MODULE 4

CONSCIOUSNESS

Waking states: Controlled and automatic processes, self-awareness, Circadian

rhythm, Changes in consciousness- sleep, dreams. Altered states-Hypnosis-facts
and myths, hypnotic susceptibility, meditation, Drug altered consciousness.

Consciousness is the awareness of internal and external stimuli. Consciousness includes,

1. Our awareness of external events
2. Our awareness of internal sensation
3. Our awareness of ourselves
4. Our awareness of our own thoughts
William James was an original thinker in and between the disciplines of physiology,
psychology and philosophy. His twelve-hundred-page masterwork, The Principles of
Psychology (1890), is a rich blend of physiology, psychology, philosophy, and personal
reflection that has given us such idea as “the stream of thought”. William James (1890)
argued against the structuralist position that states conscious can be broken into constituent
parts. Coining the phrase 'stream of consciousness', James proposed that mental life is a unity
that flows and changes (thus consciousness is a continuum).

Stream of consciousness: The stream of consciousness is a metaphor describing how

thoughts seem to flow through the conscious mind.

Stream of thought: Thought process in the MSE refers to the quantity, tempo (rate of flow)
and form (or logical coherence) of thought. Thought process cannot be directly observed but
can only be described by the patient, or inferred from a patient's speech. Form of the thought
is captured in this category.

LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Freud argued that individual’s feelings and behaviours are influenced by unconscious needs,
wishes and conflicts that lie below the surface of conscious awareness.
According to Freud the stream of consciousness has depth. Conscious and unconscious
processes happen in different levels of awareness.

Thus, Freud was the one of the first theorists to recognize that conscious is not an all-or-none
phenomenon. Consciousness may have evolved because it allowed humans to think through
the possible consequence of their actions and avoid some negative consequences.

People maintain some degree of awareness during sleep and sometimes while under
anaesthesia.

CONSCIOUSNESS AND BRAIN ACTIVITY

Several theories agree that consciousness relates to a self-sustained, coordinated dynamic

process of brain activity, which helps humans tune into a constantly changing environment.

Consciousness does not arise from any distinct structure in the brain but rather from activity
in the distributed networks of neural pathways.

One of the best psychological indicators of variations in consciousness is the EEG which
records activity from cerebral cortex.

EEG (ELECTRO ELECEPHALOGRAM)

Electroencephalography is a method to record an electrogram of the electrical activity on the

scalp that has been shown to represent the macroscopic activity of the surface layer of the
brain underneath. It is typically non-invasive, with the electrodes placed along the scalp.

BRAIN WAVES
Brain waves are oscillating electrical voltages in the brain measuring just a few millionths of
a volt. There are five widely recognized brain waves, and the main frequencies of human
EEG waves are given in the picture,

BIOLOGICAL RHYTHM

Biological rhythms are the natural cycle of change in our body’s chemicals or functions. It’s
like an internal master “clock” that coordinates the other clocks in your body. The “clock” is
located in the brain, right above the nerves where the eyes cross. It’s made up of thousands of
nerve cells that help sync your body’s functions and activities.

Different types of biological rhythms

There are four biological rhythms:

Circadian rhythms: the 24-hour cycle that includes physiological and behavioural rhythms
like sleeping

Diurnal rhythms: the circadian rhythm synced with day and night

Ultradian rhythms: biological rhythms with a shorter period and higher frequency than
circadian rhythms

Infradian rhythms: biological rhythms that last more than 24 hours, such as a menstrual
cycle
 CIRCARDIAN RHYTHMS

Circadian rhythm refers to Cyclic changes in bodily process occurring within a single day.
Most people are aware of fluctuations in their alertness, energy, and moods over the course of
a day, and research findings indicate that such shifts are closely related to changes in
underlying bodily processes. Many fluctuations occur over the course of a single day and are
therefore known as circadian rhythms (from the Latin words for “around” and “day”).
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): A portion of the hypothalamus that seems to play an
important role in the regulation of circadian rhythms.

Scientists have determined that in mammals, this “biological clock” is located in two tiny
structures called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (scns), located in the left and the right
hypothalamus and bordering on the third ventricle. The neurons of these two nuclei are
among the smallest in the brain.

WAKING STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Normal waking consciousness can be loosely defined as the state of consciousness you
experience when you are awake and aware of your thoughts, feelings and perceptions from
internal events and the surrounding environment.
Automatic Processing: Processing of information with minimal conscious awareness.

Controlled Processing: Processing of information with relatively high levels of conscious

awareness. Controlled processing involves more effortful and conscious control of thought
and behaviour. In controlled processing individuals can direct careful attention to the task at
hand and concentrate on it. Processing of this type consumes significant cognitive resources;
as a result, only one task requiring controlled processing can usually be performed at a time.

Research on the nature of automatic and controlled processing suggests that these two states
of consciousness differ in several respects.

First, behaviours that have come under the control of automatic processing are performed
more quickly and with less effort than ones that require controlled processing (Logan,
1988)—unless we think about them.

In addition, acts that have come under automatic processing—usually because they are well
practiced and well learned—can be initiated without conscious intention;

they are triggered in a seemingly automatic manner by specific stimuli or events (e.g.,
Norman & Shallice, 1985).

Controlled processing–involve a system consisting of two parts. One, an intentional operating

process, searches for mental contents that will produce the state we desire (avoiding thoughts
of hamburgers, not spilling the coffee).

The other, an ironic monitoring process, searches for mental contents that signal our failure to
achieve the desired state.

The intentional operating process is effortful and consciously guided–it involves controlled
processing. The ironic monitoring process, in contrast, is unconscious and less demanding; it
involves automatic processing.

Automatic processing is rapid and efficient but can be relatively inflexible–precisely because
it is so automatic.
Controlled processing is slower but is more flexible and open to change. In sum, both play an
important role in our efforts to deal with information from the external world.

One final point: Automatic and controlled processing are not hard-and-fast categories, but
rather ends of a continuous dimension.

On any given task, individuals may operate in a relatively controlled or a relatively automatic
manner.

SELF AWARENESS

Self-awareness: A state of consciousness in which we focus our attention inward, upon

ourselves. According to one theory of self-awareness, control theory, when we focus our
attention on ourselves, we compare our current state (our feelings, thoughts, and
performance) to internal standards–how we would like to feel, think, and perform (carver &
scheier, 1981).

If the gap between reality and these standards is small, everything is fine. If the gap is large,
however, we have two choices:

(1) We can “shape up, "changing our thoughts or actions so that they fit more closely with
our standards and goals; or

(2) we can “ship out”–withdraw from self-awareness in some way.

Such withdrawal can range from simple distraction (we can stop thinking about ourselves and
how we are falling short of our own internal standards) to more dangerous actions, such as
drinking alcohol, engaging in binge eating, or–in the extreme–ending our own existence
through suicide (Baumeister, 1990).

Another factor that can strongly influence our tendency to focus on ourselves is our affective
state–our current mood.

Several studies suggest that we are more likely to turn our attention inward when we are in a
negative mood than when we are in a positive one (e.g., Salovey, 1992; Wood, Saltzberg, &
Goldsamt, 1990).

However, more recent findings (Green & Sedikides, 1999) indicate that the situation may be
more complex than this.
Some affective states (e.g., sadness and contentment) tend to lead us to think about ourselves
and why we are feeling as we do. Others, in contrast (e.g., being thrilled or angry) lead us to
think about other persons.

Anger, for instance, is often focused on someone who has annoyed or irritated us; when we
experience such feelings, we tend to think about this other person rather than about ourselves.

So, it’s not necessarily the case that negative moods cause us to focus on ourselves and
become self-aware; rather, this is true only when such moods are reflective in nature.

Results of recent studies by Green and Sedikides (1999) offer support, for these predictions:

These researchers found that people show one kind of self-awareness (awareness of their
own inner thoughts and feelings, known as private self-consciousness) when induced to
experience reflective moods such as sadness or contentment, but do not experience increased
self-awareness when induced to experience socially oriented moods such as being thrilled or
being angry.

Still another type of self-awareness involves the tendency to focus on our public image–how
we appear to others; this is known as public self-consciousness (Fentstein, 1987).

Large individual differences exist in the tendency to become self-aware–to enter private self-
consciousness or public self-consciousness.

Some persons are very high in these dimensions, others are very low, and most are in
between (e.g., Fentstein, 1987; Sedikides, 1992)

EFFECTS OF SELF AWARENESS – RUMINATION OR REFLECTION

People who know themselves well are less likely to go off the track psychologically. Yet,
surprisingly, research on private self-consciousness (one of the two types of self-awareness
we’ve considered) indicates that the higher people stand on this dimension, the less well-
adjusted they tend to be (Ingram, 1990). When individuals focus on themselves, they may do
so for two different motives.

First, self-awareness can be motivated by curiosity–the desire to know oneself better; this is
known as reflection. Second, self-awareness can be motivated primarily by fear–by concern
over threats, perceived shortcomings, losses, or injustices one has experienced; this is known
as rumination.

Recent evidence indicates that rumination, but not reflection, is related to distress and several
psychological problems. So thinking about ourselves can produce psychological benefits or
psychological costs, depending on the motivation behind this activity and the topics on which
we focus.

EFFECTS OF SELF AWARENESS-CHOCKING UNDER PRESSURE

Paradoxical effect in which the demands of a situation that calls for good performance—such
as a school test, sports competition, or job interview—cause an individual to perform poorly
relative to his or her capabilities. Sometimes, even skilled professional athletes such as those
shown here choke under pressure–they perform more poorly when the stakes are high than
when performance is less important. Heightened self-awareness may play a role in such
effects.

SLEEP

Sleep: A process in which important physiological changes (e.g., shifts in brain activity,
slowing of basic bodily functions) are accompanied by major shifts in consciousness. States
of Sleep: There are four distinct stages of sleep, each characterized by changes in the
electrical activity of our brains. In addition, another phase of sleep, REM sleep, is markedly
different; during REM sleep activity in our brains closely resembles, in some respects, the
activity that occurs when we are awake. Sleep is distinguished by low levels of physical
activity and reduced sensory awareness. Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple
brain areas acting in conjunction with one another. Some of these areas include the thalamus,
the hypothalamus, and the pons.
sleep serves mainly a restorative function, allowing us– and especially our brain–to rest and
recover from the wear and tear of the day’s activities.

PET scans of the brain (which reveal the level of activity in various areas) indicate that the
portions of the brain most active during the day are indeed the ones showing most delta
activity during the night.

Second, some species of marine mammals show a pattern in which the two cerebral
hemispheres take turns sleeping.

Third, vigorous physical exercise seems to increase slow-wave, “resting” sleep, but only if
such exercise raises the brain’s temperature (Horne, 1988).

A second possible function of slow-wave sleep emphasizes the relationship of sleep to

circadian rhythms.

According to this view, sleep is merely the neural mechanism that evolved to encourage
various species, including our own, to remain inactive during those times of day when they
do not usually engage in activities related with their survival.

Electroencephalogram (EEG): A record of electrical activity within the brain. EEGs play an
important role in the scientific study of sleep.

Electromyogram (EOM): A record of electrical activity in various muscles.

Electrooculogram: (EOG): A record of changes in electrical potentials in the eyes.

REM SLEEP

REM sleep typically starts within 90 minutes. of a person falling asleep, and it cycles around
every 90 minutes. During REM sleep, the body and brain go through several changes,
including: rapid movements of the eyes, fast and irregular breathing, increased heart rate (to
near waking levels), changes in body temperature, increased blood pressure. brain activity
(similar to waking levels), increased oxygen consumption by the brain sexual arousal,
twitching of the face and limbs.

Most people experience a state of temporary paralysis as the brain signals the spinal cord to
cease the movement of the arms and legs. This lack of muscle activity is known as atonia,
and it may be a protective mechanism to prevent injury that may result from “acting out” our
dreams. During REM sleep, people may experience vivid dreams due to the increase in brain
activity.

FUNCTIONS OF REM SLEEP

REM sleep is the stage in which most people vividly dream. These periods of sleep typically
start around 90 minutes after someone falls asleep and cycle every subsequent 90 minutes.
REM sleep is important to the consolidation of information and the development of
memories.

Turning to REM sleep, some findings are consistent with the view that these special phases
play a crucial role in learning—in allowing us to consolidate memories of the preceding day
or, perhaps, to eliminate unnecessary memories and other mental clutter from our brains (e.g.,
Crick & Mitchison, 1995).
(1) Animals that undergo training of some kind but are then deprived of the opportunity to
engage in REM sleep will show poorer performance than animals not deprived of such sleep;
and

(2) after intense learning, animals will show more REM sleep than at other times. Studies
offer support for both predictions.

For example, in one investigation, Block, Hennevin, and Leconte (1977) trained rats to run
through a complex maze. As training on this task continued, the rats ran faster and spent an
increasing proportion of their sleep in REM sleep. So, there does seem to be some indication
that REM sleep plays a role in learning.

STAGES OF SLEEP

How does brain activity change when you fall asleep? Changes in tiny electrical signals
(brainwaves) generated by the brain can be amplified and recorded with an
electroencephalograph (eh-lek-troen- sef-uh-lo-graf ), or EEG. When you are awake and
alert, the EEG reveals a pattern of small fast waves called beta waves.

RELAXED – ALPHA

Immediately before sleep, the pattern shifts to larger and slower waves called alpha waves.

Alpha waves also occur when you are relaxed and allow your thoughts to drift. As the eyes
close, breathing becomes slow and regular, the pulse rate slows, and body temperature drops.
Soon after, we descend into slow-wave sleep through four distinct sleep stages.

As the eyes close, breathing becomes slow and regular, the pulse rate slows, and body
temperature drops. Soon after, we descend into slow-wave sleep through four distinct sleep
stages.

Stage 1

As you enter light sleep (Stage 1 sleep), your heart rate slows even more. Breathing becomes
more irregular. The muscles of your body relax. This may trigger a reflex muscle twitch
called a hypnic (HIPnik: sleep) jerk. (This is quite normal, so have no fear about admitting to
your friends that you fell asleep with a hypnic jerk.) In Stage 1 sleep, the EEG is made up
mainly of small, irregular waves with some alpha waves. Persons awakened at this time may
or may not say they were asleep.

Stage 2

As sleep deepens, body temperature drops further. Also, the EEG begins to include sleep
spindles, which are short bursts of distinctive brainwave activity generated by the thalamus
(Fogel et al.,2007). Sleep spindles may help prevent the sleeping brain from being aroused by
external stimuli, thus marking the true boundary of sleep (Dang-Vu et al., 2010). Within 4
minutes after spindles appear, most people will say they were asleep Sleep spindles are bursts
of coherent brain activity visible on the EEG, which are most evident during stage 2 sleep.

Stage 3

In Stage 3, a new brainwave called delta begins to appear. Delta waves are very large and
slow.

They signal a move to deeper slow wave sleep and a further loss of consciousness.

Stage 4

Most people reach deep sleep (the deepest level of normal sleep) in about 1 hour. Stage 4
brainwaves are almost pure slow-wave delta, and the sleeper is in a state of oblivion. If you
make a loud noise during Stage 4, the sleeper will wake up in a state of confusion and may
not remember the noise.

REM SLEEP

The two most basic states of sleep, then, are non-REM (NREM) sleep, which occurs during
Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4, and REM sleep, with its associated dreaming (Rock, 2004). Earlier, we
noted some of the biological benefits of sleep. According to the dual process hypothesis of
sleep, REM and NREM sleep have two added purposes: They help “refresh” the brain and
store memories. According to the dual process hypothesis, we are bombarded by information
throughout the day, which causes our neural networks to become more and more active. As a
result, your brain requires more and more energy to continue functioning. Slow wave sleep
early in the night brings overall brain activation levels back down, allowing a “fresh”
approach to the next day.

Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, clearer, more detailed, more bizarre, and more
“dream-like” than thoughts and images that occur in NREM sleep (Hobson, Pace-Schott, &
Stickgold,2000). Also, brain areas associated with imagery and emotion become more active
during REM sleep. This may explain why REM dreams tend to be more vivid than NREM
dreams. REM sleep marked by rapid eye movements and a return to Stage 1 EEG patterns.
Non-REM (NREM) sleep Non–rapid eye movement sleep characteristic of Stages 2, 3, and 4.

SLEEP DISTURBANCES

Hypersomnia Excessive daytime sleepiness- This can result from depression, insomnia,
narcolepsy, sleep apnea, sleep drunkenness, periodic limb movements, drug abuse, and other
problems.

Insomnia- Difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep; also not feeling rested after
sleeping.

Narcolepsy- Sudden, irresistible, daytime sleep attacks that may last anywhere from a few
minutes to a half hour. Victims may fall asleep while standing, talking, or even driving.

Nightmare disorder- Vivid, recurrent nightmares that significantly disturb sleep.

Periodic limb movement syndrome- Muscle twitches (primarily affecting the legs) that
occur every 20 to 40 seconds and severely disturb sleep.

REM behaviour disorder- A failure of normal muscle paralysis, leading to violent actions
during REM sleep.

Restless legs syndrome- An irresistible urge to move the legs to relieve sensations of
creeping, tingling, prickling, aching, or tension.

Sleep apnea-During sleep, breathing stops for 20 seconds or more until the person wakes a
little, gulps in air, and settles back to sleep; this cycle may be repeated hundreds of times per
night.

Sleep drunkenness- A slow transition to clear consciousness after awakening; sometimes

associated with irritable or aggressive behaviour.

Sleep terror disorder- The repeated occurrence of night terrors that significantly disturb
sleep.

Sleep-wake schedule disorder- A mismatch between the sleep-wake schedule demanded by

a person’s bodily rhythm and that demanded by the environment.
Sleepwalking disorder/ Somnambulism- Repeated incidents of leaving bed and walking
about while asleep.

SIDS: Sudden infant death syndrome: sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), also known
as cot death or crib death, is the sudden unexplained death of a child of less than one year of
age.

INSOMNIA

Insomnia includes difficulty in falling sleep, frequent nighttime awakenings, waking too
early, or a combination of these problems. Insomnia can harm people’s work, health, and
relationships (Ebben & Spielman, 2009).

DREAMS

Dreams are stories and images that our minds create while we sleep. They can be
entertaining, fun, romantic, disturbing, frightening, and sometimes bizarre.

A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that usually occur
involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep.

A dream can be explained as a succession of sensations, emotions, ideas, and images that
occur involuntarily in a person’s mind during certain stages of sleep.

Psychodynamic Dream Theory

Psychodynamic theories of dreaming emphasize internal conflicts and unconscious forces
(Jones, 2007). Sigmund Freud’s landmark book, The Interpretation of Dreams, first advanced
the idea that many dreams are based on wish fulfilment—an expression of unconscious
desires. One of Freud’s key proposals was that dreams express unconscious desires and
conflicts as disguised dream symbols (images that have deeper symbolic meaning).
Understanding a dream, then, requires analysing the dream’s manifest content (obvious,
visible meaning) to uncover its latent content (hidden, symbolic meaning).

The Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

Psychiatrists Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley have a radically different view of
dreaming, called the activation-synthesis hypothesis. They believe that during REM sleep,
several lower brain centers are “turned on” (activated) in more or less random fashion.
However, messages from the cells are blocked from reaching the body, so no movement
occurs. Nevertheless, the cells continue to tell higher brain areas of their activities. Struggling
to interpret this random information, the brain searches through stored memories and
manufactures (synthesizes) a dream (Hobson,2000, 2005). However, frontal areas of the
cortex, which control higher mental abilities, are mostly shut down during REM sleep. This
explains why dreams are more primitive and more bizarre than daytime thoughts (Hobson,
2000)

NEURO COGNITIVE DREAM THEORY

William Domhoff offers a third view of dreaming. According to his neurocognitive dream
theory, dreams actually have much in common with waking thoughts and emotions. Indeed,
most dreams do reflect ordinary waking concerns. Domhoff believes this is true because
many brain areas that are active when we are awake remain active during dreaming
(Domhoff, 2001, 2003). From this perspective, our dreams are a conscious expression of
REM sleep.

G. William Domhoff's neurocognitive theory of dreaming is the only theory of dreaming that
makes full use of the new neuroimaging findings on all forms of spontaneous thought and
shows how well they explain the results of rigorous quantitative studies of dream content.

Psychodynamic theory: Any theory of behaviour that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives,
and unconscious forces. Wish fulfilment Freudian belief that many dreams express
unconscious desires. Dream symbols Images in dreams that serve as visible signs of hidden
ideas, desires, impulses, emotions, relationships, and so forth.

Manifest content (of dreams): The surface, “visible” content of a dream; dream images as
they are remembered by the dreamer.

Latent content (of dreams): The hidden or symbolic meaning of a dream, as revealed by
dream interpretation and analysis.

Activation-synthesis hypothesis an attempt to explain how dream content is affected by

motor commands in the brain that occur during sleep but are not carried out.
Neurocognitive dream theory: Proposal that dreams reflect everyday waking thoughts and
emotions.

HYPNOSIS

Hypnosis An altered state of consciousness characterized by narrowed attention and

increased suggestibility. (Kallio & Revonsuo, 2003). Interest in hypnosis began in the 1700s
with Austrian doctor Franz Mesmer, whose name gave us the term mesmerize (to hypnotize).
Mesmer believed he could cure disease with magnets. Mesmer’s strange “treatments” are
related to hypnosis because they actually relied on the power of suggestion, not magnetism
(Benjafield, 2010; Waterfield, 2002). For a time, Mesmer enjoyed quite a following. In the
end, however, his theories of “animal magnetism” were rejected and he was branded a fraud.

Hidden observer: A detached part of the hypnotized person’s awareness that silently
observes events.

Basic suggestion effect: The tendency of hypnotized persons to carry out suggested actions
as if they were involuntary.

The term hypnosis was later coined by English surgeon James Braid. The Greek word
“hypnos” means “sleep,” and Braid used it to describe the hypnotic state. Today, we know
that hypnosis is not sleep. Confusion about this point remains because some hypnotists give
the suggestion, “Sleep, sleep.” However, brain activity recorded during hypnosis is different
from that observed when a person is asleep or pretending to be hypnotized (Oakley &
Halligan, 2010).

Theories of hypnosis

The best-known state theory of hypnosis was proposed by Ernest Hilgard (1904–2001), who
argued that hypnosis causes a dissociative state, or “split” in awareness. To illustrate, he
asked hypnotized subjects to plunge one hand into a painful bath of ice water. Subjects told to
feel no pain said they felt none. The same subjects were then asked if there was any part of
their mind that did feel pain. With their free hand, many wrote, “It hurts,”. Thus, one part of
the hypnotized person says there is no pain and acts as if there is none. Another part, which
Hilgard calls the hidden observer, is aware of the pain but remains in the background. The
hidden observer is a detached part of the hypnotized person’s awareness that silently observes
events.

NON-STATE THEORISTS

In contrast, nonstate theorists argue that hypnosis is not a distinct state at all. Instead, it is
merely a blend of conformity, relaxation, imagination, obedience, and role playing (Kirsch,
2005;Lynn & O’Hagen, 2009). For example, many theorists believe that all hypnosis is really
self-hypnosis (autosuggestion). From this perspective, a hypnotist merely helps another
person to follow a series of suggestions. These suggestions, in turn, alter sensations,
perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviours (Lynn & Kirsch, 2006)

Hypnotic susceptibility

Hypnotic susceptibility refers to how easily a person can become hypnotized. It is measured
by giving a series of suggestions and counting the number of times a person responds. A
typical hypnotic test is the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale. Hypnosis depends more
on the efforts and abilities of the hypnotized person than the skills of the hypnotist. But make
no mistake: People who are hypnotized are not merely faking their responses.

Hypnotic susceptibility refers to how easily a person can become hypnotized. It is measured
by giving a series of suggestions and counting the number of times a person responds.

A typical hypnotic test is the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale. In the test, various
suggestions are made, and the person’s response is noted. For instance, you might be told that
your left arm is becoming more and more rigid and that it will not bend. If you can’t bend
your arm during the next 10 seconds, you have shown susceptibility to hypnotic suggestions

STAGE HYPNOSIS

Stage hypnosis is often merely a simulation of hypnotic effects. Stage hypnotists make use of
several features of the stage setting to perform their act (Barber, 2000).

1. Waking suggestibility

2. Selection of responsive subjects

3. The hypnosis label disinhibits.

4. The hypnotist as a “director.”

5. The stage hypnotist uses tricks.

EFFECTS OF HYPNOSIS

1. Strength- Hypnosis has no more effect on physical strength than instructions that
encourage a person to make his or her best effort (Chaves, 2000).

2. Memory-There is some evidence that hypnosis can enhance memory (Wagstaff et al., 2004

3. Amnesia- A person told not to remember something heard during hypnosis may claim not
to remember.

4.Pain relief- Hypnosis can relieve pain (Hammond, 2008;Keefe, Abernethy, & Campbell,
2005). It can be especially useful when chemical painkillers are ineffective.

5. Age Regression-Given the proper suggestions, some hypnotized people appear to “regress”
to childhood

6. Sensory changes- Hypnotic suggestions concerning sensations are among the most
effective.

HYPNOSIS- FACTS AND MYTHS

MYTH: Hypnosis is like sleep.
Fact: The hypnotized person is an active participant who remains responsive and aware of his
or her surroundings.

MYTH: It is possible to be hypnotized against your will.

Fact: Anyone who actively resists attempts to induce hypnosis cannot be hypnotized.

MYTH: One of the risks of hypnosis is getting stuck in a trance.

Fact: If the hypnotist left the room, you would spontaneously come out of the trance.

MYTH: Hypnosis is a form of therapy.

Fact: Hypnosis is not a form of therapy alone. It is an altered state of consciousness in which
therapy can be conducted.

MYTH: The hypnotist can make you do things against your will.
Fact: The hypnotist gives suggestions that will not be followed if they are unacceptable to the
subject.
MYTH: The hypnotist is a powerful authoritarian figure who has total control over the
passive subject.
Fact: Hypnotic subjects are active problem solvers who maintain their values, beliefs, and
opinions while in a trance state.

OTHER MYTHS

Relaxation is an important feature of hypnosis

Hypnosis is mostly just compliance

It has something to do with a sleep like state

Responding to hypnosis is like responding to placebo

People who are hypnotized loss control of themselves

When hypnotized people can remember more ACCURATELY

Can remember more accurately

Hypnotized people do not remember what happened during the session

OTHER FACTS

Many highly motivated subjects fall to experience hypnosis

Physiological; responses indicate that hypnotized subjects generally are not lying

Hypnotized subjects are not fully awake

Placebo responsiveness and hypnotisability are not correlated

Subjects are perfectly capable of saying no or terminating hypnosis

Age regressed adults behave like adults play acting as children

MEDITATION

Meditation is a mental exercise used to alter consciousness. In general, meditation focuses

attention and interrupts the typical flow of thoughts, worries, and analysis. People who use
meditation to reduce stress often report less daily physical tension and anxiety (Andresen,
2000; Sears & Kraus, 2009). Brain scans (PET and fMRI) reveal changes in the activity of
the frontal lobes during meditation, which suggests that it may be a distinct state of
consciousness (Cahn & Polich, 2006; Farb et al., 2007). Meditation takes two major forms
concentrative & mindful meditation.

In concentrative meditation, you attend to a single focal point, such as an object, a thought, or
your own breathing. (om). In contrast, mindfulness meditation is “open,” or expansive. In
this case, you widen your attention to embrace a total, non-judgmental awareness of the
world (Lazar, 2005). (Mindful eating). An example is losing all self-consciousness while
walking in the wilderness with a quiet and receptive mind. Although it may not seem so,
mindfulness meditation is more difficult to attain than concentrative meditation. A person
who is mindful is fully present, moment by moment (Siegel, 2007).

She or he is acutely aware of every thought, emotion, or sensation, but does not judge it or
react to it. The person is fully “awake” and attuned to immediate reality.

DRUG-ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS

The most common way to alter human consciousness is to administer a psychoactive drug—a
substance capable of altering attention, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, emotion,
or perception.

In fact, most Americans regularly use consciousness altering drugs (don’t forget that caffeine,
alcohol, and nicotine are mildly psychoactive).

Psychoactive drugs alter consciousness by directly influencing brain activity (Maisto,

Galizio, & Connors, 2011; see “How Psychoactive Drugs Affect the Brain”). Many
psychoactive drugs can be placed on a scale ranging from stimulation to depression. Because
drugs that can ease pain, induce sleep, or end depression have a high potential for abuse, the
more powerful psychoactive drugs are controlled substances.

Psychoactive drug: A substance capable of altering attention, memory, judgment, time

sense, self-control, mood, or perception.
Stimulant (upper): A substance that increases activity in the body and nervous system.

Depressant (downer): A substance that decreases activity in the body and nervous system.

Because drugs that can ease pain, induce sleep, or end depression have a high potential for
abuse, the more powerful psychoactive drugs are controlled substances (Goldberg, 2010).

DRUG DEPENDENCE

Another reason why drug abuse is so common is that taking most psychoactive drugs tends to
create dependencies. Once you get started, it can be very hard to stop (Calabria, 201 0). Drug
dependence falls into two broad categories (Maisto, Galizio, & Connors) (Physical and
psychological). When a person compulsively uses a drug to maintain bodily comfort, a
physical dependence (addiction) exists. Addiction occurs most often with drugs that cause
withdrawal symptoms (physical illness that follows removal of a drug). Withdrawal from
drugs such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates can cause violent flu-like symptoms of
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, chills, sweating, and cramps. Addiction is often accompanied by a
drug tolerance, a reduced response to a drug. This leads users to take larger and larger doses
to get the desired effect.

Persons who develop a psychological dependence feel that a drug is necessary to maintain
their comfort or well-being. Usually, they intensely crave the drug and its rewarding qualities
(Winger et al., 2005). Psychological dependence can be just as powerful as physical
addiction. That’s why some psychologists define addiction as any compulsive habit pattern.

PATTERNS OF ABUSE

Short-term use based on curiosity)

Social-recreational (occasional social use for pleasure or relaxation),

Situational (use to cope with a specific problem, such as needing to stay awake),

Intensive (daily use with elements of dependence),

Compulsive (intense use and extreme dependence).

Last three are damaging no matter what drug is used

POLYDRUG ABUSE

There is one more pattern of drug abuse that bears mentioning: the abuse of more than one
drug at the same time. According to the Florida Medical Examiners Commission (2008),
polydrug abuse accounts for the “vast majority” of deaths due to drug overdose.

When mixed, the effects of different drugs are multiplied by drug interactions—one drug
enhances the effect of another—that are responsible for thousands of fatal drug overdoses
every year (Goldberg, 2010). This is true whether the mixed drugs were legally or illegally
obtained.

DRUG ABUSE

The use of illegal drugs or the use of prescription or over-the-counter drugs for purposes
other than those for which they are meant to be used, or in excessive amounts. Drug abuse
may lead to social, physical, emotional, and job-related problems. Drug abuse is the usage of
legal or illegal substances in ways you shouldn’t. You might take more than the regular dose
of pills or use someone else’s prescription. You may abuse drugs to feel good, ease stress, or
avoid reality. But usually, you’re able to change your unhealthy habits or stop using
altogether.
UPPERS—AMPHETAMINES, COCAINE, MDMA, CAFFEINE, NICOTINE

Amphetamines

Amphetamines are synthetic stimulants. Some common street names for amphetamine are
“speed,” “bennies,” “dexies,” “amp,” and “uppers.” These drugs were once widely prescribed
for weight loss or depression. Today, the main legitimate medical use of amphetamines is to
treat childhood hyperactivity and overdoses of depressant drugs. Illicit use of amphetamines
is widespread, however, especially by people seeking to stay awake and by those who
rationalize that such drugs can improve mental or physical performance (DeSantis & Hane,
2010; Iversen, 2006). Adderall and Ritalin, two popular “study drugs,” are both mixes of
amphetamines used to treat attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Methamphetamine is a more potent variation of amphetamine. It can be snorted, injected, or
eaten. Amphetamines rapidly produce a drug tolerance. Most abusers end up taking ever-
larger doses to get the desired effect. Eventually, so me users switch to injecting
methamphetamine directly into the bloodstream.

A potent smokable form of crystal methamphetamine has added to the risks of stimulant
abuse.

This drug, known as “ice” on the street, is highly addictive. Like “crack,” the smokable form
of cocaine, it produces an intense high. But also, like crack (discussed in a moment), crystal
methamphetamine leads very rapidly to compulsive abuse and severe drug dependence.
Amphetamines pose many dangers. Large doses can cause nausea, vomiting, extremely high
blood pressure, fatal heart attacks, and disabling strokes. It is important to realize that
amphetamines speed up the use of the body’s resources; they do not magically supply energy.

After an amphetamine binge, people suffer from crippling fatigue, depression, confusion,
uncontrolled irritability, and aggression. Repeated amphetamine uses damages the brain.

Amphetamines can also cause amphetamine psychosis, a loss of contact with reality. Affected
users have paranoid delusions that someone is out to get them. Acting on these delusions,
they may become violent, resulting in suicide, self-injury, or injury to others (Iversen, 2006).
Cocaine

Cocaine (“coke,” “snow,” “blow,” “snuff,” “flake”) is a powerful central nervous system
stimulant extracted from the leaves of the coca plant. Cocaine produces feelings of alertness,
euphoria, well-being, power, boundless energy, and pleasure (Julien, 2011). Cocaine differs
from Amphetamines, but these two are very much alike in their effects on the central nervous
system. The main difference is that amphetamine lasts several hours; cocaine is snorted and
quickly metabolized, so its effects last only about 15 to 30 minutes.

Cocaine increases the chemical messenger’s dopamine (DOPE-ah-meen) and noradrenaline

(norah- DREN-ah-lin). Noradrenaline arouses the brain, and dopamine produces a “rush” of
pleasure. This combination is so powerfully rewarding that cocaine users run a high risk of
becoming compulsive abusers (Ridenour et al., 2005).

Instead, the brain adapts to cocaine abuse in ways that upset its chemical balance, causing
depression when cocaine is withdrawn. First, there is a jarring “crash” of mood and energy.
Within a few days, the person enters a long period of fatigue, anxiety, paranoia, boredom, and
anhedonia (an-he- DAWN-ee-ah: an inability to feel pleasure).

Before long, the urge to use cocaine becomes intense. So, although cocaine does not fit the
classic pattern of addiction, it is ripe for compulsive abuse. Even a person who gets through
withdrawal may crave cocaine months or years later

SOME SIGNS OF COCAINE ABUSE:

Compulsive use: If cocaine is available—say, at a party—you can’t say no to it.

Loss of control: Once you have had some cocaine, you will keep using it until you are
exhausted or the cocaine is gone. Disregarding consequences. You don’t care if the rent gets
paid, your job is endangered, your lover disapproves, or your health is affected; you’ll use
cocaine anyway

MDMA (“Ecstasy”)

The drug MDMA (methylene dioxy meth amphetamine, or “Ecstasy”)is also chemically
similar to amphetamine. In addition to producing a rush of energy, users say it makes them
feel closer to others and heightens sensory experiences. Ecstasy causes brain cells to release
extra amounts of serotonin as well as prolonging its effects. The physical effects of MDMA
include dilated pupils, elevated blood pressure, jaw clenching, loss of appetite, and elevated
body temperature.

MDMA can also cause severe liver damage, which can be fatal (National Institute on Drug
Abuse, 2010a). In addition, Ecstasy users are more likely to abuse alcohol and other drugs, to
neglect studying, to party excessively, and to engage in risky sex (Strote, Lee, & Wechsler,
2002). Fortunately, however, the long-term consequences are not as severe as once feared.

Caffeine

Caffeine is the most frequently used psychoactive drug in North America. Many people have
a hard time starting a day (or writing another paragraph) without a cup since caffeine
suppresses drowsiness and increases alertness (Wesensten et al., 2002), especially when
combined with sugar (Adan & Serra-Grabulosa, 2010). Physically, caffeine causes sweating,
talkativeness, tinnitus (ringing in the ears), and hand tremors (Nehlig, 2004). Overuse of
caffeine may result in an unhealthy dependence known as caffeinism. Insomnia, irritability,
loss of appetite, chills, racing heart, and elevated body temperature are all signs of caffeinism.
Many people with these symptoms drink 15 or 20 cups of coffee a day. However, even at
lower dosages, caffeine can intensify anxiety and other psychological problems

Nicotine

Nicotine is a natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco. Next to caffeine and alcohol, it is the
most widely used psychoactive drug (Julien, 2011). Nicotine is a potent drug. It is so toxic
that it is sometimes used to kill insects! In large doses it causes stomach pain, vomiting and
diarrhea, cold sweats, dizziness, confusion, and muscle tremors. In very large doses, nicotine
may cause convulsions, respiratory failure, and death. Smoking harms nearly every organ of
the body,” leading to an increased risk of many cancers (such as lung cancer), cardiovascular
diseases (such as stroke), respiratory diseases (such as chronic bronchitis), and reproductive
disorders (such as decreased fertility).

DOWNERS—SEDATIVES, TRANQUILIZERS, AND ALCOHOL

Barbiturates
Barbiturates are sedative drugs that depress brain activity. Common barbiturates include
amobarbital, pentobarbital, secobarbital, and tuinal. At mild dosages, barbiturates have an
effect similar to alcohol intoxication. Higher dosages can cause severe mental confusion or
even hallucinations. Barbiturates are often taken in excess amounts because a first dose may
be followed by others, as the user becomes uninhibited or forgetful. Overdoses first cause a
loss of consciousness. Then they severely depress brain centers that control heartbeat and
breathing. The result is death

GHB Gamma -hydroxybutyrate

A nonepidemic of GHB (gamma-hydroxybutyrate) use has taken place in recent years,

especially at nightclubs and raves.GHB (“goop,” “scoop,” “max,” “Georgia Home Boy”) is a
central nervous system depressant that relaxes and sedates the body. Users describe its effects
as similar to those of alcohol. Mild GHB intoxication tends to produce euphoria, a desire to
socialize, and a mild loss of inhibitions. GHB’s intoxicating effects typically last 3 to 4 hours,
depending on the dosage.

At lower dosages, GHB can relieve anxiety and produce relaxation. However, as the dose
increases, its sedative effects may result in nausea, a loss of muscle control, and either sleep
or a loss of consciousness. Potentially fatal doses of GHB are only three times the amount
typically taken by users. This narrow margin of safety has led to numerous overdoses,
especially when GHB was combined with alcohol. An overdose causes coma, breathing
failure, and death. GHB also inhibits the gag reflex, so some users choke to death on their
own vomit.

Tranquilizers

A tranquilizer is a drug that lowers anxiety and reduces tension. Doctors prescribe
benzodiazepine tranquilizers to alleviate nervousness and stress. Valium is the best-known
drug in this family thers are Xanax, Halcion, and Librium. Even at normal dosages, these
drugs can cause drowsiness, shakiness, and confusion. When used at too high a dosage or for
too long, benzodiazepines are addictive (McKim, 2007). When tranquilizers are used at too
high a dosage or for too long, addiction can occur,

Alcohol

Alcohol is the common name for ethyl alcohol, the intoxicating element in fermented and
distilled liquors. Contrary to popular belief, alcohol is not a stimulant. The noisy animation at
drinking parties is due to alcohol’s effect as a depressant. Small amounts of alcohol reduce
inhibitions and produce feelings of relaxation and euphoria. Larger amounts cause greater
impairment of the brain. until the drinker loses consciousness. Alcohol, the world’s favourite
depressant, breeds our biggest drug problem

Hallucinogens—Tripping the Light Fantastic

The drug LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide or “acid”) is perhaps the best-known hallucinogen.
Even when taken in tiny amounts, LSD can produce hallucinations and psychotic-like
disturbances.

Marijuana and hashish are derived from the hemp plant Cannabis sativa. Marijuana (“pot,”
“grass,” “Ganja,” “MJ”) consists of the dried leaves and flowers of the hemp plant. Hashish is
a resinous material scraped from cannabis leaves. Marijuana’s psychological effects include a
sense of euphoria or well-being, relaxation, altered time sense, and perceptual distortions. At
high dosages, however, paranoia, hallucinations, and delusions can occur (Hart, Ksir, & Ray,
2009).