DEPARTMENT

OF
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

UG - B.E. COURSE
IN
Basic Electronics
Course Code : 22BEE23
II-Even Semester

CLASS NOTES – Module 1

Academic Year: 2024-25
Staff Incharges

EC Department Faculties
Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering
Shavigemalleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout,
Banashankari, Bangalore-560111, Karnataka
Tel : +91 80 26662226 26661104 Extn : 2731 Fax : +90 80 2666 0789
Web - http://www.dayanandasagar.edu Email : hod-ece@dayanandasagar.edu
( An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Approved by AICTE & ISO 9001:2008 Certified )
( Accredited by NBA & NAAC )
 DEPARTMENT
OF
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Basic Electronics

(Theory Notes)

Autonomous Course

Module 1 Syllabus
Digital Electronics 1 : Introduction to Number Systems, Binary
Number System, Decimal Number System, Octal Number
System, Hexadecimal Number System. Conversion from one
number system to another number system, 1’s and 2’s
complement method and their arithmetic.
Digital Electronics 2 : Binary logic functions, Boolean algebra,
De-Morgan’s Theorem, Logic gates, Realization of Boolean
functions using basic gates, Implementation of logic gates as
half & full adder using gates.
Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout,
Banashankari, Bangalore-560111, Karnataka
Tel : +91 80 26662226 26661104 Extn : 2731 Fax : +90 80 2666 0789
Web - http://www.dayanandasagar.edu Email :hod-ece@dayanandasagar.edu
( An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Approved by AICTE & ISO 9001:2008 Certified )
( Accredited by NBA, National Assessment & Accreditation Council (NAAC) with 'A' grade )
Basic Electronics Module 1

Digital Concepts and Number Systems

Introduction

• A continuously varying signal (voltage or current) is called an analog signal. For

example, a sinusoidal voltage is an analog signal. In an analog electronic circuit, the
output voltage changes continuously according to the input voltage variations. In other
words, the output voltage can have an infinite number of values.
• A signal (voltage or current) which can have only two discrete values is called a digital
signal. For example, a square wave is a digital signal. The semiconductors devices (e.g.
diodes, transistors etc.) can be designed for two state operation viz., saturation and cut
off. In that case, the output voltage can have only two states (i.e., values), either low or
high. An electronic circuit that is designed for two-state operation is called a digital
circuit.

The branch of electronics which deals with digital circuits is called digital electronics.
When most of us hear the term digital, we immediately think of “digital calculator” or “digital
computer”. This is attributed to the dramatic way the low-cost, powerful calculators and
computers have become accessible to an average person. Now digital circuits are being used in
many electronic products such as video games, microwave ovens and oscilloscopes. Digital
techniques have also replaced a lot of the older “analog circuits” used in consumer products such
as radios, TV sets and high-fidelity sound recording and playback equipment.

Digital and Analog: Basic Concepts

1. Analog signal. A continuously varying signal (voltage or current) is called an analog

signal. For example, an alternating voltage varying sinusoidally is an analog signal [See

Fig. 4.1(a)]. If such an analog signal is applied to the input of a transistor amplifier, the
output voltage will also vary sinusoidally. This is the analog operation i.e., the output
voltage can have an infinite number of values. Due to many-valued output, the analog
operation is less reliable.
2. Digital signal. A signal (voltage or current) that can have only two discrete values is
called a digital signal. For example, a square wave is a digital signal [See Fig. 4.1(b)]. It
is because this signal has only two values viz, +5 V and 0 V and no other value. These
values are labelled as High and Low. The High voltage is + 5 V and the Low voltage is 0
V. If proper digital signal is applied to the input of a transistor, the transistor can be

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driven between cut off and saturation. In other words, the transistor will have two-state
operations i.e., output is either low or high. Since digital operation has only two states
(i.e., ON or OFF), it is far more reliable than many-valued analog operation. It is because
with two states operation, all the signals are easily recognized as either low or high.

Fig 4.1 (a) Analog waveform (b) Digital waveform

Digital techniques and systems have the advantages of being relatively much easier to
design and having higher accuracy, programmability, noise immunity, easier storage of data and
ease of fabrication in integrated circuit form, leading to availability of more complex functions in
a smaller size. The real world, however, is analogue.
Introduction to Number System
A number system is simply a way of representing numeric values. Number systems use
symbols called numerals to represent numeric quantities. The numerals 1, 2 and 3 represent the
numeric quantities commonly known as one, two and three.

A decimal (base 10) number is constructed with 10 digits: 0 through 9. The first digit in
any numbering system is always zero. For example, a base 8 (octal) number contains 8 digits: 0
through 7; a base 2 (binary) number contains 2 digits: 0 and 1. If the base of a number exceeds
10, the additional digits use the letters of the alphabet, beginning with an A. For example, a base
12 number contains 10 digits: 0 through 9, followed by A for 10 and B for 11. The most common
numbering systems used with computers are decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal (base 16).

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Positional number Systems

In most number systems, numerals can be strung together to create larger numeric values,
and the position of each numeral in the string determines its relative value. For example, in the
number 12, numeral 1 represents the quantity ten and numeral 2 represents the quantity two. In
the number 238, numeral 2 represents the quantity two hundred, numeral 3 represents the
quantity thirty and numeral 8 represents the quantity eight (An example is the decimal number
238: This number has 2 hundred, 3 tens, and 8 units). The units position has a weight of 100, or
1; the tens position has weight of 101, or 10; and the hundreds position has a weight of 102, or
100. The exponential powers of the positions are critical for understanding numbers in other
numbering systems.

The position to the left of the radix (number base) point, called a decimal point only in
the decimal system, is always the unit’s position in any number system. For example, the
position to the left of the binary point is always 20, or 1; the position to the left of the octal point
is 80, or 1. In any case, any number raised to its zero power is always 1, or the unit’s position.

In the decimal system, positions to the right of the decimal point have negative powers.
The first digit to the right of the decimal point has a value of 10-1, or 0.1. In the binary system the
first digit to the right of the binary point has a value of 2-1, or 0.5. In general, the principles that
apply to decimal numbers also apply to numbers in any other number system.

Example 1:

Number 1 1 0. 1 0 1

Numeric value 4 + 2 + 0 + .5 + 0 + .125 = 6.625

Decimal number system

The decimal system is composed of 10 numerals or symbols. These 10 symbols are 0, 1,

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Using these symbols as digits of a number, we can express any quantity.
The decimal system is also called the base-10 system because it has 10 digits. The decimal
number 536, is also written 53610 where the 10 subscript indicates the radix or base.

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The position of each of the characters also represents its value:

(5x102) + (3x101) + (6x100) = 53610

Each position has a value determined by the radix or base and by its location with respect to a
reference, in this case the decimal point. Fractional decimal numbers also use positional notation.
The numbers to the left of the reference or decimal point have positive exponents and those to
the right have negative exponents. The mixed decimal number 536.159 would be written

(5x102) + (3x101) + (6x100) + (1x10-1) + (5x10-2) + (9x10-3) = 536.15910

Any number system can be represented by the following polynomial.

(N)r = Sn-1 x rn-1 + Sn-2 x rn-2 + ……. + S0 x r0 + S-1 x r-1 ....... + S-m x r–m Eq.(1)

Where,

r=radix or base of a number system, S=set of symbols, N= number to be represented in radix r

n=the number of digits in the integer portion of N, m= the number of digits in the fractional
portion of N, Sn-1= Most Significant Digit (MSD), S-m= Least Significant Digit (MSD).

Binary Number System

Bit is an abbreviation of the term ‘binary digit’ and is the smallest unit of information. It
is either ‘0’ or ‘1’. A byte is a string of eight bits. The byte is the basic unit of data operated
upon as a single unit in computers. A computer word is again a string of bits whose size, called
the ‘word length’ or ‘word size’, is fixed for a specified computer, although it may vary from
computer to computer. The word length may equal one byte, two bytes, and four bytes or be even
larger.

Example: Let 1011.0112, represents a binary number, find its decimal equivalent.

Integer part Fractional part

N=

N= 1x23 + 0x22 +1x21 +1x20 + 0x2-1 + 1x2-2 +1x2-3= (11.375)10

The Binary counting sequence to represent decimal numbers is shown in the table below:

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Table 4.1 Binary counting

Binary Decimal
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1 3
0 1 0 0 4
0 1 0 1 5
0 1 1 0 6
0 1 1 1 7
1 0 0 0 8
1 0 0 1 9
1 0 1 0 10
1 0 1 1 11
1 1 0 0 12
1 1 0 1 13
1 1 1 0 14
1 1 1 1 15

Octal Number systems

The octal number system has eight characters (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). Counting in octal
is similar to counting in decimal (base-10) numbers, in that each position character represents
value. When a position digit exceeds the value represented by the numerals for that base, a carry
into the next higher position is produced.

Example: write the octal number 231.258 in position notation.

Solution: N8=2x82 + 3x81 + 1x80 + 2x8-1 + 5x8-2

The decimal equivalent is determined by evaluation of each term in the polynomial:

N10=2x64 + 3x8 + 1x1 + 2x.125 + 5x.015625

= 128 + 24 + 1 + .25 + .078125

=153.32812510

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Hexadecimal numbers

Radix-16 is also called hexadecimal. The term hexadecimal comes from the combination of the
words decimal (10) and hex (6). The number system has widespread use in digital system
because it is easily converted to and from binary. Sixteen characters exist in the hexadecimal
character set (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F). Characters A through F represents
numerals, not letters of the alphabet.

Table 4.2 Decimal equivalent of hexadecimal letter characters:

Hexadecimal Decimal
A 10
B 11
C 12
D 13
E 14
F 15
Example: Consider the number A59C.3A16

Solution: N16=Ax163 + 5x162 + 9x161 + Cx160 + 3x16-1+ Ax16-2

The base base-16 numeral is multiplied by 16 raised to a power indicated by the sign and value
of its exponent. The value is multiplied by the character holding the position:

N10 = (Ax4096) + (5x256) + (9x16) + (C) + (3/16) + (A/256)

Substituting the decimal equivalent for the letter hex characters the arithmetic continues:

N10 =40,960 + 1,280 + 144 + 12 + 3/16 + 10/256

= 42,396.226562510

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Number System Conversion

Digital systems often convert from one number system to another during information
processing. Digital electronics use binary numbers, yet people function best using decimal
numbers. Transforming binary numbers used by digital systems to decimal numbers used by
people is necessary.

Table 4.3 Decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal numbers

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0 0 0 0 00 0
1 0 0 0 1 01 1
2 0 0 1 0 02 2
3 0 0 1 1 03 3
4 0 1 0 0 04 4
5 0 1 0 1 05 5
6 0 1 1 0 06 6
7 0 1 1 1 07 7
8 1 0 0 0 10 8
9 1 0 0 1 11 9
10 1 0 1 0 12 A
11 1 0 1 1 13 B
12 1 1 0 0 14 C
13 1 1 0 1 15 D
14 1 1 1 0 16 E
15 1 1 1 1 17 F

Binary numbers are used by digital electronics hardware due to circuit simplicity. Octal
(base-8) and hexadecimal (base-16) number systems are developed to facilitate human
understanding of long binary numbers. The conversion of from binary to octal and hexadecimal
and octal or hexadecimal to binary is very straightforward.

Types of Number system conversion:

1. Binary to Octal and Hexadecimal Conversion

• Binary to octal
• Binary to hexadecimal
• Octal to hexadecimal

2. Octal and Hexadecimal Conversion to Binary

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• Octal to binary
• Hexadecimal to binary
• Hexadecimal to octal

3. Decimal to Any Radix

• Decimal to binary
• Decimal to octal
• Decimal to hexadecimal

4. Any radix to Decimal

• Binary to decimal
• Octal to decimal
• Hexadecimal to decimal

Binary to Octal and Hexadecimal Conversion

Example1: convert the binary number 001001111.1101010102 to octal

Solution:

1. Partition the binary number into groups of three, starting at the radix point and going left and
right.

001, 001, 111. 110, 101, 0102

2. Each group of four corresponds to a single octal digit. Using table 4.3 find the octal number
for each group.

001, 001, 111. 110, 101, 0102=117.6528

Example2: convert the binary number 111111001010.011111112 to hexadecimal

Solution:

1. Partition the binary number into groups of four, starting at the radix point and going left and
right.

1111, 1100, 1010. 0111, 11112

2. Each group of four corresponds to a single octal digit. Using table 4.3 find the octal number
for each group.

1111, 1100, 1010. 0111, 11112 = FCA.7F16

Octal and Hexadecimal Conversion to Binary

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Example 1: Convert the octal number 735.58 to binary

Solution: Each octal digit represents three binary digits. Using table 4.3 find the three bits that
correspond to each octal digit and replace it with the binary digits.

735.58 = 111,011,101.1012

Example 2: Convert the octal number 2DE5.6A16 to binary

Solution: Each hexadecimal digit represents four binary digits. Using table 4.3 find the four bits
that correspond to each hexadecimal digit and replace it with the binary digits.

2DE5.6A16 = 0010, 1101, 1110, 0101.0110, 10102

Binary to Decimal conversion

Position in number systems conveys value information. Eq. (1) works for any radix. Exponents
indicate position value for a binary digit. If the digit is 1 then the decimal equivalent 2 x, where x
is the bit position, is added to the total; if the binary digit is 0, no value is added:

b10 210 + b9 29 + b8 28 + + b0 20 + b-1 2-1 +b-2 2-2

Bit bx can be 0 or a 1. If the bx = 1, then the value of the position is added to the total; if the bx =
0, then nothing is added. Table 4.4 lists the decimal values for some binary positions.

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Example:
10.1011 => 1 x 2-4 = 0.0625
1 x 2-3 = 0.125
1 x 2-2 = 0.0
0 x 2-1 = 0.5
0 x 20 = 0.0
0 x 21 = 2.0
=2.6875

Successive Division Radix Conversion

Radix conversion can be accomplished by positional notation, but a more succinct method is
available through the use of an algorithm called successive division. Conversion is accomplished
by repeated division of N (the number being converted) by r (the new radix). The remainder of
each division becomes the numeral in the new radix. The process is repeated until the least
significant numeral is generated.

Example1: Conversion of 2510 to binary

Solution:

Division Remainder Binary

25/2 = 12+ remainder of 1 1 (Least Significant Bit)
12/2 = 6 + remainder of 0 0
6/2 = 3 + remainder of 0 0
3/2 = 1 + remainder of 1 1
1/2 = 0 + remainder of 1 1 (Most Significant Bit)
Result 2510 = 110012

Fractional Radix conversion, Successive Multiplication

Conversion of fractional numbers from one radix to another is accomplished using a

successive multiplication algorithm. The number to be converted is multiplied by the radix of
new number, producing a product that has an integer and fractional portion. The integer part of
the result becomes a numeral in the new radix number. The fraction is again multiplied by the
radix, producing a product, and so on until the fractional portion of the product reaches 0 or until
the number is carried out to sufficient digits for the application.

Example 1: convert .7510 to binary

Solution: Integers

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Multiply .75 by 2 =1.5 1 (MSB)

Multiply .5 by 2 =1.0 1

Multiply 0 by 2 =0.0 0(LSB)

(.75)10 = (.110)2

Example 2: Convert 95.062510 to binary

Solution: The conversion is accomplished in two parts. First, convert the integer part of the
decimal number by successive division.

Division Remainder Binary

95/2 = 47+ remainder of 1 1 (Least Significant Bit) (integer)
47/2 = 23 + remainder of 1 1
23/2 = 11 + remainder of 1 1
11/2 = 5 + remainder of 1 1
5/2 = 2 + remainder of 1 1
2/2 = 1 + remainder of 0 0
1/2 = 0 + remainder of 1 1 (Most Significant Bit)
Result 9510 = 10111112

Second, convert the fraction.

Multiply .0625 by 2 =.125 0 (MSB)

Multiply .125 by 2 =.25 0

Multiply .25 by 2 =0.5 0

Multiply .5 by 2 =1.0 1

Multiply 0 by 2 =0.0 0 (LSB)

(.0625)10 = (.0001)2

Therefore the final result is,

(95.0625)10 = (1011111.0001)2

Decimal to Any Radix

The conversion of decimal numbers to any other radix applies the successive division and
successive multiplication algorithms.

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Example 1: Convert 177.62510 to Octal

Solution:

1. Convert the integer portion by successive division

Division Result Octal

177/8 = 22+ remainder of 1 1 (Least Significant Digit)
22/ 8 = 2 + remainder of 6 6

2/8 = 0 + remainder of 2 2 (Most Significant Digit)

Result 17710 = 2618

2. Convert the fractional portion by successive multiplication

8 x .625 = 5.00 5 (MSD)
Therefore the end result is,

(177.625)10 = (261.5)8

Example 2: Convert 37810 to hexadecimal

Solution:

Division Result Hexadecimal

378/16 = 23+ remainder of 10 A (LSD)
23/16 = 1 + remainder of 7 7
1/16 = 0 + remainder of 1 1 (MSD)
Result 37810 = 17A16

Any Radix to Decimal

Eq. (1) describes positional notation number systems. Conversion from any radix to decimal is
accomplished by applying equation to the radix being converted.

Example 1: Convert 2AF16 to decimal

2AF16 = 2 x (162) + 10 x (161) + 15 x (160) = 68710

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Binary Arithmetic

• Digital circuits are frequently used for arithmetic operations

• Fundamental arithmetic operations on binary numbers and digital circuits which perform
arithmetic operations will be examined.
• Binary numbers are added like decimal numbers.
• In decimal, when numbers sum more than 9 a carry results.
• In binary when numbers sum more than 1 a carry takes place.
• Addition is the basic arithmetic operation used by digital devices to performsubtraction,
multiplication, and division.
• When the addition of two numbers produces a result that exceeds the value that can be
represented by a character in the set, a carry is generated to the next higher position.
• Subtraction generates borrow when a larger number in a digit position is subtracted from
a smaller.
Subtraction is performed by complement methods they are:

1. 1’s complement
2. 2’s complement
1’s Complement method of subtraction

The 1‘s complement of a given binary no. is the new no. obtained by changing all the 1‘s
to 0, and all 0‘s to 1.
Example: 11010‘s 1‘s complement is 00101
Subtraction of smaller number from larger number method
1. Determine the 1‘s complement of the smaller no.
2. Add the first complement to the larger no.

3. Remove the carry and add it to the result. This is called end-around carry.
Example 1: Subtract 1010112 from 1110012 using the 1‘s complement method
Solution:
111001
-101011 - Take 1‘s complement of 101011 = 010100

111001
+ 010100

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Carry 1) 001101
---------+1 - end around carry

1110 Final answer

Subtraction of larger number from smaller number method

1. Determine the first complement of the larger no.

2. Add the first complement to the smaller no.
3. Answer is in the 1‘s complement form. To get the answer in true form take the 1‘s
complement and assign –ve sign to the answer.

Example 2: Subtract 1110012 from 1010112 from using the 1‘s complement method

Solution:

101011
-111001 - Take 1‘s complement of 111001 = 000110

101011
+ 000110

110001

Take 1’s complement of 11001 and add –ve sign to obtain final result
-001110 Final answer

Advantages of 1’s complement method

• The first complement subtraction can be accomplished with a binary adder. Therefore,
this method is useful in arithmetic logic circuits.
• The first complement of a no. is easily obtained by inverting each bit in the no.

2’s complement method of subtraction

Subtraction of smaller number from larger number method

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1. Determine the 2‘s complement of a smaller no.

2. Add the 2‘s complement to the larger no.
3. Discard the carry.
Subtract 1010112 from 1110012 using the 1‘s complement method
Solution :
111001
-101011 - Take 2‘s complement of101011 = 1‘s complement+1=010100+1
------------- =010101
111001
+ 010101

Carry 1) 001110 -------- discard the carry

1110 Final answer

Subtraction of larger number from smaller number method

1. Determine the 2‘s complement of a larger no.

2. Add the 2‘s complement to the smaller no.

3. When there is no carry, answer is in the 2‘s complement form. To get the answer in the
true form take the 2‘s complement and assign –ve sign to the answer.
Example 1: Subtract 1110012 from1010112 using the 1‘s complement method Solution :
101011
-111001 - Take 2‘s complement of111001 = 1‘s complement+1=000110+1
------------- =000111
101011
+ 000111

110010--------- no carry is generated, hence take 2‘s complement of the result

------------------- and attach –ve sign to it .i.e. 001101+1=001110

Therefore the answer is -1110

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Module 1

Introduction:

Boolean algebra is a mathematical system that defines a series of logical operations (AND, OR,
NOT) performed on sets of variables (a, b, c…). When stated in this form, the expression is
called a Boolean equation or switching equation.

Binary Logic Functions

• A binary variable is like a variable in regular algebra, except it can only have the values
of zero (0) or one (1). Binary variables are designated by names, symbols, letters,
numbers, or their combinations. Usually the names or symbols associated with a binary
variable are related to the original logic problem being solved.
• Three logic functions (AND, OR and NOT or complement) provide the foundation for
all digital systems analysis and design. A function is a term used in mathematics and
logic to denote a relationship between input and output variables. Each variable is
restricted to binary (0, 1) values. A tabular representation of the combinations that a
group of binary input and output variables can assume is called a truth table. The truth
in the name comes from its original background in philosophy where “true” and “false”
were assigned to logic statements. True is most often represented by a 1 and false by a 0.
The three primitive logic functions are

AND: An AND is represented by operator symbols ( ), *, . , or no space, which are the same
operator symbols used for multiplication in regular algebra, the AND function operating on
binary variables x and y is s = x AND y. if x AND y are true, the s is true.

Let x, y, and s represent binary variables, where x and y are inputs and s is an output of the logic
AND function.

A two input AND truth table is

Inputs output
x y s
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

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Symbol for AND gate:

x
s
y

OR: An OR is represented by the operator symbol +. The OR function operating on binary

variables x and y is s = x + y. if either x or y, or both, is true, then the output is true.

The expression is read as s = x OR y. A two-input truth table is

Inputs output
x y s
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

The logic symbol for OR gate is

x
s
y

NOT: A NOT is represented by the operator bar symbol, -, or an apostrophe, ‘. The NOT
operation inverts a variable: if the input variable, x, is 0, the output, x’, is 1; if x = 1 then x’ = 0.
NOT is also called a complement or invert function:

s = x’ or s = x
The expression is read as s = x NOT. The NOT truth table is

x s
0 1
1 0

The logic symbol for NOT gate is

Other commonly used logic functions are derived from the three primitives. The NAND, NOR,
EX-OR and EX-NOR are all based on combinations of AND, OR, and NOT functions.

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NAND: A NAND stands for NOT AND. An AND gate followed by a NOT circuit makes it a
NAND gate. The truth table of a NAND gate is obtained from the truth table of an AND gate by
complementing the output entries. The output of a NAND gate is logic ‘0’ when all its inputs are
a logic ‘1’. For all other input combinations, the output is logic ‘1’. NAND gate operation is
logically expressed as

Y = A.B

In general, the Boolean expression for a NAND gate with more than two inputs can be written as

Y = (A.B.C…)

Figure 4.1(a) Two-input NAND implementation using an AND gate and a NOT circuit, (b) the
circuit symbol of a two-input NAND gate and (c) the truth table of a two-input NAND gate.

NOR: A NOR stands for NOT OR. An OR gate followed by a NOT circuit makes it a NOR gate
[Fig. 4.2(a)]. The truth table of a NOR gate is obtained from the truth table of an OR gate by
complementing the output entries. The output of a NOR gate is a logic ‘1’ when all its inputs are
logic ‘0’. For all other input combinations, the output is logic ‘0’. The output of a two-input
NOR gate is logically expressed as
Y=A+B

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Figure 4.2 (a) Two-input NOR implementation using an OR gate and a NOT circuit, (b) the
circuit symbol of a two-input NOR gate and (c) the truth table of a two-input NOR gate.

In general, the Boolean expression for a NOR gate with more than two inputs can be written as

Y= (A + B + C + D…..)

EX-OR: The EXCLUSIVE-OR gate, commonly written as EX-OR gate, is a two-input, one-
output gate. Figures 4.3 (a) and (b) respectively show the logic symbol and truth table of a two-
input EX-OR gate. As can be seen from the truth table, the output of an EX-OR gate is a logic
‘1’ when the inputs are unlike and a logic ‘0’ when the inputs are like. The output of a two-input
EX-OR gate is expressed by

Y=A B=AB+AB

Figure 4.3 (a) Circuit symbol of a two-input EXCLUSIVE-OR gate, (b) the truth table of a two-
input EXCLUSIVE-OR gate.

EX-NOR: EXCLUSIVE-NOR (commonly written as EX-NOR) means NOT of EX-OR, i.e. the
logic gate that we get by complementing the output of an EX-OR gate. Figure 4.4 shows its
circuit symbol along with its truth table. The truth table of an EX-NOR gate is obtained from the
truth table of an EX-OR gate by complementing the output entries. Logically,
Y = A ʘ B = AB + A’B’

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Figure 4.4 (a) Circuit symbol of a two-input EXCLUSIVE-NOR gate and (b) the truth table of a
two-input EXCLUSIVE-NOR gate.

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Switching Algebra

• A switching algebra is a set of rules that govern the behavior of switching equations.
• Operations of AND, OR, and NOT are the basic function from which all logic design can
be proceed. For switching algebra, three operations exist:
1. ( ) or * or . or AND
2. + OR
3. – OR ‘ NOT
• Group of statements that establish procedures for a mathematical system are called
theorems. A theorem is simply the establishment or definition of a mathematical idea.
Dual of a Boolean Expression

The dual of a Boolean expression is obtained by replacing all ‘.’ operations with ‘+’ operations,
all ‘+’ operations with ‘.’ operations, all 0s with 1s and all 1s with 0s and leaving all literals
unchanged. The examples below give some Boolean expressions and the corresponding dual
expressions:

A.B+A.B
Corresponding dual

(A+B).(A+B)

Given Boolean expression

(A+B).(A+B)

Corresponding dual

A.B+A.B

Duals of Boolean expressions are mainly of interest in the study of Boolean postulates and
theorems. Otherwise, there is no general relationship between the values of dual expressions.
That is, both of them may equal ‘1’ or ‘0’. One may even equal ‘1’ while the other equals ‘0’.
The fact that the dual of a given logic equation is also a valid logic equation leads to many more
useful laws of Boolean algebra. The principle of duality has been put to ample use during the
discussion on postulates and theorems of Boolean algebra.

Table illustrates Duals for binary operations

Operator Dual
AND OR

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OR AND
0 1
1 0

Postulates of Boolean algebra

The following are the important postulates of Boolean algebra:

1. 1.1 =1, 0+0 = 0.

2. 1.0 = 0.1 = 0, 0+1 = 1+0 = 1.

3. 0 + 0 = 0, 1+1 = 1.

4. 1 = 0 and 0 = 1.

Many theorems of Boolean algebra are based on these postulates, which can be used to simplify
Boolean expressions.

Theorems of Boolean algebra

• The theorems of Boolean algebra can be used to simplify many a complex Boolean
expression and also to transform the given expression into a more useful and meaningful
equivalent expression.
• The theorems are presented as pairs, with the two theorems in a given pair being the dual
of each other. These theorems can be very easily verified by the method of ‘perfect
induction’. According to this method, the validity of the expression is tested for all
possible combinations of values of the variables involved. Also, since the validity of the
theorem is based on its being true for all possible combinations of values of variables,
there is no reason why a variable cannot be replaced with its complement, or vice versa,
without disturbing the validity.
• Another important point is that, if a given expression is valid, its dual will also be valid.
Therefore, in all the discussion to follow in this section, only one of the theorems in a
given pair will be illustrated with a proof. Proof of the other being its dual is implied.
Theorem 1(Operations with ‘0’ and ‘1’)

(a) 0. X = 0 and (b) 1+X = 1

Where X is not necessarily a single variable – it could be a term or even a large expression.

Theorem 1(a) can be proved by substituting all possible values of X, that is, 0 and 1, into the
given expression and checking whether the LHS equals the RHS:

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• For X = 0, LHS = 0.X = 0.0 = 0 = RHS.
• For X = 1, LHS = 0.1 = 0 = RHS.
Thus, 0.X =0 irrespective of the value of X, and hence the proof.

Theorem 1(b) can be proved in a similar manner. In general, according to theorem 1, 0.(Boolean
expression)=0 and 1+(Boolean expression)=1. For example, 0.(A.B+B.C +C.D) = 0 and 1+

(A.B+B.C +C.D) = 1, where A, B and C are Boolean variables.

Theorem 2 (Operations with ‘0’ and ‘1’)

(a) 1.X = X and (b) 0+X = X

where X could be a variable, a term or even a large expression. According to this theorem,
ANDing a Boolean expression to ‘1’ or ORing ‘0’ to it makes no difference to the expression:

• For X = 0, LHS = 1.0 = 0 = RHS.

• For X = 1, LHS = 1.1 = 1 = RHS.
Also, 1.(Boolean expression) = Boolean expression and 0 + (Boolean expression) = Boolean
expression.

For example,

1.(A+B.C +C.D) = 0+(A+B.C +CD) = A+B.C +C.D

Theorem 3 (Idempotent or Identity Laws)

(a) X.X.X………………X = X and (b) X+X+X +··· +X = X

Theorems 3(a) and (b) are known by the name of idempotent laws, also known as identity laws.

Theorem 3(a) is a direct outcome of an AND gate operation, whereas theorem 3(b) represents an
OR gate operation when all the inputs of the gate have been tied together.

Theorem 4 (Complementation Law)

According to this theorem, in general, any Boolean expression when ANDed to its complement
yields a ‘0’ and when ORed to its complement yields a ‘1’, irrespective of the complexity of the
expression:

The example below further illustrates the application of complementation laws:

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Theorem 5 (Commutative Laws)

(a) X+Y = Y +X and (b) X.Y = Y.X

Theorem 5(a) implies that the order in which variables are added or ORed is immaterial. That is,
the result of A OR B is the same as that of B OR A. Theorem 5(b) implies that the order in which
variables are ANDed is also immaterial. The result of A AND B is same as that of B AND A.

Theorem 6 (Associative Laws)

(a) X+(Y +Z) = Y +(Z+X) = Z+(X+Y)

and

(b) X.(Y.Z) = Y.(Z.X) = Z.(X.Y)

Theorem 6(a) says that, when three variables are being ORed, it is immaterial whether we do this
by ORing the result of the first and second variables with the third variable or by ORing the first
variable with the result of ORing of the second and third variables or even by ORing the second
variable with the result of ORing of the first and third variables. According to theorem 6(b),
when three variables are being ANDed, it is immaterial whether you do this by ANDing the
result of ANDing of the first and second variables with the third variable or by ANDing the
result of ANDing of the second and third variables with the first variable or even by ANDing the
result of ANDing of the third and first variables with the second variable.

For example,

Also

Theorems 6(a) and (b) are further illustrated by the logic diagrams in Figs 4.5 (a) and (b).

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Figure 4.5 Associative laws.

Truth table illustrating associative properties

x y z xy (xy)z yz x(yz) x+y y+z (x+y)+z (y+z)+x

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Theorem 7 (Distributive Laws)

(a) X.(Y +Z) = X.Y +X.Z and (b) X+Y.Z = (X+Y).(X+Z)

Theorem 7(b) is the dual of theorem 7(a). The distribution law implies that a Boolean expression
can always be expanded term by term. Also, in the case of the expression being the sum of two
or more than two terms having a common variable, the common variable can be taken as
common as in the case of ordinary algebra. Table 4.2 gives the proof of theorem 7(a) using the
method of perfect induction. Theorem 7(b) is the dual of theorem 7(a) and therefore its proof is
implied. Theorems 7(a) and (b) are further illustrated by the logic diagrams in Figs 4.6 (a) and
(b). As an illustration, theorem 7(a) can be used to simplify as follows:

Table 4.2 Proof of distributive law.

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Figure 4.6 Distributive laws.

Theorem 8 (Absorption Law or Redundancy Law)

(a) X+X.Y = X and (b) X.(X+Y)= X

The proof of absorption law is straightforward:

X+X.Y = X.(1+Y) = X.1 = X

Theorem 8(b) is the dual of theorem 8(a) and hence stands proved.

The absorption property provides a useful tool for reducing switching algebra expressions.
Sometimes switching expressions are generated from initial problem statements that contain
redundancies. Eliminating (absorbing) these redundancies lowers the cost of the final electronic
circuit.
Theorem 9 (Involution Law)

Involution law says that the complement of the complement of an expression leaves the
expression unchanged.

Theorem 13 (DeMorgan’s Theorem)

DeMorgan’s Theorem 1: states that the complement of a product is equal to the sum of the
complements.

AB= A + B

Table 4.3 DeMorgan’s Theorem1 proof

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A B AB A+B
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
DeMorgan’s Theorem 2: states that the complement of a sum is equal to the product of the
complements.

A+B=AB

Table 4.4 DeMorgan’s Theorem2 proof

A B A +B AB
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
Table 4.5 Boolean identities and theorems

Expression Postulate or theorem

x+1=1
x.0=0
x.1=x Identity
x+0=x Identity
x.x’=0 Complement
x+x’=1 Complement
x”=x Involution or double complement
x+x=x Idempotency or Identity
xx=x Idempotency
xy=yx Commutative
x+y=y+x Commutative
x(y+z)=xy+xz Distributive
x+(yz)=(x+y)(x+z) Distributive
x(yz)=(xy)z Associative
x+(y+z)=(x+y)+z Associative
x+xy=x Absorption

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x(x+y)=x Absorption
x(x’+y)=xy Absorption
x’y’=(x+y)’ DeMorgan
(xy)’=x’+y’ DeMorgan
xy+xy’=x Adjacency

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Designing of Half adder and Full adder

Half Adder:

A half-adder is an arithmetic circuit block that can be used to add two bits. Such a circuit thus
has two inputs that represent the two bits to be added and two outputs, with one producing the
SUM output and the other producing the CARRY. Figure 4.15 shows the truth table of a half-
adder, showing all possible input combinations and the corresponding outputs. The Boolean
expressions for the SUM and CARRY outputs are given by the equations

SUM = A.B + A.B

CARRY = A.B

Figure 4.15 Truth table of a half-adder.

Figure 4.16 Logic implementation of a half-adder.

Full Adder

A full adder circuit is an arithmetic circuit block that can be used to add three bits to produce a
SUM and a CARRY output. Such a building block becomes a necessity when it comes to adding
binary numbers with a large number of bits. The full adder circuit overcomes the limitation of
the half-adder, which can be used to add two bits only. Let us recall the procedure for adding
larger binary numbers. We begin with the addition of LSBs of the two numbers. We record the
sum under the LSB column and take the carry, if any, forward to the next higher column bits. As
a result, when we add the next adjacent higher column bits, we would be required to add three
bits if there were a carry from the previous addition. We have a similar situation for the other
higher column bits also until we reach the MSB. A full adder is therefore essential for the
hardware implementation of an adder circuit capable of adding larger binary numbers. A half-
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adder can be used for addition of LSBs only.

Figure 4.18 shows the truth table of a full adder circuit showing all possible input
combinations and corresponding outputs. In order to arrive at the logic circuit for hardware
implementation of a full adder, we will firstly write the Boolean expressions for the two output
variables, that is, the SUM and CARRY outputs, in terms of input variables. The Boolean
expressions for the two output variables are given in Equation (1) for the SUM output (S) and in
Equation (2) for the CARRY output (Cout):

S = A.B.Cin +A.B.Cin +A.B.Cin +A.B.Cin Eq. (1)

Cout = A.B.Cin +A.B.Cin +A.B.Cin +A.B.Cin Eq. (2)

OR

Cout = B.Cin + A.B + A.Cin Eq. (2)

A B C S Cout

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
Fig 18. Truth Table for full adder.

Figure 4.19 shows the logic circuit diagram of the full adder. A full adder can also be seen to
comprise two half-adders and an OR gate as shown in figure 4.20. The expressions for SUM and
CARRY outputs can be rewritten as follows:

S=A B C

Similarly, the expression for CARRY output can be rewritten as follows:

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Eq. (5)

Boolean expression (4) can be implemented with a two-input EX-OR gate provided that one of
the inputs is Cin and the other input is the output of another two-input EX-OR gate with A and B
as its inputs. Similarly, Boolean expression (5) can be implemented by ORing two minterms.
One of them is the AND output of A and B. The other is also the output of an AND gate whose
inputs are Cin and the output of an EX-OR operation on A and B. The whole idea of writing the
Boolean expressions in this modified form was to demonstrate the use of a half-adder circuit in
building a full adder. Figure 4.20(a) shows logic implementation of Equations (4) and (5). Figure
4.20(b) is nothing but Fig. 4.20(a) redrawn with the portion of the circuit representing a half-
adder replaced with a block.

Figure 4.19 Logic circuit diagram of a full adder.

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Figure 4.20 Logic implementation of a full adder with half-adders.

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MODULE 1 Question Bank

1) Convert decimal number to binary, hexa, octal number system(problem any conversion can be asked)

2) Perform subtraction-using 1's and 2's complement( problem)

3) What are logic gates? What are the types of gates.

4) State and explain de-morgans theorem? (2 or 3 variables)

5)Simplify and realize Boolean equation using basic gates? (Problem equation will be given)

6) What is half adder? Explain and implement using basic gates.

7) What is full adder? Explain and implement it using gates

8) Design a full adder circuit and implement it using 2 half adder.

9) What is Boolean algebra? Write the basic identities of Boolean algebra.

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 Vision & Mission of the Institute

Vision:
❖ To impart quality technical education with a focus on Research and Innovation emphasizing
on Development of Sustainable and Inclusive Technology for the benefit of society.

Mission:
❖ To provide an environment that enhances creativity and Innovation in pursuit of Excellence.
❖ To nurture teamwork in order to transform individuals as responsible leaders and
entrepreneurs.
❖ To train the students to the changing technical scenario and make them to understand the
importance of sustainable and inclusive technologies.

Vision & Mission of the Department

Vision :
❖ To achieve continuous improvement in quality technical education for global competence with
focus on industry, societal needs, research and professional success.

Mission:
❖ Offering quality education in Electronics and Communication Engineering with effective
teaching learning process in multidisciplinary environment.
❖ Training the students to take-up projects in emerging technologies and work with team spirit.
❖ To imbibe professional ethics, development of skills and research culture for better placement
opportunities.

Program Education Objectives

After four years, the students will be
PEO1: Successful in industry, academia, or entrepreneurship as a result of a strong teaching
learning process, with keen interest in pursuing higher studies in various domains.
PEO2: Capable of leading technological and managerial projects for serving industry and society
with knowledge of Electronics and Communication Engineering.
PEO3: Competent professional capable of adapting to changing technological scenarios and
societal needs, with expertise in relevant domains.

Program Specific Outcomes

PSO1 : Design, develop and integrate electronic circuits and systems using current practices and
standards.
PSO2 : Apply knowledge of hardware and software in designing Embedded and Communication
systems.