities that a holistic approach should include. For example, some abilities that are
not traditionally considered cognitive in nature (e.g., psychomotor dexterity), and that are
integral parts of other models of ability, are not included in the list. Also, nontraditional
aspects of human ability such as emotional intelligence, social intelligence, spiritual
intelligence, and situational judgment should also be considered when you are evaluating
your strengths.

Creative ability is a term in Sternberg’s theory of intelligence that refers to the ability to deal
adaptively with novel situations and problems.
Creative ability refers to the capacity of individuals to generate new and original
ideas, concepts, and products that are valued by others. It is a key component of creativity,
which involves combining existing knowledge and ideas in novel and useful ways.
Examples of creative ability include:
1. A musician who writes and performs original songs that are well-received
by audiences.
 2. An artist who creates unique and compelling paintings or sculptures that are
exhibited in galleries or museums.
3. An entrepreneur who develops innovative products or services that disrupt
established markets.
4. A scientist who makes groundbreaking discoveries or develops new technologies
that solve important problems.
5. A writer who creates original stories or novels that resonate with readers and win
critical acclaim.
Creative ability can be expressed in a wide range of fields and domains, including the
arts, sciences, business, and technology. It is often considered a key driver
of innovation and progress, as it enables individuals and organizations to develop new
solutions to complex problems.
Research has shown that creative ability is influenced by a variety of factors,
including cognitive processes, personality traits, and environmental factors such
as education and social support. By developing and nurturing their creative
abilities, individuals can enhance their personal and professional growth, as well as
contribute to the advancement of society as a whole.

Disability refers to a long-lasting physical, mental, or emotional condition. This condition can
make it difficult for a person to do activities such as walking, climbing stairs, dressing,
bathing, learning, or remembering.
This condition can also impede a person from being able to go outside the home alone or to
work at a job or business

Disability is defined by the Disability Discrimination Act as the reduction in the functioning of
a particular body part of organ, or its absence.It is the effects of chronic conditions on
people's ability to engage in activities that are necessary, expected, and personally desired
in their society; the limitation of normal physical, social or mental activity of an individual,
which has a substantial and long-term adverse effect on their ability to carry out normal day-
to-day activities. There are varying degrees of Disability: partial or total, types of Disability:
functional, occupational, learning Disabilities, and durations: temporary or permanent.

Kazou (2017) Disability is any condition or impairments socially, cognitive, developmental,

intellectual, mental, physical, sensory or combination of multiple factors that makes it difficult
for a person to do certain activities or interact effectively with the surrounding world.

People with disability experience discrimination and social disadvantage. Social perceptions
of disability explained social disadvantage in terms of individual impairment such as family
circumstances, income and financial support, education, employment, housing, transport
and environment. Management of Persons with disability require a combination
and continuous care from specialized medical, social, psychological personnel, vocational,
and rehabilitation

Disability psychology

In the psychology context, disability psychology refers to a specialized field that focuses
on understanding the psychological aspects of living with a disability. This includes
examining the impact of physical, sensory, intellectual, or psychiatric disabilities on an
individual's mental health, well-being, and quality of life. It also encompasses the study of
societal attitudes towards disability, the psychological effects of stigma and discrimination,
and the development of interventions to support individuals with disabilities in achieving
optimal psychological functioning.

General Description
Disability psychology integrates perspectives from clinical psychology, health psychology,
and rehabilitation psychology to address the unique challenges faced by individuals with
disabilities. It aims to promote resilience, self-determination, and inclusion, recognizing the
role of environmental and societal factors in shaping the experience of disability. The field
advocates for a shift from a medical model, which views disability primarily in terms of
impairment, to a biopsychosocial model that considers the complex interaction between
biological, psychological, and social factors.

Disability is part of the human condition. Almost everyone will be temporarily or permanently
impaired at some point in life, and those who survive to old age will experience increasing
difficulties in functioning. Most extended families have a disabled member, and many non-
disabled people take responsibility for supporting and caring for their relatives and friends
with disabilities. Historically, people with disabilities have largely been provided for through
solutions that segregate them, such as residential institutions and special schools. Policy
has now shifted towards community and educational inclusion, and medically focused
solutions have given way to more interactive approaches recognizing that people are
disabled by environmental factors as well as by their bodies.

Areas of Application
 Clinical Interventions: Providing psychological support and therapy to individuals
with disabilities to help them cope with emotional and psychological challenges.
 Accessibility and Inclusion: Working towards the development of inclusive policies
and practices in education, employment, and public services.
 Advocacy and Awareness: Promoting understanding and acceptance of disability
within society to combat stigma and discrimination.
 Rehabilitation and Adaptation: Assisting individuals in adapting to disability through
the development of new skills and strategies for daily living.

General Causes of Disability

Maxwell et al. In general term, disability may be associated with different conditions at birth
that may affect functions later in life, including Cognition, Mobility and Other areas including
disorders in single genes; and result of the mother’s exposure during pregnancy to
infections; Developmental conditions such as Autism; Injury, for example, traumatic brain
injury; Long-standing condition, for example, diabetes; and progressive for example,
muscular dystrophy.

2.2 Dimension of Disability

According to WHO There are three dimensions of disability: Impairment in a person’s body
structure or function, or mental functioning for examples loss of a limb, loss of vision or
memory;
Activity limitation: such as difficulty seeing, hearing, walking, or problem-solving; and
Participation restrictions: such as working, engaging in social and recreational activities,
obtaining health care and preventive services.

2.3 Types of Disability

There are different types of disabilities such as Physical, Intellectual, Sensory, and Mental
illness the following are among them.
2.4 Physical Disabilities
It is the disability that affect a person’s physical capacity and mobility ether in temporarily or
permanently.
Types of Physical Disabilities
Acquired brain injury: Damage to the brain including: stroke, alcohol or drugs, infection,
disease, or a lack of oxygen and cause trouble in processing information, planning, solving
problems and experience changes in their behavior and personality.

Spinal Cord Injury : Accidents, cancer, arthritis, infections, blood clots, and degenerative
spinal conditions can affect the ability to move through paralysis, it may affect many areas of
a person’s body and results in paraplegia, loss of function below the chest, or quadriplegia ,
loss of function below the neck.

Spinal Bifida:It can be mild to severe including paralysis or weakness in the legs, bowel and
bladder incontinence, hydrocephalus that is too much fluid in the brain cavities, deformities
of the spine, and learning difficulties, and it is likely caused by genetic and environmental
factors.
Cerebral Palsy:People experience weakness, difficulty walking, lack of muscle control,
problems with coordination and, involuntary movements in this type. Hence, lack of oxygen
to the brain; Illnesses during pregnancy; Accidental injury to the brain, meningitis in young
children, and premature birth are among the causes.

Cystic Fibrosis: Is an inherited genetic condition affects body’s respiratory, digestive, and
reproductive systems and cause mucus to be thick and sticky hence, causing lung damage
and recurrent infections. Symptoms are sinus infections, liver damage, diabetes, poor
growth, diarrhoea, infertility, and low salt levels in the body, which causes problems such as
fatigue, cramps, and dehydration.

Epilepsy:A neurological condition where a person has a tendency of recurring seizures due
to a sudden burst of electrical activity in the brain and cause unusual movements, odd
feelings or sensations and change a person’s behavior to unconsciousness. Brain injuries,
strokes, cancer, structural abnormalities of the brain, and other genetic factors can all cause
disability.

Multiple Sclerosis: It occurs when the myelin sheath becomes damaged, causing random
patches or scars which interfere with messages sent through the central nervous system,
affecting the brain, optic nerves, and spinal cord. Symptoms include fatigue, loss of motor
control, tingling, numbness, visual disturbances, memory loss, depression, and cognitive
difficulties.

Muscular Dystrophy:It is a group of genetic disorders that lead to progressive and

irreversible weakness and loss of muscle mass. Signs and symptoms can include difficulty
walking, trouble breathing or swallowing, restriction in joint motion, heart and other organ
problems.

Tourette Syndrome:Is a neurological disorder involves involuntary and repetitive

vocalizations, sounds, and movements called tics. Vocal tics can include sniffing, throat
clearing, tongue clicking and grunting; Motor tics can include eye blinking, shrugging, nose
twitching, head jerking, facial expressions, touching objects or people, spinning around. It is
diagnosed between the ages of 2 and 21. A combination of genetic, environmental, and
neurochemical are among the factors.

Dwarfism: It defined as an adult height of 4 feet 10 inches or less with the average height of
someone with dwarfism being 4 feet There are two categories for dwarfism: Disproportionate
dwarfism, some parts of the body are smaller, whilst other parts are average or above-
average; and Proportionate Dwarfism, the body is averagely proportioned, and all parts of
the body are small to the same degree. Children may experience a delay in developing
motor skills, however, dwarfism does not have a link to any intellectual disability.

2.5 Intellectual/Cognitive Disability

It is the disabilities that are limited in how people are able to learn or function, have very low
Intelligence Quotient Intellectual disability occurs when a person has difficulty with general
mental abilities. This may impact there: Intellectual functioning in learning, judgment,
problem-solving, reasoning, and academic skills; Practical functioning, the ability to function
and take care of oneself independently, such as performing personal care tasks; and Social
functioning, the ability to function normally in society. According to the American Psychiatric
Association, 1% of the population have i ntellectual disability. Around 85% of these people
have mild case, whereby males are more likely to receive a diagnosis of intellectual
disability.

Causes of Intellectual Disability: The condition develops due to disease; certain brain
conditions; certain genetic conditions; fetal alcohol syndrome; brain malformations;
infections; exposure to toxins; serious head injury; stroke; maternal disease; problems at
birth; extreme malnutrition; insufficient medical care and any condition that impacts the brain
and begins before the age of 18 years, or before birth. However, intellectual disability can
also develop later in childhood or adolescence due to brain damage.

Symptoms of Intellectual: Some common symptoms include: significantly delayed motor

skills, delayed speech or difficulty speaking, difficulty learning at grade/age-appropriate level,
Poor memory, inability to understand consequences of actions, poor problem-solving skills,
thinking logically and understanding of social rules, difficulty planning, remembering things,
letting others know their needs, limited functioning in one or more daily activities, and
difficulty regulating emotions and behaviors.

2.6 Types of Intellectual Disability

Mental retardation
is a generalized disorder appearing before adulthood, characterized by significantly impaired
cognitive functioning and deficits in two or more adaptive behaviors with Intelligence
Quotient score under 70? Syndromic mental retardation is intellectual deficits associated
with other medical and behavioral signs and symptoms. Non-Syndromic mental retardation
refers to intellectual
deficits that appear without other abnormalities.
Classifying Abilities

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text version

Mild Mental Retardation:Approximately 85% is in the mildly retarded. Their IQ score ranges
from 50-70, can acquire academic skills up to about the sixth-grade level, and become fairly
self sufficient and in some cases live independently, with community and social support.
Moderate mental Retardation: About 10% are moderately retarded, have IQ scores
ranging from 35-55, can carry out work and self-care tasks, acquire communication skills in
childhood, able to live and function successfully within the community in supervised
environments as group homes

Severe mental Retardation:About 3-4% are severely retarded, having IQ scores of 20-40,
master very basic self-care skills and some communication skills and are able to live in a
group home.

Profound mental retardation: Only 1-2% is profoundly retarded, with IQ score under 20-25,
be able to develop basic self-care and communication skills, and often caused by an
accompanying neurological disorder that need a high-level of structure with appropriate
support and training.

Autism Spectrum Disorder This is a range of conditions classified as pervasive

developmental disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

Classification of Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism:It is used to describe disorders that are classified as pervasive developmental

disorders that include autism, Asperger syndrome, Childhood dis-integrative disorder, Rett
syndrome and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified. These disorders
are typically characterized by social deficits, communication difficulties, stereotyped or
repetitive behaviors and interests, and/or cognitive delays.

Asperger Syndrome:It is characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction,

alongside restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests. It differs from other
autism due to preservation of linguistic and cognitive development. Physical clumsiness and
atypical use of language are frequently reported. Genetic basis is estimated cause.

Heller's Syndrome:It is a rare, has some similarity to autism, and sometimes considered a
low functioning form of it, noted before a regression in skills or a series of regressions in
skills, occurs from age 2-10, it can be very sudden, reacting to hallucinations.

Pervasive Development Disorder: The diagnostic of this refer to a group of five

disorders characterized by delays in the development of multiple basic functions, including
socialization and communication.

Retts Syndrome:Is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects females. The clinical

features include small hands, feet and a deceleration of head growth, repetitive hand
movements, scoliosis, and constipation are also noted. They are prone to gastrointestinal
disorders and up to 80% have seizures, no verbal skills, and about 50% of individuals
affected are not ambulatory.

Learning Disability The brains are wired differently and affects how they receive and
process information, see, hear, and understand things differently; can lead to trouble with
learning new information and skills.

Signs and Symptoms of Learning Disabilities and Disorders The following are some
warning sign: Preschool, have problems pronouncing words; Trouble in alphabet, numbers,
colors, shapes, days of the week, buttons, zippers, snaps, learning to tie shoes; Difficulty
rhyming, directions or routines, crayons, pencils, and scissors or coloring within the lines;
Grades K-4 Trouble connecting letters and sounds, blend sounds to make words, confuses
basic words consistently misspells words and makes frequent reading errors, trouble
learning basic math, difficulty telling time, remembering sequences and to learning new
skills; and Grades 5 -8 signs have difficulty with reading comprehension or math skills,
trouble with open-ended test questions and word problems, dislikes reading and writing,
spells the same word differently in a single document, poor organizational skills, trouble
following classroom discussions, and Poor handwriting.

Diagnosis of Intellectual Disability Several tests are done to assess adaptive functioning
such as IQ test, a score of 70–75 indicate intellectual disability; Interviews assess adaptive
functioning in conceptual, social, and practical functioning; general medical tests;
neurological tests; psychological tests; special education tests; hearing, speech, vision; and
physical therapy evaluation.

Treatment and management of Intellectual Disability Intellectual disability is a lifelong

condition. Currently, there is no cure, people can learn to improve their functioning over
time. Receiving early, ongoing interventions can often improve functioning and allowing
someone to thrive. Most treatment plans focus on the person’s: str engths; Needs; and
support needed to function, such as receives proper care; psychological or psychiatric
services; speech and language pathology or audiology service; therapeutic recreation; and
rehabilitation counseling; adapted equipment or assistive technology. Accurate and early
diagnosis, a child can make better due to resources available in the community.

Sensory Disability According to WHO, Sensory disability usually refers to the impairment of
the senses such as sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell, and/or spatial awareness. It covers
conditions of visual impairment, blindness, hearing loss, and deafness.

Visual Impairment and/or Blindness: Decrease or severe reduction in vision that cannot be
corrected with standard glasses or contact lenses and r educes an individual’s ability to
function at specific or all tasks;
Blindness: Profound inability to distinguish light from dark, or the total inability to see;
Hearing loss: Decrease in hearing sensitivity of any level; and Deafness: Profound or total
loss of hearing in both the ears

Visual Disabilities Globally, 2.2 billion people have a near or distance vision impairment, in
1 billion or half of these cases. Vision loss can affect people of all ages. The International
Classification of Diseases 11

Distance vision impairment:It includes: Mild visual acuity worse than 6/12 to 6/18;
Moderate visual acuity worse than 6/18 to 6/60; Severe visual acuity worse than 6/60 to
3/60; and Blindness visual acuity worse than 3/60.

Near vision impairment:Near visual acuity worse than N6 or M.08 at 40 cm. The
availability of prevention and treatment interventions, access to vision rehabilitation including
assistive products such as glasses or white canes, and whether the person experiences
problems with inaccessible buildings, transport and information

Causes of Vision Impairment Globally, the leading causes of vision impairment are:
uncorrected refractive errors; Cataract; agerelated muscular degeneration; glaucoma;
diabetic retinopathy; corneal opacity; and trachoma. In low-income countries, congenital
cataract is a leading cause, whereas in middle-income countries it is more likely to be
retinopathy of prematurity. Uncorrected refractive error remains a leading cause of vision
impairment in all countries amongst adult and children

Management and Treatment There are effective interventions covering promotion,

prevention, treatment and rehabilitation which address the needs associated with eye
conditions and vision impairment. WHO world report on vision

Mental Disability According to DSM-IV, a mental disorder is a psychological syndrome

associated with distress such as painful symptoms, impairment in one or more important
areas of functioning, increased risk of death, or causes a significant loss of autonomy. The
American Psychiatric Association In 2019, common mental disorders include depression
which affects about 264 million, bipolar, which affects about 45 million, dementia, which
affects about 50 million, schizophrenia and other psychoses, which affects about 20 million
people, Neurodevelopmental disorders. Hence, stigma and discrimination add the suffering.

Classification of Mental Disorder Currently, there are two systems that classify mental
disorders: International Classification of Diseases Mental and behavioral disorders, since
1949 by WHO; and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM 5 produced
by the APA since 1952.

Types of Mental Disorders Anxiety Disorder:Is a fear that interferes with normal
functioning, which include specific phobia, generalized anxiety, social anxiety, panic,
agoraphobia, obsessive compulsive and post -traumatic stress disorder.
Mood Disorder: It is an unusually intense and sustained sadness, including melancholia, or
despair, which is known as major depression or unipolar or clinical depression; Prolonged
depression; and bipolar disorder which is known as manic depression.

Psychotic Disorder: Patterns of belief, language use and perception of reality such as
delusion, hallucination, and thought disorder. It includes schizophrenia and delusion
disorder.

Personality Disorder: it is the fundamental characteristics of a person that influence

thoughts and behaviors across situations and time and it includes eccentric, such as
paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders; types that have described as
dramatic or emotional, such as antisocial, borderline, histrionic or narcissistic personality
disorders; and those sometimes classed as fear-related, such as anxious-avoidant,
dependent, or obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.

Eating disorder:It is a disproportionate concern in matters of food and weight that include
anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, excessive bulimia or binge eating disorder.

Sleep disorders: are associated with disruption to normal sleep patterns. A common sleep
disorder is insomnia, which is described as difficulty falling and/or staying asleep,
narcolepsy, sleep apnea, REM sleep behavior, chronic sleep deprivation and restless leg
syndrome.

Sexual disorders include dyspareunia and various kinds of paraphilia that is sexual arousal
to objects, situations, or individuals that are considered abnormal or harmful to the person or
others.
Substance use disorder: It refers to the use of drugs, legal or illegal, including alcohol that
persists significant problems or harm related to its use and includes substance dependence
and substance abuse.

Dissociative disorder: It is a severe disturbance of self-identity, memory, and general

awareness of self and surroundings including depersonalization or dissociative identity
disorder, which was previously referred to as multiple personality disorder.

Causes of Mental Disorder genetic, psychological, and environmental factors all contribute
to the development or progression of mental disorders. Different risk factors may be present
at different ages, with risk occurring as early as during the prenatal period such as
unwanted pregnancy, lack of adaptation to pregnancy or substance use during pregnancy,
maternal stress and birth complications including prematurity and infections; and infants
neglected or not provided optimal nutrition; Social influences including abuse, neglect,
bullying, social stress, traumatic events and negative or overwhelming life experiences,
socioeconomic inequality, lack of social cohesion, features of societies and cultures,
nutrition, drug use, chronic deceases and personality trait.

Assessments of Mental Disorder It is carried out by mental health professionals such as

psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric nurses and clinical social workers, by psychometric
test and by observation and questioning. Treatments are provided by various mental health
professionals. Psychotherapy and psychiatric medication is two major treatment options.
Other treatments include lifestyle changes, social interventions, peer support and self-help.

Treatment and Management of Mental Disorder Treatment and support for mental
disorders are provided in psychiatric clinics or community mental health services and may
include placebo effect; Lifestyle strategies, including dietary changes, exercise and quitting
smoking may be of benefit; counselling and psychotherapy including family, counselor,
public health professionals, peer support. A major option for many mental disorders is
psychotherapy including Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Well-Known Examples The implementation of therapeutic groups specifically designed for

individuals with spinal cord injuries to address issues of grief, identity, and adjustment is an
example of an application in disability psychology. Another example is the use of cognitive-
behavioral techniques to support individuals with learning disabilities in overcoming
academic challenges and building self-esteem.

Psychological issues faced by people with disabilities:

Mental health conditions are particularly stigmatized, with commonalities in different

settings. People with mental health conditions face discrimination even in health care
settings. Negative attitudes towards disability can result in negative treatment of people with
disabilities, for example: children bullying other children with disabilities in schools, bus
drivers failing to support access needs of passengers with disabilities, employers
discriminating against people with disabilities, strangers mocking people with disabilities.

Negative attitudes and behaviours have an adverse effect on children and adults with
disabilities, leading to negative consequences such as low self-esteem and reduced
participation. People who feel harassed because of their disability sometimes avoid going to
places, changing their routines, or even moving from their homes. Stigma and
discrimination can be combated, for example, through direct personal contact and through
social marketing World Psychiatric Association campaigns against stigmatizing
schizophrenia.

Community-based rehabilitation (CBR) programmes can challenge negative attitudes in

rural communities, leading to greater visibility and participation by people with disabilities. A
three-year project in a disadvantaged commu- nity near Allahabad, India, resulted in children
with disabilities attending school for the first time, more people with disabilities participating
in community forums, and more people bringing their children with disabilities for vaccination
and rehabilitation.

The diversity of disability

The disability experience resulting from the interaction of health conditions, personal factors,
and environmental factors varies greatly. Persons with disabilities are diverse and
heterogeneous, while stereotypical views of disability emphasize wheelchair users and a few
other “classic” groups such as blind people and deaf people. Disability encompasses the
child born with a congenital condition such as cerebral palsy or the young soldier who loses
his leg to a land-mine, or the middle-aged woman Persons with disabilities are diverse and
heterogeneous, while stereotypical views of disability emphasize wheelchair users and a few
other “classic” groups such as blind people and deaf people . Disability encompasses the
child born with a congenital condition such as cerebral palsy or the young soldier who loses
his leg to a land-mine, or the middle-aged woman ).

Generalizations about “disability” or “people with disabilities” can mislead. Persons with
disabilities have diverse personal factors with differences in gender, age, socioeconomic
status, sexuality, ethnicity, or cultural heritage. Each has his or her personal preferences
and responses to disability (47). Also while disability correlates with disadvantage, not all
people with disabilities are equally disadvantaged. Women with disabilities experience the
combined disadvantages associated with gender as well as disability, and may be less
likely to marry than non-disabled women.

People who experience mental health conditions or intellectual impairments appear to be

more disadvantaged in many settings than those who experience physical or sensory
impairments. People with more severe impairments often experience greater disadvantage,
as shown by evidence ranging from rural Guatemala to employment data from Europe.
Conversely, wealth and status can help overcome activity limitations and participation
restrictions.

Disability and development

Disability is a development issue, because of its bidirectional link to poverty: disability may
increase the risk of poverty, and poverty may increase the risk of disability The onset of
disability may lead to the worsening of social and economic well-being and poverty through a
multitude of channels including the adverse impact on education, employment, earnings, and
increased expenditures related to disability.
Children with disabilities are less likely to attend school, thus experiencing limited
opportunities for human capital formation and facing reduced employment opportunities and
decreased productivity in adulthood.
People with disabilities are more likely to be unemployed and generally earn less even
when employed. Both employment and income outcomes appear to worsen with the severity
of the disability. People with disabilities may have extra costs resulting from disability – such
as costs associated with medical care or assistive devices, , or the need for personal
support and assistance – and thus often require more resources to achieve the same
outcomes as non-disabled people. This is what Amartya Sen has called “conversion
handicap” (75). Because of higher costs, people with disabilities and their households are
likely to be poorer than non-disabled people with similar incomes (75–77).
Households with a disabled member are more likely to experience material hardship –
including food insecurity, poor housing, lack of access to safe water and sanitation, and
inadequate access to health care.

Treatment and Risks While interventions in disability psychology can significantly improve
the quality of life for individuals with disabilities, it's important to approach treatment with
sensitivity to individual differences and the potential for psychological resistance.
Emphasizing strengths rather than limitations, and fostering empowerment rather
than dependency, are key considerations in this field.

Summary Disability psychology is a vital field that addresses the psychological

dimensions of living with a disability, focusing on the individual experiences, societal
interactions, and systemic barriers encountered by people with disabilities. It seeks to
enhance psychological well-being, promote inclusion, and advocate for a more inclusive and
understanding society.