Dr. B.

C Roy Engineering College,

Durgapur
REPORT WRITING

TOPIC- “Fluid Properties”

NAME- CHINMAY JETHI

UNIVERSITY ROLL NO.- 12001322013
DEPARTMENT- CIVIL ENGINEERING
SUBJECT- INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS
SUBJECT CODE- CE(ES)401

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 1. Define fluid. Differentiate between solid and fluid.
Fluid
In physics, a fluid is a liquid, gas, or other material that may continuously move and deform
(flow) under an applied shear stress, or external force. They have zero shear modulus, or, in
simpler terms, are substances which cannot resist any shear force applied to them.
Although the term fluid generally includes both the liquid and gas phases, its definition
varies among branches of science. Definitions of solid vary as well, and depending on field,
some substances can have both fluid and solid properties. Non-Newtonian fluids like Silly
Putty appear to behave similar to a solid when a sudden force is applied. Substances with a
very high viscosity such as pitch appear to behave like a solid (see pitch drop experiment) as
well. In particle physics, the concept is extended to include fluidic matters other than liquids
or gases. A fluid in medicine or biology refers to any liquid constituent of the body (body
fluid), whereas "liquid" is not used in this sense. Sometimes liquids given for fluid
replacement, either by drinking or by injection, are also called fluids (e.g. "drink plenty of
fluids"). In hydraulics, fluid is a term which refers to liquids with certain properties, and is
broader than (hydraulic) oils.

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

• Fluid Mechanics is the branch of science that studies the dynamic properties (e.g. motion)
of fluids
• A fluid is any substance (gas or liquid) which changes shape uniformly in response to
external forces
• The motion of fluids can be characterized by a continuum description (differential eqns.)
• Fluid movement transfers mass, momentum and energy in the flow. The motion of fluids
can be described by conservation equations for these quantities: the Navier Stokes equations.

Some Characteristics of fluids

Pressure: P = force/unit area
Temperature: T = kinetic energy of molecules
Mass: M=the quantity of matter
Molecular Wt: Mw = mass/mole
Density: ρ = mass/unit volume
Specific Volume: v = 1/ρ
Dynamic viscosity: µ = mass/(length*time)
-Dynamic viscosity represents the “stickiness”

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of the fluid

Introduction to Solid Mechanics

Solid mechanics is one of the important branches of physical science concerned with the
deformation and motion of continuous solid media under applied external loadings such as
forces, displacements, and accelerations that result in inertial force in the bodies, thermal
changes, chemical interactions, electromagnetic forces, and so on. In the context of
continuum solid mechanics [1,2], the basic theory is generally built based on two
foundations: (1) the basic laws of motion describing the equilibrium of a continuum body
under external loadings and induced interior forces. They are valid for all continuum bodies;
(2) a constitutive theory describing the mechanical behaviour of materials used for the
construction of a continuum body.

Some Characteristics of Solid

1) Solid have a fixed shape and a fixed volume.
2) Solids are negligibly compressed.
3) Solids have high density.
4) Force of attraction between the particles is very strong.
5) The space between the particles of solids is negligible.

Fluid Solid
Fluids have no shape Solids have a definite shape

Fluids cannot sustain a shear force, i.e. a Solids can sustain a shear force; i.e. they
fluid is always in motion remain static
Stress is a function of the rate of strain; Stress is a function of strain, thus a solid
thus, a fluid had a `dynamic' state maintains a static or `quasi-static' state.

The static properties of a fluid cannot be The static properties of a solid can be
extended to dynamic properties. extended to dynamic properties.
When we describe the behaviour of the When we describe the behaviour of the
fluids, then it is not possible to classify and fluids, then it is not possible to classify and
note the behaviour of each and every note the behaviour of each and every
molecule molecule
Common fluids such as water, oil and air When common solids such as steel or other
satisfy the definition of a fluid-that is, they metals are acted on by a shearing stress,
will flow when acted on by a shearing they will initially deform (usually a very
stress. small deformation), but they will not
continuously deform (flows).
The fluids are not rigid at all and are A solid is characterized by structural rigidity
deformed easily. and resistance to a force applied to the
surface

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Differentiate between solid and fluid

1. Discus about dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity, units of viscosity

and Newton’s law of viscosity.
Dynamic viscosity
Absolute viscosity - coefficient of absolute viscosity - is a measure of internal resistance.
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to move one
horizontal plane with respect to another plane - at an unit velocity - when maintaining an unit
distance apart in the fluid.
The shearing stress between the layers of a non-turbulent fluid moving in straight parallel
lines can be defined for a Newtonian fluid as

Shear stress can be expressed

τ = μ dc / dy
= μ γ (1)
where
τ = shearing stress in fluid (N/m2)
μ = dynamic viscosity of fluid (N s/m2)
dc = unit velocity (m/s)
dy = unit distance between layers (m)
γ = dc / dy = shear rate (s-1 )
Equation (1) is known as the Newtons Law of Friction.
(1) can be rearranged to express Dynamic viscosity as
μ = τ dy / dc
= τ / γ (1b)
In the SI system the dynamic viscosity units are N s/m2 , Pa s or kg/(m s) - where

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 • 1 Pa s = 1 N s/m2= 1 kg/(m s) = 0.67197 lb m /(ft s) = 0.02088 slug /(ft s) = 0.02089
lb f s/ft2
Dynamic viscosity may also be expressed in the metric CGS (centimetre-gram-
second) system as g/(cm s) , dyne s/cm 2 or poise (p) where
• 1 poise = 1 dyne s/cm2= 1 g/(cm s) = 1/10 Pa s = 1/10 N s/m2
For practical use the Poise is normally too large and the unit is therefore often divided
by 100 - into the smaller unit centipoise (cP) - where
• 1 P = 100 cP
• 1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0.01 gram per cm second = 0.001 Pascal second = 1 milliPascal
second = 0.001 N s/m2
Water at 20.2 oC (68.4 o F) has the absolute viscosity of one - 1 - centipoise .

Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of - absolute (or dynamic) viscosity to density - a quantity in
which no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute
viscosity of a fluid with the fluid mass density like

ν=μ/ρ (2)

where

ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity (N s/m2)

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ρ = density (kg/m3 )

In the SI-system the theoretical unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s - or the commonly
used Stoke (St) where

• 1 St (Stokes) = 10-4 m2/s = 1 cm2/s

Stoke comes from the CGS (Centimetre Gram Second) unit system.

Since the Stoke is a large unit it is often divided by 100 into the smaller unit centiStoke
(cSt) - where

• 1 St = 100 cSt
• 1 cSt (centiStoke) = 10-6 m2/s = 1 mm2/s
• 1 m2/s = 10 6 centiStokes

The specific gravity for water at 20.2 oC (68.4 o F) is almost one, and the kinematic viscosity
for water at 20.2 oC (68.4 o F) is for practical purpose 1.0 mm2/s ( cStokes). A more exact
kinematic viscosity for water at 20.2 oC (68.4 o F) is 1.0038 mm2/s (cSt).

A conversion from absolute to kinematic viscosity in Imperial units can be expressed as

ν = 6.7197 10-4 μ / γ (2a)

where

ν = kinematic viscosity (ft2/s)

μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity (cP)

γ = specific weight (lb/ft3)

Viscosity Units
Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS, SSU )

Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS ) is an alternative unit for measuring viscosity. The efflux
time is Saybolt Universal Seconds ( SUS ) required for 60 milliliters of a petroleum product
to flow through the calibrated orifice of a Saybolt Universal viscometer - under a carefully
controlled temperature and as prescribed by test method ASTM D 88. This method has
largely been replaced by the kinematic viscosity method. Saybolt Universal Seconds is also
called the SSU number (Seconds Saybolt Universal) or SSF number (Saybolt Seconds
Furol) .

Kinematic viscosity in SSU versus dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed as

ν SSU = B μ / SG

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= B ν centiStokes (3)

where

ν SSU = kinematic viscosity (SSU)

B = 4.632 for temperature 100 o F (37.8 oC)

B = 4.664 for temperature 210 o F (98.9 oC)

μ = dynamic or absolute viscosity (cP)

SG = Specific Gravity
ν centistokes = kinematic viscosity (centistokes)

Newton’s Law of Viscosity

According to Newton’s law of viscosity

The shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity gradient. The shear stress between the
two adjacent layers of the fluid is directly proportional to the negative value of the velocity
gradient between the same two adjacent layers of the fluid.

Mathematically, it is represented as:

Where μ is the constant of proportionality known as dynamic viscosity whose unit id N.s.m-2.

Types of Fluids

There are two types of fluids based on Newton’s law of viscosity:

• Newtonian fluids
• Non-Newtonian fluids

Newtonian Fluids
The fluid whose viscosity remains constant is known as the Newtonian fluid. These fluids are
independent of the amount of shear stress applied to them with respect to time. The
relationship between the viscosity and shear stress of these fluids is linear.

Examples of Newtonian Fluids

• Water
• Alcohol

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 • Mineral oil
• Gasoline

Non-Newtonian Fluids
The fluid whose viscosity changes when shear stress is applied is known as the Non-
Newtonian fluids. These fluids are the opposite of Newtonian fluids.

Examples of Non-Newtonian Fluids

• Toothpaste
• Ketchup
• Cosmetics
• Paint
2. Explain Compressibility and Bulk Modulus.
Compressibility
Compressibility is a measure of the relative volume change of a solid or a fluid in response to
a pressure change. For a given mass of fluid, an increase in pressure, Δp > 0, will cause a
decrease in volume, ΔV < 0. On the analogy of the Young modulus (E = σ/ε) for solid
materials, the volumetric elasticity or bulk modulus of the fluid is defined as

1/EV = K is called the coefficient of compressibility of a fluid.

Water, blood, urine, and all other liquids are relatively incompressible. For example,
if p = patm, T = 20 °C, and Δp = 20 bar, then ΔV/V = 0.1%.
In most applications, the compressibility of liquids can be neglected. However, in cases
where sudden pressure variations appear, pressure waves originate. In such cases, one should
take into account the compressibility.

Bulk modulus, numerical constant that describes the elastic properties of a solid or fluid when
it is under pressure on all surfaces. The applied pressure reduces the volume of a material,
which returns to its original volume when the pressure is removed. Sometimes referred to as
the incompressibility, the bulk modulus is a measure of the ability of a substance to withstand
changes in volume when under compression on all sides. It is equal to the quotient of the
applied pressure divided by the relative deformation.

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In this case, the relative deformation, commonly called strain, is the change in volume
divided by the original volume. Thus, if the original volume Vo of a material is reduced by an
applied pressure p to a new volume Vn, the strain may be expressed as the change in volume,
Vo − Vn, divided by the original volume, or (Vo − Vn)/Vo. The bulk modulus itself, which,
by definition, is the pressure divided by the strain, may be expressed mathematically as

When the bulk modulus is constant (independent of pressure), this is a specific form
of Hooke’s law of elasticity.

Because the denominator, strain, is a ratio without dimensions, the dimensions of the bulk
modulus are those of pressure, force per unit area. In the English system the bulk modulus
may be expressed in units of pounds per square inch (usually abbreviated to psi), and in
the metric system, newtons per square metre (N/m2), or pascals.

The value of the bulk modulus for steel is about 2.3 × 107 psi, or 1.6 × 1011 pascals, three
times the value for glass. Thus, only one-third the pressure is needed to reduce a glass sphere
the same amount as a steel sphere of the same initial size. Under equal pressure, the
proportional decrease in volume of glass is three times that of steel. One may also say that
glass is three times more compressible than steel. In fact, compressibility is defined as
the reciprocal of the bulk modulus. A substance that is difficult to compress has a large bulk
modulus but a small compressibility. A substance that is easy to compress has a high
compressibility but a low bulk modulus.

4. Derive surface tension on liquid droplet, bubble and liquid jet.

To derive the surface tension on liquid droplets, we can start with the definition of surface
tension and consider the balance of forces acting on the droplet.

Surface tension, denoted by γ, is defined as the force acting per unit length along the boundary
of a surface in a liquid at rest.

Consider a liquid droplet with radius r. The force acting inward due to surface tension around
the circumference of the droplet is balanced by the pressure difference between the inside and
outside of the droplet. This can be expressed by Laplace's law:

ΔP=2γ/r

Where:

• ΔP is the pressure difference across the interface of the droplet.

• γ is the surface tension.
• r is the radius of the droplet.

The pressure inside the droplet is greater than the pressure outside, causing the droplet to be in
equilibrium.

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Now, let's integrate this pressure difference over the entire surface area of the droplet to find
the total force due to surface tension.

The surface area of a sphere is 4πr2, so the force due to surface tension is:
𝑅
𝐹 = ∫0 2𝛾/𝑟 . 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟

Where:

• R is the radius of the droplet

𝑅
• 𝐹 = 4𝜋𝛾 ∫0 𝑑𝑟
• 4𝜋𝛾[r]R0

F=4πγ(R−0)

F=4πRγ

So, the total force due to surface tension on the droplet is 4πRγ.

This force acts inward towards the center of the droplet, keeping it spherical in sha

Derivation of surface tension on hollow bubble.

Let's consider a hollow bubble with an inner radius r1 and an outer radius r2. The force due to
surface tension acts along the circumference of the bubble.
Laplace's law relates the pressure difference across the interface of the bubble to the surface
tension and the curvature of the surface:
ΔP=2γ/r
Where:
• ΔP is the pressure difference across the interface of the bubble.
• γ is the surface tension.
• r is the radius of curvature of the bubble's surface.
For a spherical bubble, the radius of curvature varies between the inner and outer surfaces. So,
we need to consider the pressure difference for both surfaces.
For the inner surface (radius of curvature r1), the pressure difference is:
ΔP1=2γ/r1
And for the outer surface (radius of curvature r2), the pressure difference is:
ΔP2=2γ/r2

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Now, let's find the total force due to surface tension acting on the bubble. The force on the inner
surface is directed outward, while the force on the outer surface is directed inward.
The surface area of each surface is given by 4πr12 for the inner surface and 4πr22 for the outer
surface.
So, the net force due to surface tension on the bubble is:
Fnet = 4πr1γ−4πr2γ
Fnet = 4πγ(r1−r2)
This force acts inward if r1>r2 (which is typically the case for a stable bubble), leading to the
contraction of the bubble's surface due to surface tension.

Derivation the surface tension on liquid jet.

Let's assume we have a liquid jet of radius r and surface tension γ. We'll also assume that the
jet is in a steady-state condition (i.e., not changing over time).
At any point along the jet, the surface tension acts tangentially to the surface of the jet, inward,
trying to minimize the surface area. This inward force is balanced by the pressure difference
between the inside and outside of the jet.
Using Laplace's law, the pressure difference across the interface of the jet is given by:
ΔP=r2γ
Where:
• ΔP is the pressure difference across the interface of the jet.
• γ is the surface tension.
• r is the radius of he jet.
This pressure difference is necessary to maintain the curvature of the jet surface.
Now, let's integrate this pressure difference over the entire surface area of the jet to find the
total force due to surface tension.
The surface area of a cylinder (the shape of the jet) is 2πr⋅ L, where L is the length of the jet.
L
The force due to surface tension is: F = ∫0 2𝛾/r. 2𝜋rdl
L
Where dl represents an infinitesimal length element along the jet.F = 4𝜋𝛾 ∫0 dl

F = 4𝜋𝛾[l]L0
F=4πγ(L−0)
F=4πLγ

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So, the total force due to surface tension on the liquid jet is 4πLγ.
This force acts inward, contributing to the stability and shape of the liquid je

CONCLUSION
Fluid properties encompass a diverse range of characteristics essential for understanding fluid
behaviour. Key properties such as density, viscosity, surface tension, and compressibility
influence fluid dynamics profoundly. Understanding these properties aids in various
applications, from designing efficient transportation systems to optimizing industrial
processes. Fluid properties serve as fundamental pillars in fluid mechanics, enabling engineers
and scientists to analyse and manipulate fluids effectively for practical purposes.

Reference
▪ DirectScience.com
▪ Studypool
▪ BIJUS
▪ Academia.edu
▪ BrainKart
▪ Wikipedia
▪ ChatGPT

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