INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

EEC-104
Signals and Systems
Ramanuja Panigrahi
Signals and Systems

• Interplay between Signals and Systems

System
y 𝑡
x 𝑡

Large number of systems to process and extract

desired info from the signals

2
Module-1

• Size of a signal,
• Classification of signals,
• Signal operations,
• Elementary signals /Signal models,
• Even and odd functions,
• Systems,
• Classification of systems,
• Properties of systems,
• System model.

3
Abstraction: Systems

Extracting from several different situations at once, what is common and what is essential to a
description of the situation.

𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 1 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 2

Mass
y 𝑡 x 𝑡
x 𝑡 y 𝑡

𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
x 𝑡 =𝛾
𝑑𝑡

4
Abstraction: Signals
Extracting from several different situations at once, what is common and what is essential to a
description of the situation.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q
Nf9nzvnd1k

5
Abstraction

• Look at different situations and create an abstraction.

• Now we can deal directly with the abstractions and keep aside the real context from
which the abstraction is derived.

Ex. Notion of a Numbers is an abstraction.

We don’t have numbers in real life but we abstract situations in real life by associating
numbers with them

6
Definitions

• Let us complete the process of abstraction by making certain formal definitions.

What is a Signal?
• It’s a physical quantity that conveys information about a phenomenon.
• Typically exhibits variation in space or time.

𝑋(𝑡) = 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜋 ∗ 𝑡)

Dependent variable “X”

Independent variable “t”

7
What is a Signal?

• Its “reasonable” function of an independent variable.

Many to-one function

• The major difference between a function and a signal is the physical relevance.

• Mapping from independent variable to dependent variable

Dependent variable “X” ∈ set of complex numbers

Independent variable “t” ∈ set of real numbers

8
What is a Signal?
What about a Video?
𝑋(𝑡)=2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜋∗𝑡)

9
Classification of Signals
Continuous-time and Discrete-time signals
Continuous time signals are defined for all time events • Discrete-time signals are defined only at discrete time
in an interval instants. However, the amplitude can have any value in the
defined range.
𝑋(𝑡) = 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜋 ∗ 𝑡) • Can be identified as a sequence of numbers.
𝑋 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3,4, … .
𝑋 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥0

Example:

10
Representation of Discrete-time signals

Sequence Representation

Functional Representation

• The arrow indicates X[0]. Values to the left are x[-1], x[-2],
and so on. Values to the right are x[1],x[2] ,…
• If no arrow is marked then, the first value corresponds to x[0]

Graphical Representation

11
Examples
9

𝑛 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 4 4
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 = {9, 4, 1, 0, 1, 4, 9}
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 1
0
𝑥 −2 𝑥 −1
𝑥0 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑛

4
𝑛 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0 𝑥 𝑛 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … . } 3
𝑥𝑛 = 2
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 1

𝑥0 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑛

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Discrete-time signals
• Painting and a photo

• Two ways to get a discrete-time signal

1. Discrete by Occurrence
2. Obtained by sampling

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Example

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• The sum of two discrete-time sequences is obtained by adding the corresponding elements of sequences, i.e.,
{𝐶 } = {𝑎 } + {𝑏 } → 𝐶 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
• The product of two discrete-time sequences is obtained by multiplying the corresponding elements of the
sequences, i.e.,
{𝐶 } = {𝑎 } × {𝑏 } → 𝐶 = 𝑎 𝑏

• The product of a sequence and a constant k is obtained by multiplying each element of the sequence by that
constant, i.e.,
{𝐶 } = 𝐾{𝑎 } → 𝐶 = 𝐾𝑎

Example: 𝑥 𝑛 = {−𝜋, 2.5, 3.5, } and 𝑥 𝑛 = {2.2, 7, 𝜋, 4}. Determine = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 𝑛

7 6.5
2.2 3.5

𝑥 −2 𝑥 −1 𝑥 0 𝑥1 𝑥2
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 Analog and Digital Signal
• A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a continuous
range is an analog signal.
• This means that an analog signal amplitude can take on an
infinite number of values.

• A digital signal, on the other hand, is a special case of

discrete time signal whose amplitude can take on
only a finite number of values.
• Amplitude is quantized.

• Signals associated with a digital computer are digital because they take on only
two values (binary signals).
• A digital signal whose amplitudes can take on M values is an M-ary signal of
which binary (M = 2) is a special case.
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Real and Complex Signals

A signal x(t) is a real signal if the value of the dependent variable is a real number, and a signal x(t) is a complex signal if the
value of the dependent variable is a complex number. A general complex signal x(t) is a function of the form

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑗𝑥 (𝑡)

where x1(t) and x2(t) are real signals and j −1.

𝑒 = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 sin(𝜔𝑡)

A similar definition also holds good for discrete-time signals.

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Deterministic and Random Signals
A signal whose physical description is known completely, in either a mathematical form or a graphical form
is a deterministic signal.

A signal whose values cannot be predicted precisely but are known only in terms of probabilistic description
is a random signal. Example: outcome of throwing a dice
In this course, we shall exclusively deal with deterministic signals.

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Causal, Non- causal, Anti- causal signals
• A signal that does not start before t = 0 is a causal signal. In other words, x(t) is a causal signal if
• 𝑥 𝑡 = 0; 𝑡 < 0
• A signal that starts before t = 0 is a noncausal signal.
• A signal that is zero for all t ≥ 0 is called an anti-causal signal.

• Observe that an everlasting signal is always noncausal, but a noncausal signal is not necessarily everlasting.

19
Even and Odd Signals

A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an even signal if

A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an odd signal if

20
Even and Odd Signals

signal x(t) or x[n] can be expressed as a sum of two signals, one of which is even and one of which is
odd.

where

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Modification For Complex Signals
While a complex signal can be decomposed into even and odd components, it is more common to decompose
complex signals using conjugate symmetries.

A complex signal x(t) is said to be conjugate-symmetric if x(t) = x∗(−t). A conjugate-symmetric signal is even in
the real part and odd in the imaginary part. Thus, a real conjugate-symmetric signal is an even signal.
𝑥 𝑡 =𝐴 𝑡 +𝑗𝐵 𝑡
𝑥 ∗ −𝑡 = 𝐴 −𝑡 − 𝑗 𝐵 −𝑡
= 𝐴 −𝑡 + 𝑗 −𝐵 −𝑡
As x(t) = x∗(−t) we get; A(t)=A(-t) and B(t)= -B(-t). Therefore, the complex signal is even in the real part and odd
in the imaginary part.

• A signal is conjugate-antisymmetric if x(t) = −x∗(−t). A conjugate-antisymmetric signal is odd in the real part
and even in the imaginary part. A real conjugate-antisymmetric signal is an odd signal.

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Modification For Complex Signals

Any signal x(t) can be decomposed into a conjugate-symmetric portion xcs(t) plus a conjugate-antisymmetric
portion xca(t).

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Transformations of the Independent Variable

A central concept in signal and system analysis is that of the

transformation of a signal.

For example, in an aircraft control system, signals corresponding to the actions of the pilot are
transformed by electrical and mechanical systems into changes in aircraft thrust or the positions of
aircraft control surfaces such as the rudder or ailerons, which in turn are transformed through the
dynamics and kinematics of the vehicle into changes in aircraft velocity and heading.

Three useful signal operations: shifting, scaling, and inversion.

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Amplitude Transformations

X(t) Amplitude inversion Y(t)=- X(t)

T
Y(t)=-X(t)
2

-2

X(t)
Y(t)=X(t) +1
3
2 Amplitude Shifting
Y(t)=X(t) +1
1

X(t) 3*X(t)
Amplitude Scaling
2 2*3=6
Y(t)=3*X(t)

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Time Inversion/ time reversal
• Consider the signal x(t) in Fig. This time reversal [the reflection of x(t) about the vertical axis] gives us the
signal φ(t).
• Observe that whatever happens in x(t) at some instant t also happens in φ(t) at the instant −t, and vice
versa.
• Therefore,
φ(t) = x(−t)

φ(t)

26
Time shift

• Consider a signal x(t) and the same signal delayed by T

seconds, denoted by φ(t).
• Whatever happens in x(t) at some instant t also happens in
φ(t) T seconds later at the instant t + T.

Therefore,
Case-1
𝜑(𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇)

To time-shift a signal by T, we replace t with t − T. Thus x(t − T)

represents x(t) time-shifted by T seconds.

Case-1: If T is positive, the shift is to the right (delay) Case-2

Case-2: If T is negative, the shift is to the left (advance)

27
Time Scaling

• The compression or expansion of a signal in time is known as

time scaling.

• Case-1: compression
• Whatever happens in x(t) at some instant t also happens to
φ(t) at the instant t/2.
• Therefore,
𝜑(𝑡/2) = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑(𝑡) = 𝑥(2𝑡)
Case-1: compression

• Case-2: Expansion
• Whatever happens in x(t) at some instant t also happens to
φ(t) at the instant 2t.
• Therefore,
𝜑(2𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡/2) Case-2: Expansion

28
Combined Operation
• Certain complex operations require simultaneous use of more than one of the operations. The most general
opera on involving all three opera ons is x(at − b), which is realized in two possible sequences of
operation:

1. Time-shift x(t) by b to obtain x(t − b). Now me-scale the shi ed signal x(t − b) by a, i.e., replace t with at;
to obtain x(at − b).

2. Time-scale x(t) by a to obtain x(at). Now time-shift x(at) by b/a [i.e., replace t with t − (b/a)] to obtain x[a(t
− b/a)] = x(at − b).

3. In either case, if a is negative, time scaling involves time reversal.

29
Example
A continuous-time signal x(t) is shown in Fig. Sketch and label each of the following signals.
(a) x(t - 2); (b) x(2t); (c) x(t/2); (d) x (-t)

30
Example
A discrete-time signal x[n] is shown in Fig.. Sketch and label each of the following signals.
(a) x[n - 2]; (b) x[2n]; (c) x[-n]; (d) x[-n +2]

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Example
Sketch and label the even and odd components of the signals shown below.

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Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
A signal x(t) is said to be periodic if for some positive constant T, if

The smallest value of T that satisfies the periodicity condition is the

fundamental period of x(t).

• Any continuous-time signal which is not periodic is called a nonperiodic (or aperiodic) signal

• An important property of a periodic signal x(t) is that x(t) can be generated by periodic extension of any segment of x(t)
of duration T (the period).

33
Properties and Observations
• By definition, a periodic signal x(t) remains unchanged when time-shifted by one period.

• For this reason, a periodic signal must start at t = −∞: if it started at some finite instant, say, t = 0, the me-
shi ed signal x(t + T) would start at t = −T and x(t + T) would not be the same as (t).

• Therefore, a periodic signal, by definition is everlasting, i.e., must start at t = −∞ and con nue forever

Note: This definition does not work for a constant signal x (t) (known as a dc signal).

For a constant signal x (t) the fundamental period is undefined since x (t) is periodic for any choice of T
(and so there is no smallest positive value).

34
Show that the complex exponential signal 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 is periodic and find its fundamental
period.

35
• The sum of two periodic signals is periodic only if the ratio of their respective periods can be expressed as
a rational number. Then the fundamental period is the least common multiple of T1.
• If the ratio T1 /T2 is an irrational number, then the signals x1 (t) and x2 (t) do not have a common period
and x(t) cannot be periodic.
36
Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic. If a signal is periodic, determine its fundamental period.

37
• Periodic discrete-time signals are defined analogously. A sequence (discrete-time signal)
x[n] is periodic with period N if there is a positive integer N for which

The fundamental period N0 of x[n] is the smallest positive integer N for which x[n] is positive. Any
sequence which is not periodic is called a nonperiodic (or aperiodic) sequence.

Note-1: a sequence obtained by uniform sampling of a periodic continuous-time signal may not be periodic.
Note-2: the sum of two continuous-time periodic signals may not be periodic
Note-3: the sum of two periodic sequences is always periodic.

38
39
Homework

Thus, x[n] is periodic if the ratio of the sampling interval and the fundamental period of x(t) ,i.e., Ts / T0 is a rational
number.
40
Conclusions

• Thus, x[n] is periodic if the ratio TS / T0 of the sampling interval and the fundamental
period of x(t) is a rational number.

• Note that the above condition is also true for sinusoidal signals 𝑥 𝑡 = cos 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜃 .

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42
Size of a Signal

• The size of any entity is a number that indicates the largeness or strength of that entity.

Generally speaking, the signal amplitude varies with time. How can a signal that exists over
a certain time interval with varying amplitude be measured by one number that will indicate
the signal size or signal strength?

Amplitude
Area under a signal x(t)

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Singal Energy

• Signal Energy is defined as

This definition simplifies for a real-valued signal x(t) to

𝐸 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The signal energy, as defined, does not indicate the actual energy (in the conventional sense) of the signal because the
signal energy depends not only on the signal but also on the load. It can, however, be interpreted as the energy
dissipated in a normalized load of a 1 ohm resistor if a voltage x(t) were to be applied across the 1 ohm resistor

The measure of “energy” is therefore indicative of the energy capability of the signal, not the actual energy. For this
reason the concepts of conservation of energy should not be applied to this “signal energy.”

44
Signal Power

• Signal energy must be finite for it to be a meaningful measure of signal size. A necessary
condi on for the energy to be finite is that the signal amplitude → 0 as |t| →∞

When the amplitude of x(t) does not → 0 as |t| → ∞, the signal energy is infinite.

A more meaningful measure of the signal size in such a case would be the time average of the energy, if it
exists. This measure is called the power of the signal.

Note that a periodic signal is a power signal if its energy content per period is finite, and then the average power of
this signal need only be calculated over a period.

45
Determine the suitable measures of the signals

46
Energy and Power Signals

47
48
Signal models: Continuous time

• Unit Step Signal

Use cas1-1: everlasting to causal

49
describe the signals with the help of unit step model.

50
Signal models: Continuous time
• Unit Impulse (aka Dirac delta function)
The Dirac delta function (or δ distribution), also known as the unit impulse, is a generalized function on
real numbers whose value is zero everywhere except at zero and whose integral over the entire real line
is equal to one. Thus it can be represented heuristically as

51
 The unit impulse, therefore, can be regarded as a rectangular pulse with a width that has become
infinitesimally small, a height that has become infinitely large, and an overall area that has been
maintained at unity.
• The unit impulse therefore can be regarded as a rectangular pulse with a width that has become
infinitesimally small, a height that has become infinitely large, and an overall area that has been
maintained at unity.

• the exact impulse function cannot be generated in practice; it can only be approached

𝛿 t
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙= lim 𝛿 t
→

52
Paul (Adrien Maurice) Dirac

• 8 August 1902 – 20 October 1984

• English mathematical and theoretical physicist who is considered to be
one of the founders of quantum mechanics.
• 1933 Nobel Prize in Physics recipient.
• shared the 1933 Nobel Prize in Physics with Erwin
Schrödinger for "the discovery of new productive
forms of atomic theory"

53
• Other pulses, such as the exponential, triangular, or Gaussian types, may also be used in impulse
approximation.

• The important feature of the unit impulse function is not its shape but the fact that its effective duration
(pulse width) approaches zero while its area remains at unity.
• For example, the exponential pulse 𝛼𝑒 𝑢 𝑡 becomes taller and narrower as α increases. In the limit as α
→ ∞, the pulse height → ∞, and its width or dura on → 0. Yet, the area under the pulse is unity regardless
of the value of α because

54
• It follows from the impulse definition that the function kδ(t) = 0 for all t ≠0, and its area is k. Thus, kδ(t) is an
impulse function whose area is k (in contrast to the unit impulse function, whose area is 1).

55
Properties of unit Impulse

• multiplication of a continuous-time function x(t) with an unit impulse located at t = 0 results in an impulse,
which is located at t = 0 and has strength x(0) [the value of x(t) at the location of the impulse]

𝒙 𝒕 𝜹 𝒕 =𝒙 𝒐 𝜹 𝒕

The use of exactly the same argument leads to the generalization of this result, stating that provided x(t) is
con nuous at t = T, x(t) mul plied by an impulse δ(t − T) (impulse located at t = T) results in an impulse
located at t = T and having strength x(T) [the value of x(t) at the location of the impulse]

𝒙 𝒕 𝜹 𝒕−𝑻 =𝒙 𝑻 𝜹 𝒕−𝑻

56
Sifting property

𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡−𝑇 =𝑥 𝑇 𝛿 𝑡−𝑇

𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡−𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡−𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡−𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡

• This result means that the area under the product of a func on (x(t)) with an impulse δ(t − T) is
equal to the value of that function at the instant at which the unit impulse is located.
• This property is very important and useful and is known as the sampling or sifting property of the
unit impulse.

𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑜 = 𝑥 𝑡

57
Properties of unit Impulse

1; 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 0 < 𝑏
𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
0; 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

𝛿 −𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡

1
𝛿 𝑎𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡
𝑎

58
59
60
Unit Impulse as a Generalized Function

• The definition of the unit impulse function given is not mathematically rigorous, which
leads to serious difficulties.
– First, the impulse function does not define a unique function.
– δ(t) is not even a true function in the ordinary sense.
• An ordinary function is specified by its values for all time t.

• The impulse function is zero everywhere except at t = 0. And at t=0 it is undefined. These
difficulties are resolved by defining the impulse as a generalized function rather than an
ordinary function.

• A generalized function is defined by its effect on other functions instead of by its value at
every instant of time.

61
Unit Impulse as a Generalized Function

• In this approach the impulse function is defined by the sampling property.

• We say nothing about what the impulse function is or what it looks like. Instead, the
impulse function is defined in terms of its effect on a test function φ(t).

• We define a unit impulse as a function for which the area under its product with a
function φ(t) is equal to the value of the function φ(t) at the instant at which the impulse
is located.

• Note:
– Recall that the sampling property is the consequence of the classical (Dirac) definition of the unit
impulse.
– In contrast, the sampling property defines the impulse function in the generalized function approach.

62
An Interesting Application

• Because the unit step function u(t) is discontinuous at t = 0, its derivative does not exist
at t = 0 in the ordinary sense. However, this derivative does exist in the generalized sense,
and
𝑑𝑢
= δ(t)
𝑑𝑡
Proof: evaluate the integral

63
Signal models: Continuous time

∫ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑜 : sampling property

• This result shows that satisfies the sampling property of δ(t).

• Therefore it is an impulse δ(t) in the generalized sense—that is,

Therefore,

64
• This result shows that the unit step function can be obtained by integrating the unit
impulse function.
• Similarly the unit ramp function 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑢(𝑡) can be obtained by integrating the unit
• step function.
• We may continue with unit parabolic function 𝑥 𝑡 = obtained by integrating the unit
ramp, and so on.
• On the other side, we have derivatives of impulse function, which can be defined as
generalized functions.
• All these functions, derived from the unit impulse function (successive derivatives and
integrals), are called singularity functions.

65
Signal models: Exponential signals
𝑥 𝑡 =𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔

• A comparison with Euler’s formula shows that est is a generalization of the function ejωt, where the
frequency variable jω is generalized to a complex variable s = σ + jω.

• For this reason, we designate the variable s as the complex frequency.

66
The following functions are either special cases of or can be expressed in terms of est

67
UNIT IMPULSE AS A GENERALIZED FUNCTION

𝑒 cos 𝜔𝑡

68
• Sinusoidal Signals

69
Complex Frequency Plane or S-plane

• The complex frequency s can be conveniently represented on a complex frequency plane

(s-plane), as depicted in Fig.

• The horizontal axis is the real axis (σ axis), and the vertical
axis is the imaginary axis (ω axis).

• The absolute value of the imaginary part of s is |ω| (the

radian frequency), which indicates the frequency of
oscillation of est; the real part σ (the neper frequency) gives
information about the rate of increase or decrease of the
amplitude of est.

70
 For signals whose complex frequencies lie on the real
axis (σ axis, where ω = 0), the frequency of oscillation is
zero. Consequently, these signals are monotonically
increasing or decreasing exponentials.

For signals whose frequencies (complex conjugate) lie on

the imaginary axis (ω axis, where σ = 0), eσt = 1.
Therefore, these signals are conventional sinusoids with
constant amplitude.
The case s = 0 (σ = ω = 0) corresponds to a constant (dc)
signal because e0t = 1.

71
• The s plane can be separated into two parts: the left half-plane (LHP) corresponding to exponentially
decaying signals and the right half-plane (RHP) corresponding to exponentially growing signals.
• The imaginary axis separates the two regions and corresponds to signals of constant amplitude.

72
Signal models: Discrete time
Unit Step Sequence

(named after
Unit Impulse Sequence: Leopold Kronecker)
The discrete-time counterpart of the continuous-time impulse
function δ(t) is δ[n], a Kronecker delta function, defined by

Unlike its continuous-time counterpart δ(t) (the Dirac delta), the Kronecker delta is a very simple
function, requiring no special esoteric knowledge of distribution theory.
73
• Describe the signal x[n] shown in Fig. by a single expression valid for all n.

74
Signal models: Discrete time

Properties of Impulse Sequence

75
Discrete-time Exponentials

• A continuous-time exponential eλt can be expressed in an alternate form as

𝑒 =𝛼 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 = 𝑒

• For example, e−0.3t = (0.7408)t because e−0.3 = 0.7408.

• In the study of continuous-time signals and systems, we prefer the form eλt rather than 𝛼 .

• In contrast, the exponential form 𝛼 is preferable in the study of discrete-time signals and
systems. (Why will discuss later)

76
• The signal eλn grows exponentially with n if Re λ > 0 (λ in the RHP), and decays
exponentially if Re λ < 0 (λ in the LHP).
• It is constant or oscillates with constant amplitude if Re λ = 0 (λ on the imaginary axis).
Clearly, the location of λ in the complex plane indicates whether the signal eλn will grow
exponentially, decay exponentially, or oscillate with constant amplitude

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• Plot 𝑒 for ϴ varying from zero to 3600

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1. Consider a signal ejΩn
2. In this case, λ = j Ω lies on the imaginary axis and, therefore, is a constant-amplitude oscillating signal.
3. This signal ejΩn can be expressed as 𝑍 , where 𝑍 = 𝑒 .
4. Because the magnitude of 𝑒 is unity, |Z| = 1.
5. Hence, when λ lies on the imaginary axis, the corresponding Z lies on a circle of unit radius, centered at
the origin (the unit circle).
6. Therefore, a signal 𝑍 oscillates with constant amplitude if Z lies on the unit circle. Thus, the imaginary
axis in the S-plane maps into the unit circle in the Z-plane.

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S-Plane and Z-plane
• Next consider the signal eλn, where λ lies in the left half of s-plane.
• This means 𝜆 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏, where a is negative (a < 0). In this case, the signal decays exponentially.
This signal can be expressed as Zn, where

𝑍=𝑒 ;𝑎 < 0

This result means that the corresponding Z lies inside the unit circle.

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• Therefore, a signal Zn decays exponentially if Z lies within the unit circle.
• Similarly, a signal Zn grows exponentially if Z lies outside the unit circle.
• To summarize, the imaginary axis in the S plane maps into the unit circle in the Z plane.
The left half-plane in the S plane maps into the inside of the unit circle and the right half
of the S plane maps into the outside of the unit circle in the Z plane, as depicted in Fig.

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Standard Form of Discrete-time exponential

𝛼>1

0 < 𝛼 < 1;

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Complex Exponential Sequence

Periodicity

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A non-periodic sinusoid

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