Wind

Holmes
Structural Engineering

“A fine text for a wind engineering course… A must for any wind engineer’s library.
–Leighton Cochran, consulting engineer

Loading of
“The first book I recommend to the many customers I have who—as practicing structural engineers
not wind engineers—are in need of a comprehensive yet understandable reference text.”
–Daryl Boggs, CPP, Inc

Wind Loading
of Structures
“I highly recommend this book by Dr John Holmes for use in graduate and senior undergraduate

Structures
studies, structural engineering design against wind actions, and other professional design
practices.”
–Kenny Kwok, University of Western Sydney

Wind forces from various types of extreme wind events continue to generate ever-increasing
damage to buildings and other structures. The third edition of this well-established book fills an
important gap as an information source for practising and academic engineers alike, explaining
the principles of wind loads on structures, including the relevant aspects of meteorology, bluff-
body aerodynamics, probability and statistics, and structural dynamics.

Among the unique features of the book are its broad view of the major international codes and Third Edition
standards, and information on the extreme wind climates of a large number of countries of the
world. It is directed towards practising (particularly structural) engineers, and academics and
graduate students.

The main changes from the earlier editions are:

• Discussion of potential global warming effects on extreme events
• More discussion of tornados and tornado-generated damage
• A rational approach to gust durations for structural design
• Expanded considerations of wind-induced fatigue damage
• Consideration of Aeolian vibrations of suspended transmission lines
• Expansion of the sections on the cross-wind response of tall slender structures
• Simplified approaches to wind loads on “porous” industrial, mining,
and oil/gas structures
• A more general discussion of formats in wind codes and standards

John Holmes draws on 40 years of international experience in research, teaching, and consulting
Edition
on the wind loading of structures; has acted as an expert witness in several legal actions; and has
Third

John D. Holmes
been a radio and television commentator after severe wind events.

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 Wind
Loading of
Structures
Third Edition
 Wind
Loading of
Structures
Third Edition

John D. Holmes
JDH Consulting, Australia

A SPON PRESS BOOK

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Contents

Preface to the first edition xv

Preface to the second edition xvii
Preface to the third edition xix
Author xxi

1 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Meteorological aspects 1
1.2.1 Pressure gradient 2
1.2.2 Coriolis force 2
1.2.3 Geostrophic wind 4
1.2.4 Gradient wind 4
1.2.5 Frictional effects 5
1.3 Types of wind storms 6
1.3.1 Gales from large depressions 6
1.3.2 Tropical cyclones 7
1.3.3 Thunderstorms 10
1.3.4 Tornadoes 11
1.3.5 Downbursts 12
1.3.6 Downslope winds 13
1.4 Wind damage 13
1.4.1 Recent history of wind loss and damage 15
1.5 Wind-generated debris 17
1.5.1 Threshold of flight 17
1.5.2 Trajectories of compact objects 19
1.5.3 Trajectories of sheet and rod objects 20
1.5.4 Standardised missile-testing criteria 21
1.6 Wind storm damage and loss prediction 22
1.6.1 Hazard models 22
1.6.2 Vulnerability curves 23
1.6.3 Damage produced by flying debris 25
1.7 Hurricane-damage modelling 27
1.8 Predicted effects of climate change 28
1.9 Summary 28

v
vi Contents

1.10 The following chapters and appendices 29

References 29

2 Prediction of design wind speeds and structural safety 33

2.1 Introduction and historical background 33
2.2 Principles of extreme value analysis 34
2.2.1 The GEV Distribution 34
2.2.2 Return period 35
2.2.3 Separation by storm type 35
2.2.4 Simulation methods for tropical cyclone wind speeds 36
2.2.5 Compositing data from several stations 36
2.2.6 Correction for gust duration 36
2.2.7 Wind direction effects and wind direction multipliers 37
2.3 Extreme wind estimation by the Type I Distribution 39
2.3.1 Gumbel’s method 39
2.3.2 Gringorten’s method 40
2.3.3 Method of Moments 40
2.3.4 Example of fitting the Type I Distribution to annual maxima 41
2.3.5 General penultimate distribution 41
2.4 The peaks-over-threshold approach 45
2.4.1 Example of the use of the ‘peaks over threshold’ method 46
2.4.2 Extreme winds by direction sector 48
2.5 Parent wind distributions 48
2.6 Wind loads and structural safety 49
2.6.1 Limit states design 50
2.6.2 Probability of failure and the safety index 50
2.6.3 Nominal return period for design wind speeds 52
2.6.4 Uncertainties in wind load specifications 53
2.7 Wind load factors 54
2.8 Summary 55
References 55

3 Strong wind characteristics and turbulence 57

3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Mean wind speed profiles 58
3.2.1 The ‘Logarithmic Law’ 58
3.2.2 The ‘Power Law’ 60
3.2.3 Mean wind profiles over the ocean 60
3.2.4 Relationship between upper level and surface winds 62
3.2.5 Mean wind profiles in tropical cyclones 62
3.2.6 Wind profiles in thunderstorm winds 63
3.2.7 Wind profiles in tornadoes 63
3.3 Turbulence 64
3.3.1 Turbulence intensities 65
3.3.2 Probability density 66
 Contents vii

3.3.3 Gust wind speeds and gust factors 67

3.3.4 Wind spectra 69
3.3.5 Correlation 70
3.3.6 Co-spectrum and coherence 71
3.3.7 Turbulence in a downdraft 72
3.4 Modification of wind flow by topography 73
3.4.1 General effects of topography 74
3.4.2 Topographic multipliers 75
3.4.3 Shallow hills 75
3.4.4 Steep hills, cliffs and escarpments 76
3.4.5 Effect of topography on tropical cyclones and thunderstorm winds 77
3.5 Change of terrain 78
3.6 Weakening of a tropical cyclone after a coast crossing 79
3.7 Other sources 80
3.8 Summary 80
References 81

4 Basic bluff-body aerodynamics 83

4.1 Flow around bluff bodies 83
4.2 Pressure and force coefficients 83
4.2.1 Bernoulli’s equation 83
4.2.2 Force coefficients 85
4.2.3 Dependence of pressure and force coefficients 85
4.2.4 Reynolds Number 86
4.3 Flat plates and walls 87
4.3.1 Flat plates and walls normal to the flow 87
4.3.2 Flat plates and walls inclined to the flow 90
4.4 Rectangular prismatic shapes 92
4.4.1 Drag on two-dimensional rectangular prismatic shapes 92
4.4.2 Effect of aspect ratio 92
4.4.3 Effect of turbulence 93
4.4.4 Drag and pressures on a cube and finite-height prisms 95
4.4.5 Jensen number 97
4.5 Circular cylinders 97
4.5.1 Effects of Reynolds Number and surface roughness 97
4.5.2 Effect of aspect ratio 101
4.6 Fluctuating forces and pressures 102
4.6.1 Introduction 102
4.6.2 The Quasi-steady assumption 102
4.6.3 Body-induced pressure fluctuations and vortex-shedding forces 103
4.6.4 Fluctuating pressure and force coefficients 105
4.6.5 Correlation length 107
4.6.6 Total fluctuating forces on a slender body 108
4.7 Summary 110
References 111
viii Contents

5 Resonant dynamic response and effective static load distributions 113

5.1 Introduction 113
5.2 Principles of dynamic response 113
5.3 The random vibration or spectral approach 116
5.3.1 Along-wind response of a single-degree-of-freedom structure 118
5.3.2 Gust response factor 121
5.3.3 Peak factor 122
5.3.4 Dynamic response factor 122
5.3.5 Influence coefficient 122
5.3.6 Along-wind response of a structure with
distributed mass: modal analysis 123
5.3.7 Along-wind response of a structure with distributed mass:
separation of background and resonant components 126
5.3.8 Along-wind response to non-stationary (transient) winds 127
5.4 Effective static loading distributions 129
5.4.1 Introduction 129
5.4.2 Mean load distributions 130
5.4.3 Background-loading distributions 130
5.4.4 Load distributions for resonant response
(single resonant mode) 131
5.4.5 Combined load distribution 133
5.5 Aeroelastic forces 133
5.5.1 Aerodynamic damping 134
5.5.2 Galloping 135
5.5.3 Flutter 137
5.5.4 Lock-in 138
5.6 Fatigue under wind loading 138
5.6.1 Metallic fatigue 138
5.6.2 Narrow-band fatigue loading 139
5.6.3 Wide-band fatigue loading 141
5.6.4 Effect of varying wind speed 142
5.6.5 Total accumulated fatigue damage, and fatigue life estimation 143
5.6.6 Number of cycles above a defined stress level 144
5.7 Summary 145
References 146

6 Internal pressures 149

6.1 Introduction 149
6.2 Single windward opening 149
6.2.1 Dimensional analysis 149
6.2.2 Response time 150
6.2.3 Helmholtz resonator model 151
6.2.4 Sudden windward opening with inertial effects 153
6.2.5 Effect of roof flexibility 153
6.2.6 Helmholtz resonance frequencies 154
 Contents ix

6.2.7 Non-dimensional formulation 155

6.2.8 Reduction factors for large volumes and small opening areas 156
6.3 Multiple windward and leeward openings 157
6.3.1 Mean internal pressures 157
6.3.2 Fluctuating internal pressures 159
6.4 Nominally sealed buildings 159
6.5 Modelling of internal pressures 160
6.6 Summary 161
References 161

7 Laboratory simulation of strong winds and wind loads 163

7.1 Introduction 163
7.2 Wind-tunnel layouts 163
7.2.1 Historical 163
7.2.2 Open-circuit type 163
7.2.3 Closed-circuit type 164
7.3 Simulation of the natural wind flow 165
7.3.1 Similarity criteria and natural growth methods 165
7.3.2 Methods for short test sections 167
7.3.3 ​Simulation of the surface layer 167
7.3.4 Simulation of tropical cyclone and thunderstorm winds 168
7.3.5 Laboratory simulation of tornadoes 169
7.4 Modelling of structures for wind effects 169
7.4.1 General approach for structural response 169
7.4.2 Modelling of internal pressures 171
7.4.3 Simulation requirements for structures in tornadoes 173
7.4.4 Reynolds Numbers and roughening techniques 174
7.4.4.1 Example 174
7.5 Measurement of local pressures 174
7.5.1 Single-point measurements 175
7.5.2 Measurement of area-averaged pressures 176
7.5.3 Equivalent time averaging 178
7.6 Modelling of overall loads and response of structures 178
7.6.1 Base-pivotted model testing of tall buildings 178
7.6.2 The high-frequency base-balance technique 181
7.6.3 Sectional and taut strip models of bridges 184
7.6.4 Multi-mode aeroelastic modelling 184
7.6.5 Simulation requirements for tensioned and pneumatic structures 185
7.6.6 Aeroelastic modelling of chimneys 186
7.6.7 Distorted ‘dynamic’ models 186
7.6.8 Structural loads through pressure measurements 187
7.7 Blockage effects and corrections 187
7.8 Computational wind engineering 188
7.9 Summary 188
References 189
x Contents

8 Low-rise buildings 193

8.1 Introduction 193
8.2 Historical 193
8.2.1 Early wind-tunnel studies 193
8.2.2 Full-scale studies 195
8.3 General characteristics of wind loads on low-rise buildings 197
8.3.1 Pressure coefficients 198
8.3.2 Dependence of pressure coefficients 198
8.3.3 Flow patterns and mean pressure distributions 199
8.3.4 Fluctuating pressures 202
8.4 Buildings with pitched roofs 204
8.4.1 Cladding loads 204
8.4.2 Structural loads and equivalent static load distributions 206
8.4.3 Hipped roof buildings 208
8.4.4 Effect of surrounding buildings: shelter and interference 209
8.5 Multi-span buildings 209
8.6 Effects of parapets on low-rise buildings 211
8.7 Effect of building length 211
8.8 Internal pressures 211
8.9 A case study: optimum shaping of a low-rise building 212
8.10 Wind-tunnel databases 212
8.11 Summary 213
References 213

9 Tall buildings 217

9.1 Introduction 217
9.2 Historical 217
9.3 Flow around tall buildings 219
9.4 Cladding pressures 220
9.4.1 Pressure coefficients 220
9.4.2 Pressure distributions on buildings of rectangular
cross-section 221
9.4.3 The nature of fluctuating local pressures and
probability distributions 222
9.4.4 Statistical methods for determination of
peak local pressures 224
9.4.5 Strength characteristics of glass in relation
to wind loads 226
9.5 Overall loading and dynamic response 228
9.5.1 General response characteristics 228
9.5.2 Effect of building cross-section 229
9.5.3 Corner modifications 229
9.5.4 Prediction of cross-wind response 229
9.5.5 Database for tall building loading and response 231
9.6 Combination of along- and cross-wind response 232
 Contents xi

9.7 Torsional loading and response 233

9.8 Interference effects 235
9.8.1 Upwind building 235
9.8.2 Downwind building 235
9.8.3 Interference effects on local pressures 236
9.9 Damping 236
9.9.1 Structural damping 237
9.9.2 Visco-elastic dampers 238
9.9.3 Tuned mass dampers 239
9.9.4 Tuned liquid dampers 240
9.10 Motion perception and acceleration criteria 242
9.11 Directionality 242
9.12 Case studies 244
9.13 Summary 245
References 245

10 Large roofs and sports stadiums 251

10.1 Introduction 251
10.2 Wind flow over large roofs 251
10.3 Arched and domed roofs 253
10.3.1 Arched roofs 253
10.3.2 Domed roofs 255
10.4 Effective static load distributions 255
10.4.1 Contributions of resonant components 258
10.5 Air-supported roofs 260
10.6 Wind-tunnel methods 260
10.7 Case studies 261
10.8 Summary 263
References 263

11 Towers, chimneys and masts 265

11.1 Introduction 265
11.2 Historical 265
11.2.1 Lattice towers 265
11.2.2 Tall chimneys 266
11.3 Basic drag coefficients for tower sections 266
11.3.1 Drag coefficients for solid cross-sections 266
11.3.2 Drag coefficients for lattice towers 267
11.4 Dynamic along-wind response of tall slender towers 268
11.5 Cross-wind response of tall slender towers 269
11.5.1 Sinusoidal excitation models 270
11.5.2 Random excitation model: Vickery–Basu model 273
11.5.3 Random excitation model: Hansen model 275
11.5.4 Hybrid model of ESDU 277
11.5.5 Comparison of predictions of cross-wind response 278
xii Contents

11.6 Cooling towers 279

11.7 Guyed masts 280
11.8 Wind turbine towers 282
11.9 Case studies 282
11.10 Summary 283
References 284

12 Bridges 287
12.1 Introduction 287
12.2 Basic force coefficients for bridges 288
12.3 The nature of dynamic response of long-span bridges 289
12.3.1 Vortex-shedding excitation 290
12.3.2 Flutter instabilities and prediction of flutter speeds 291
12.3.3 Buffeting of long-span bridges 294
12.3.4 Effective static load distributions 295
12.4 Wind-tunnel techniques 297
12.5 Vibration of bridge cables 298
12.5.1 Rain–wind vibration 299
12.5.2 Excitation mechanisms 299
12.5.3 Solutions 300
12.6 Case studies 302
12.7 Summary 302
References 302

13 Transmission lines 305

13.1 Introduction 305
13.2 Structural response and calculation of wind loads 305
13.2.1 Nature of the response 305
13.2.2 Wind forces on conductors 306
13.2.3 Span reduction factor 307
13.2.4 Conductor shielding 308
13.2.5 Wind forces on lattice supporting towers 308
13.3 Risk models for transmission line systems 308
13.3.1 Tornado risk model 309
13.3.2 Downburst risk model 311
13.4 Wind-induced vibrations of transmission lines 312
13.4.1 Vortex-induced ‘aeolian’ vibration 312
13.4.2 ‘Galloping’ vibrations 313
13.4.3 Wake-induced vibrations of bundled conductors 314
13.4.4 Turbulent buffeting 314
13.5 Summary 315
References 315

14 Other structures 317

14.1 Introduction 317
 Contents xiii

14.2 Walls and hoardings 317

14.2.1 Single walls under normal and oblique winds 317
14.2.2 Walls with corners 318
14.2.3 Parallel two-dimensional walls 319
14.2.4 Elevated hoardings 322
14.2.5 Spanwise averaging 322
14.3 Free-standing roofs and canopies 323
14.3.1 Pitched-free roofs 323
14.3.2 Effect of porosity 324
14.3.3 Tensioned fabric roofs and shade sails 325
14.4 Attachments to buildings 326
14.4.1 Canopies, awnings and parapets 326
14.4.2 Solar panels on roofs 327
14.5 Antennas 328
14.5.1 Radio telescopes 328
14.5.2 Microwave dish antennas 330
14.5.3 Rotating radar antennas 333
14.5.4 Mobile telephone antennas 333
14.5.5 UHF television antennas 335
14.6 Lighting frames and luminaires 335
14.7 Industrial complexes and offshore platforms 336
14.8 Summary 337
References 337

15 Wind-loading codes and standards 339

15.1 Introduction 339
15.2 General descriptions 340
15.2.1 ISO/DIS 4354: Wind Actions on Structures 340
15.2.2 EN 1991-1-4.6 Eurocode 1. Parts 1–4 wind actions 342
15.2.3 ASCE Standard ASCE 7-10. Minimum design
loads for buildings and other structures 343
15.2.4 AIJ Recommendations for loads on buildings 344
15.2.5 Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 1170.2 344
15.3 Basic wind speeds or pressures 345
15.3.1 Averaging times 345
15.3.2 Basic wind speeds in major codes and standards 345
15.4 Modification factors on wind velocity 346
15.5 Building external pressures 346
15.6 Building internal pressures 348
15.7 Other shapes and sectional force coefficients 348
15.8 Dynamic response calculations 348
15.9 Inter-code comparisons 351
15.10 General comments and future developments 351
References 353
xiv Contents

Appendix A: Terminology 355

Appendix B: List of symbols 359
Appendix C: Probability distributions relevant to wind engineering 369
Appendix D: Extreme wind climates – A world survey 381
Appendix E: Some approximate formulas for structural natural
frequencies403
Appendix F: E
 xample of application of the LRC method for the
effective static wind loads on a simple structure407
Index 413
Preface to the first edition

The wind loading of structures has had significant research effort in many countries during
the last 30–35 years. Several thousand research papers have been published in journals and
conference proceedings in all aspects of the subject. In many countries, wind loading gov-
erns the design of many structures; yet, even there, a good knowledge and understanding of
wind loading among practising engineers is not widespread, despite the wealth of material
available. Why is this the case? There are probably several reasons. The multi-disciplinary
nature of the subject – involving probability and statistics, meteorology, the fluid mechanics
of bluff bodies and structural dynamics – undoubtedly is a deterrent to structural engineers
whose expertise is in the analysis and design of structures under nominally static loads. The
subject is usually not taught in University and College courses, except as final-year under-
graduate electives, or at post-graduate level, although exposure to wind-loading codes of
practice or standards often occurs in design courses. Like many subjects, the jargon used
by specialists and researchers in wind loading can be a deterrent to many non-specialists.
This book has been written with the practising structural engineer in mind, based on
many years of experience working with clients in this profession. I hope it may also find use
in advanced university courses. Although there are several other books on the subject, in
this one, I have attempted to fill gaps in a number of areas:

• An overview of wind loading on structures of all types is given (not just buildings).
• The method of effective static wind load distributions is covered in some detail (mainly
in Chapter 5). I have found this approach to be fluctuating and dynamic wind loading to
have good acceptance among structural engineers, raised on a diet of static load analysis.
• Internal pressures are discussed in some detail (Chapter 6).
• An attempt has been made (Appendix D) to give an overview of extreme and design
wind speeds for the whole world. This is probably a first anywhere, but it is an impor-
tant step, and one that needs to be expanded in the future, as design projects are now
routinely carried out by structural engineers in countries other than their own. The
need for such information will become more important in the future as the expansion
in world trade (including engineering services) continues.

I have tried to minimise the amount of mathematics, and concentrate on the physical
principles involved. In some chapters (e.g. Chapter 5), I have found it necessary to include a
significant amount of mathematics, but, hopefully, not at the expense of the physical prin-
ciples. These sections could be omitted in a first reading.
I have been influenced by the work of many outstanding researchers and colleagues
in this field over a period of 30 years. They are too many to list but most of their names
will be found in the reference lists attached to each chapter. However, a number of people
have assisted with the production of this book: Professor K.C.S. Kwok for contributing

xv
xvi Preface to the first edition

most of Section 15.9; Dr. John Ginger, Michael Syme, Dr. Ignatius Calderone and Dr.
Jannette Frandsen for reading parts of the manuscript; Heather Fordham, Paul Bowditch,
Maryjeanne Watt and Harry Fricke for the drafting of figures; Shoba Narayan for typing
permission letters and Elizabeth Gray for assisting with indexing. I am most grateful for
their assistance. I would also like to thank the staff of E.F. and N. Spon for their patience
in waiting for the delivery of the manuscript.
I would be most happy to receive constructive comments and suggestions from readers.

J.D. Holmes
Mentone, Australia
Preface to the second edition

More than 5 years have elapsed since the first edition of ‘Wind Loading of Structures’ was
published. At that time, the need for a good design of structures against the effects of wind
has become even more obvious, with the great increase in destructive wind storms that have
affected many parts of the world. In particular, this was emphasised by the unprecedented
two successive hurricane seasons of 2004 and 2005 on the southern coastline of the United
States.
Although the original chapter topics of the first edition of the book have remained
unchanged, there have been changes to nearly every chapter and appendix. The impor-
tance of strong winds generated by thunderstorms has become more recognised by wind-
engineering researchers in the last 5 years, and Chapters 1 and 3 have been expanded with
new material on the structure of tornadoes and downbursts. Chapter 5 also includes a new
section on the transient dynamic response to winds of this type. In Chapter 7, the labora-
tory simulation of tornadoes is discussed; although pioneer work in this area was carried
out in the 1960s and 1970s, this was not included in the first edition. Chapter 7 has also
been expanded with a new section on the simulation of internal pressures in a wind tunnel.
There are changes and additions to Chapters 8, 9, 11, 12 and 14, but none in Chapters 10
and 13. However, Chapter 15 on ‘Wind loading codes and standards’ has been completely
re-written. This has been necessary since four out of the six major codes and standards
reviewed in the first edition have been revised extensively during the last 5 years (twice in the
case of ASCE 7!). However, clearly, this chapter will become out of date again quite quickly.
Appendix D has also been greatly extended, with the basic extreme wind information
given for an additional 16 countries or regions. I would like to thank many people who have
provided me with additional information for that part of the book.
I would also like to thank many people who have provided useful comments on the first
edition of the book, the several University staff who have adopted the book for teaching
post-graduate courses, Dr. M. Matsui (Tokyo Polytechnic University) for providing Figure
11.6 and my daughter Lucy Holmes for the drafting of most of the new figures in the second
edition. Finally, thanks are due to Taylor & Francis (Spon Press) for supporting this book
into a second edition, and acceding to most of my requests.

John D. Holmes
Mentone, Australia

xvii
Preface to the third edition

Since the publication of the second edition of Wind Loading of Structures, strong windstorms
have continued to occur at frequent intervals across the world: Hurricane ‘Sandy’ (2012) on
the east coast of the United States, and Typhoon ‘Haiyan’ in the Philippines (2014) are just
two recent damaging examples. Whether there is an increase in the number and/or intensity
of these events as a result of global warming is not yet established, but it is certain that the
number of structures exposed to the loads imparted by strong winds has escalated, and there
is a strong demand by structural engineers worldwide for guidance on practical methods for
the design of wind actions, with the appropriate balance between safety and economy.
In the same period, the largest structures have become even more wind sensitive. For
example, the current world’s tallest building (Burj Khalifa) is now nearly twice the height of
the tallest building in 2007 (Taipei 101), requiring a large amount of wind engineering in
the design process.
In the last 7 years, there has also been an explosion in the number of research papers on
the topic of wind loading of structures through reports, conference presentations and jour-
nal papers, so that it is now virtually impossible for even a specialist to keep up with the
output. However, I have endeavoured to expand parts of the book with new information,
when it is of practical value to practising engineers, or if it provides new understanding of
the basic phenomena involved.
In the third edition, there have been changes and additions to every chapter and to two
appendices. In particular, Chapter 15 has been re-written in a more general way, focussing on
the general format and methodologies of the major codes and standards, with less emphasis on
particular editions of these documents, which tend to change at regular intervals. Appendix D
has been expanded to now cover 84 countries and jurisdictions. However, the general layout
of the book and the chapter headings seem to have been successful and have been retained.
Thanks are due to all the purchasers of this book – around 2000 copies for the first and
second editions, and to those who have made constructive comments – in particular Drs.
Leighton Cochran, John Ginger and Seifu Bekele. I have attempted to incorporate their
comments into the third edition. I thank my daughter Lucy Holmes for the cover design for
the third edition. I also am grateful to Taylor & Francis/CRC Press for continuing to support
the book, and their patience for my attempts to meet their deadlines.
Finally, I would like to honour the memory of two pioneers in wind engineering from
whom I learnt a lot, and who both passed away in the period since 2007 – Alan Davenport
(1932–2009) and Jack Cermak (1922–2012). Their contributions to the field, including
groundbreaking experimental and theoretical developments, were immense and will live on
after their death.

John D. Holmes
Mentone, Australia

xix
Author

Dr. John D. Holmes is the director of JDH Consulting, Mentone, Victoria, Australia. He has
a BSc (Eng.) from the University of Southampton, UK, and a PhD from Monash University,
Australia, is Fellow of Engineers Australia and a life member of the Australasian Wind
Engineering Society. He is the author of more than 400 research papers and consulting
reports. Among several awards, he received the Senior Award (A.G. Davenport Medal) from
the International Association for Wind Engineering in 2011. He has been involved in the
determination of design wind loads for many major (and minor) structures and industrial
facilities, has been actively involved in the writing of several Australian Standards and is
currently the Chair of the Wind Loads Subcommittee for Australia and New Zealand.

xxi
Chapter 1

The nature of wind storms

and wind-induced damage

1.1 INtRODUCtiON

Wind loading competes with seismic loading as the dominant environmental loading for
structures. They have produced roughly equal amounts of damage over a long time period,
although large damaging earthquakes occur less often than severe wind storms. On almost
every day of the year, a severe wind storm is happening somewhere on Earth – although
many storms are small and localised. In the tropical oceans, the most severe of all wind
events – tropical cyclones (including hurricanes and typhoons) – are generated. When these
storms make landfall on populated coastlines, their effects can be devastating.
In this introductory chapter, the meteorology of severe wind storms – gales produced
by large extra-tropical depressions – tropical cyclones and downbursts, squall lines and
tornadoes associated with thunderstorms, is explained, including the expected horizontal
variation in wind speed during these events. The history of damaging wind events, particu-
larly those of the last 30 years, is discussed, focussing on the lessons learnt from them by the
structural engineering profession. The behaviour of flying debris, a major source of damage
in severe wind storms, is outlined. Insurance aspects are discussed, including the recent
development of loss models, based on historical data on the occurrences of large severe
storms, the spatial characteristics for the wind speeds within them and assumed relation-
ships between building damage and wind speed.

1.2 MEtEOROLOGiCAL ASPECtS

Wind is air movement relative to the Earth, driven by several different forces, especially
pressure differences in the atmosphere, which are themselves produced by differential solar
heating of different parts of the Earth’s surface, and forces generated by the rotation of
the Earth. The differences in solar radiation between the poles and the Equator produce
temperature and pressure differences. These together with the effects of the Earth’s rotation
set up large-scale circulation systems in the atmosphere, with both horizontal and vertical
orientations. The result of these circulations is that the prevailing wind directions in the
tropics, and near the poles, tend to be easterly. Westerly winds dominate in the temperate
latitudes.
Local severe winds may also originate from local convective effects (thunderstorms),
or from the uplift of air masses produced by mountain ranges (downslope winds). Severe
tropical cyclones, known in some parts of the world as hurricanes and typhoons, generate
extremely strong winds over some parts of the tropical oceans and coastal regions, in lati-
tudes from 10 to about 30 degrees, both north and south of the Equator.

1
2 Wind loading of structures

(a)

(b)

Cumulus
cloud

Warm air

Cool air

Figure 1.1 The generation of turbulence in (a) boundary-layer winds and, (b) thunderstorm downdrafts.

For all types of severe storms, the wind is highly turbulent or gusty. The turbulence or
gustiness is produced by eddies or vortices within the airflow which are generated by fric-
tional interaction at ground level, or by shearing action between air moving in opposite
directions at a high altitude. These processes are illustrated in Figure 1.1 for downdrafts
generated by thunderstorms, and for larger storms such as gales or tropical cyclones that are
of the ‘boundary-layer’ type.

1.2.1 Pressure gradient
The two most important forces acting on the upper-level air in the ‘free atmosphere’, which
are above the frictional effects of the Earth’s boundary layer, are the pressure gradient force
and the Coriolis force.
It is shown in elementary texts on fluid mechanics that, at a point in a fluid where there is
a pressure gradient, ∂p/∂x, in a given direction, x, in a Cartesian coordinate system, there is
a resulting force per unit mass given by Equation 1.1.

 1  ∂p
Pressure gradient force per unit mass = −   (1.1)
 ρa  ∂ x

where
ρa is the density of air

This force acts from a high-pressure region to a low-pressure region.

1.2.2 Coriolis force
The Coriolis force is an apparent force due to the rotation of the Earth. It acts to the right
in motion direction in the Northern hemisphere, and to the left of the velocity vector, in
 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 3

Ω
P
Ω · δt

P U · δt
U
A′
B A′
A
A

Figure 1.2 The apparent (Coriolis) force due to the Earth’s rotation (Southern hemisphere).

the case of the Southern hemisphere; at the Equator, the Coriolis force is zero. Figure 1.2
gives a simple explanation of the Coriolis force by observing the motion of a particle of air
northwards from the South Pole.
Consider a parcel of air moving horizontally away from the South Pole, P, with a velocity
U, in the direction of point A (Figure 1.2, left). Since the Earth is rotating clockwise with
angular velocity, Ω, the point originally at A, will have moved to B, and a point originally
at A′, will have moved to A, as the air parcel arrives. Relative to the Earth’s surface, the
particle will have appeared to follow the path PA′, that is to have undergone a continuous
deflection to the left. At the North Pole, the deflection is to the right. These deflections
can be associated with an apparent acceleration acting at right angles to the velocity of the
­parcel – the Coriolis acceleration.
Consider a small time interval, δt, (Figure 1.2, right); AA′ is then small compared with
PA. In this case,

AA′ = Ω U (δt)2 (1.2)

Let the Coriolis acceleration be denoted by a. Since AA′ is the distance travelled under this
acceleration, then it can also be expressed by

AA′ = (1 2) a(δt)2 (1.3)

Equating the two expressions for AA′, Equations (1.2) and (1.3),

a = 2U Ω (1.4)

This gives the Coriolis acceleration, or force per unit mass, at the poles.
At other points on the Earth’s surface, the angular velocity is reduced to Ω sin λ, where λ
is the latitude. Then the Coriolis acceleration is equal to 2U Ω sin λ. The term 2 Ω sin λ is
a constant for a given latitude, and is called the ‘Coriolis parameter’, often denoted by the
symbol, f. The Coriolis acceleration is then equal to fU.
Thus, the Coriolis force is an apparent, or effective, force acting to the right of the direc-
tion of air motion in the Northern hemisphere, and to the left of the air motion in the
Southern hemisphere. At the Equator, the Coriolis force is zero, and in the Equatorial
region, within about five degrees of the Equator, it is negligible in magnitude. The latter
explains why tropical cyclones (Section 1.3.2), or other cyclonic systems, will not form in
the Equatorial regions.
4 Wind loading of structures

1.2.3 Geostrophic wind
Steady flow under equal and opposite values of the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force
is called ‘balanced geostrophic flow’. Equating the pressure gradient force per unit mass
from Equation 1.1 and the Coriolis force per unit mass, given by fU, we obtain:

 1  ∂p
U = − (1.5)
 ρa f  ∂x

This is the equation for the geostrophic wind speed, which is proportional to the magni-
tude of the pressure gradient, (∂p/∂x).
The directions of the pressure gradient and Coriolis forces, and of the flow velocity are
shown in Figure 1.3, for both Northern and Southern hemispheres. It may be seen that the
flow direction is parallel to the isobars (lines of constant pressure), in both hemispheres. In
the Northern hemisphere, the high pressure is to the right of an observer facing the flow
direction; in the Southern hemisphere, the high pressure is on the left. This results in anti-
clockwise rotation of winds around a low-pressure centre in the Northern hemisphere, and
a clockwise rotation in the Southern hemisphere. In both hemispheres, rotation about a
low-pressure centre (which usually produces strong winds) is known as a ‘cyclone’ to meteo-
rologists. Conversely, rotation about a high-pressure centre is known as an ‘anti-cyclone’.

1.2.4 Gradient wind
If the isobars have significant curvature (as e.g. near the centre of a tropical cyclone), then
the centrifugal force acting on the air particles cannot be neglected. The value of the cen-
trifugal force per unit mass is (U2 /r), where U is the resultant wind velocity, and r is the
radius of curvature of the isobars.

High pressure
p

Air flow
p+

Low pressure
Coriolis force (+ centrifugal force)
p

Pressure gradient force

Coriolis force (+ centrifugal force) Northern hemisphere

High pressure
flow
p

Air
p+

Low pressure
p

Pressure gradient force

Southern hemisphere

Figure 1.3 Balanced geostrophic flow in Northern and Southern hemispheres.

 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 5

The direction of the force is away from the centre of curvature of the isobars. If the path of
the air is around a high-pressure centre (anti-cyclone), the centrifugal force acts in the same
direction as the pressure gradient force, and in the opposite direction to the Coriolis force.
For flow around a low-pressure centre (cyclone), the centrifugal force acts in the same direc-
tion as the Coriolis force, and opposite to the pressure gradient force.
The equation of motion for a unit mass of air moving at a constant velocity, U, is then
Equation 1.6 for an anti-cyclone, and Equation 1.7 for a cyclone:

U2 1 ∂p
− fU+ =0 (1.6)
r ρa ∂r

U2 1 ∂p
+ fU− =0 (1.7)
r ρa ∂r

∂p
Equations 1.6 and 1.7 apply to both hemispheres. Note that the pressure gradient is
∂r
negative in an anti-cyclone and that f is negative in the Southern hemisphere. These equa-
tions are quadratic equations for the gradient wind speed, U. In each case, there are two
theoretical solutions, but if the pressure gradient is zero, then U must be zero, so that the
solutions become:

f r f 2r 2 r ∂p
U = − − for an anti-cyclone (1.8)
2 4 ρa ∂r

f r f 2r 2 r ∂p
U = − + + for a cyclone. (1.9)
2 4 ρa ∂ r

Examining Equation 1.8, it can be seen that a maximum value of U occurs when the term
under the square root sign is zero. This value is f r/2, which occurs when |∂p /∂r| is equal to
ρa f 2 r / 4 . Thus, in an anti-cyclone, there is an upper limit to the gradient wind; anti-cyclones
are normally associated with low wind speeds.
Now, considering Equation 1.9, it is clear that the term under the square root sign is
always positive. The wind speed in a cyclone is therefore only limited by the pressure gradi-
ent; cyclones are therefore associated with strong winds.

1.2.5 Frictional effects

As the Earth’s surface is approached, frictional forces, transmitted through shear between
layers of air in the atmospheric boundary layer, gradually play a larger role. This force acts
in a direction opposite to that of the flow direction, which, in order to achieve a vector bal-
ance, is not parallel to the isobars, but directed towards the low-pressure region. Figure 1.4
shows the new balance of forces in the boundary layer.
Thus, as the ground surface is approached from above, the wind vector gradually turns
towards the low-pressure centre, as the height reduces. This effect is known as the Ekman
6 Wind loading of structures

Friction force Angle of mean wind to isobars

High pressure

p
Air flow

p+
Low pressure
Coriolis force (+ centrifugal force)

p
Pressure gradient force

Coriolis force (+centrifugal force) Northern hemisphere

High pressure
Angle of mean wind to isobars
p

Air flow
p+

Low pressure
Friction force
p

Pressure gradient force

Southern hemisphere

Figure 1.4 Force balance in the atmospheric boundary layer.

spiral. The total angular change between gradient height and the surface is about thirty
degrees. However, the angular change over the height of most tall structures is quite small.

1.3 TYPES Of WiND StORmS

1.3.1 Gales from large depressions

In the mid-latitudes from about 40 to 60 degrees, the strongest winds are gales generated
by large and deep depressions or (extra-tropical) cyclones, of synoptic scale. They can also
be significant contributors to winds in lower latitudes. Navigators, particularly in sailing
ships, are familiar with the strong westerly winds of the ‘roaring forties’, of which those of
the North Atlantic, and at Cape Horn are perhaps the most notorious. As shown in Section
1.4.1, severe building damage has been caused by winter gales in northwest Europe.
These systems are usually large in horizontal dimension – they can extend for more than
1000 km; so, they can influence large areas of land during their passage – several countries
in the case of Europe. They may take several days to pass, although winds may not blow
continuously at their maximum intensity during this period. The winds tend to be quite
turbulent near the ground, as the flow has adjusted to the frictional effects of the Earth’s
surface over hundreds of kilometres. The direction of the winds remains quite constant over
many hours. These features are illustrated in a typical anemograph (wind speed and direc-
tion vs. time) from this type of event reproduced in Figure 1.5.
 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 7

Figure 1.5 Anemograph for a large extra-tropical depression. Upper graph is wind speed in knots; lower
graph is wind direction in degrees. Abcissa of both graphs is in hours.

1.3.2 Tropical cyclones

Tropical cyclones are intense cyclonic storms that occur over the tropical oceans, mainly in
late summer and autumn. They are driven by the latent heat of the oceans, and require a
minimum sea temperature of about 26°C to sustain them; they rapidly degenerate when they
move over land, or into cooler waters. They will not form within about five degrees of the
Equator, and do not reach full strength until they reach at least ten degrees latitude. They
are usually at full strength when they are located between 20 and 30 degrees latitude, but
can travel to higher latitudes if there are warm ocean currents to sustain them.
The strongest tropical cyclones have occurred in the Caribbean, where they are known as
hurricanes, in the South China Sea, where they are called typhoons, and off the northwest
coast of Australia. Areas of medium tropical cyclone activity are the eastern Pacific Ocean
off the coast of Mexico, the southern Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal, the South Pacific,
southern Japan, the Coral Sea (off Eastern Australia) and the southeast Atlantic Ocean.
Regions of lesser activity or weaker storms are the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Thailand and
the north coast of Australia (including the Gulf of Carpentaria).
A developed tropical cyclone has a three-dimensional vortex structure, which is sche-
matically shown in Figure 1.6. The horizontal dimensions of these storms are less than the
extra-tropical cyclones, or depressions, discussed earlier, but their effects can extend for
several hundred kilometres. The circulation flows with a radial component towards the
‘eye’, outside of which is a region of intense thermal convection with air currents spiralling
upwards. Inside the eye is a region of relative calm with slowly sinking air; the diameter of
the eye can range between 8 and 80 km. Often, clear skies have been observed in this region.
The strongest winds occur just outside the eye wall.
Figure 1.7 gives an example of an anemograph measured at a height of 10 m above the
ground for a tropical cyclone. This example shows a fortuitous situation when the eye of
8 Wind loading of structures

12,000 m

Outflow

Rising Air

In which
Stream
cyclone
flow
moving

Eye
(calm)

Figure 1.6 Three-dimensional structure for a developed tropical cyclone.

Figure 1.7 Anemograph at 10-m height for a tropical cyclone.

 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 9

the storm passed nearly directly over the recording station, resulting in a period of about an
hour of very low winds. The direction changed nearly 180 degrees during the passage of the
vortex over the measuring station.
Outside of the eye of a tropical cyclone, the wind speed at upper levels decays with the
radial distance from the storm centre. The gradient wind equation (Equation 1.9) can be
used to determine this wind speed:

f r f 2r 2 r ∂p
U = − + + for a cyclone. (1.9)
2 4 ρa ∂ r

where
f is the Coriolis parameter (=2 Ω sin λ)
r is the radius from the storm centre
ρa is the density of air
p is the atmospheric pressure

To apply Equation 1.9, it is necessary to establish a suitable function for the pressure gra-
dient. A commonly assumed expression is the following (Holland, 1980):

p − po  −A 
= exp  B  (1.10)
pn − po r 

where
po is the central pressure of the tropical cyclone
pn is the atmospheric pressure at the edge of the storm
A and B are scaling parameters

The pressure difference (pn – po) can be written as Δp, and is an indication of the strength
of the storm.
Differentiating Equation 1.10 and substituting in Equation 1.9, we have:

f r f 2r2 ∆p AB  A
U = − + + exp  − B  (1.11)
2 4 ρa r B  r 

This is an equation for the mean wind field at upper levels in a tropical cyclone as a func-
tion of radius from the storm centre, r, the characteristic parameters, A and B, the pressure
drop across the cyclone, Δp and the Coriolis parameter, f.
Near the centre of a tropical cyclone, the Coriolis forces, that is the first two terms in
Equations 1.9 and 1.11, are small, and it can be shown by differentiating the remaining term
that the maximum value of U occurs when r equals A1/B. Thus, A1/B is to a good approxi-
mation, the radius of maximum winds in the cyclone. The exponent B is found to be in the
range 1.0–2.5, and to reduce with increasing central pressure, po (Holland, 1980).
Figure 1.8 shows the profiles of pressure and gradient wind speed with radial distance
from the centre of the storm calculated from Equations 1.10 and 1.11, for Cyclone ‘Tracy’
which severely damaged Darwin, Australia, in 1974. The parameters A and B were taken
as 23 and 1.5, (where r is measured in kilometres), following Holland (1980). The gradient
10 Wind loading of structures

(a) 1010
1000
990

sea level (mb)

Pressure at
980
970
960
950
940
0 10 20 30 40 50
Radial distance from centre (km)
(b)
60
50
Gradient wind
speed (m/s)

40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Radial distance from centre (km)

Figure 1.8 P
 ressure and gradient wind speeds for Cyclone ‘Tracy’, 1974. (a) Sea-level pressure. (b) Gradient
wind speed.

Table 1.1 Saffir–Simpson intensity scale for hurricanes

Category Central pressure (millibars) Wind speed range (3-s gust, m/s)
I >980 42–54
II 965–979 55–62
III 945–964 63–74
IV 920–944 75–88
V <920 >88

wind speed in Figure 1.8b is approximately equal to the gust wind speed near the ground
level. The radius of maximum winds, in this case about 8 km, approximately coincides with
the maximum pressure gradient.
The forward motion of the moving storm adds an additional vector component to the
wind speed given by Equation 1.11, which gives the wind speed relative to the moving
storm.
An intensity scale for North Atlantic and Caribbean hurricanes has been proposed by
Saffir and Simpson. This is reproduced in Table 1.1.
This scale is widely used for forecasting and emergency management purposes. However,
the wind speed ranges given in Table 1.1 should be used with caution, as the estimated wind
speeds in hurricanes are usually obtained from upper-level aircraft readings. A similar, but
not identical, scale is used in the Australian region.

1.3.3 Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms, both isolated storms and those associated with advancing cold fronts, are
small disturbances in the horizontal extent, compared with extra-tropical depressions and
tropical cyclones, but they are capable of generating severe winds, through tornadoes and
downbursts. They significantly contribute to the strongest gusts recorded in many countries,
 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 11

including the United States, Australia and South Africa. They are also the main source of
high winds in the Equatorial regions (within about ten degrees of the Equator), although
their strength is not high in these regions.
Thunderstorms also derive their energy from heat. Warm moist air is convected
upwards to mix with the drier upper air. With evaporation, rapid cooling occurs and the
air mass loses its buoyancy, and starts to sink. Condensation then produces heavy rain or
hail that falls, dragging cold air with it. A strong downdraft reaches the ground, and pro-
duces a strong wind for a short period of time – perhaps 5–10 min. The strongest winds
produced by this mechanism are known as downbursts, which are further sub-divided
into microbursts and macrobursts, depending on their size. The strongest winds pro-
duced by these events have a large component of wind speed due to the forward motion
of the convection cell.
The conditions for generation of severe thunderstorms are:

• Water vapour in the atmosphere at low levels, that is high humidity

• Instability in the atmosphere, that is a negative temperature gradient with height that
is greater than the adiabatic rate of the neutral atmosphere
• A lifting mechanism that promotes the initial rapid convection – this may be provided
by, for example, a mountain range, or a cold front

1.3.4 Tornadoes
The strongest convection cells, that often generate tornadoes, are known as supercells. They
are larger and last longer than ‘ordinary’ convection cells. The tornado, a vertical funnel-
shaped vortex created in thunderclouds, is the most destructive of wind storms. Fortunately,
they are quite small in their horizontal extent – of the order of 100 m – but they can travel
for quite long distances up to 50 km before dissipating, producing a long narrow path of
destruction. They occur mainly in large continental plains in countries such as the United
States, Argentina, Russia and South Africa.
Periodically, atmospheric conditions in the central United States are such that severe out-
breaks with many damaging tornadoes can occur in a short period. For example, this has
occurred in April 1974, May 2003 and April 2011. In 1974, 335 fatalities, and destruc-
tion of about 7500 dwellings resulted from the ‘super-outbreak’ of 148 tornadoes within a
2-day period (3–4 April, 1974) with 13 states affected. In 2003, a total of 393 tornadoes
were reported in 19 states of the United States in a period of about a week. Of these, 15
resulted in 41 fatalities. In 2011, 325 deaths occurred in the outbreak of 25–28 April in
the southeastern states. The year 2011 was also notable for the Joplin, Missouri, tornado
of 22 May, 2011 which killed 158 persons. A detailed survey of tornadoes in South Africa
has been given by Goliger et al. (1997). They occur in that country at the rate of about four
per year, with a concentration in the Gauteng Province in the north of the country, with an
occurrence rate of 1 × 10−4 per square kilometre per year. This compares with a rate of about
2 × 10−4 per square kilometre per year in the midwest United States.
Tornadoes are sometimes confused with downbursts (described in the following section);
however, tornadoes can be identified by the appearance of the characteristic funnel vortex,
a long narrow damage ‘footprint’, and the evidence of varying wind directions.
The wind speed in a tornado can be related to the radial pressure gradient by neglecting
the Coriolis term in the equation of motion. Hence, from either Equation 1.7 or 1.9:

r ∂p (1.12)
U =
ρa ∂r
12 Wind loading of structures

Table 1.2 Fujita intensity scale for tornadoes

Category Original Fujita wind speed range (m/s) Enhanced Fujita wind speed range (m/s)
F0 20–35 29–38
F1 35–52 39–49
F2 53–72 50–60
F3 72–93 61–74
F4 94–117 75–89
F5 117–142 Over 90

This is known as the cyclostrophic wind speed. Assuming that the pressure is constant
along the edge of a tornado funnel (actually a line of condensed water vapour), Equation
1.12 has been used to estimate wind speeds in tornadoes.
Measurement of wind speeds in tornadoes is very difficult. Because of their small size,
they seldom pass over a weather-recording station. If one does, the anemometer is quite
likely to be destroyed. For many years, photogrammetric analyses of movie film shots by
eyewitnesses were used to obtain reasonable estimates (Fujita et al., 1976; Golden, 1976).
The method involves the tracking of clouds, dust and solid debris from the film frames, and
was first applied to the Dallas, Texas, tornado of 2 April, 1957 by Hoecker (1960). This
method is subject to a number of errors – for example, distortion produced by the camera
or projector lenses or tracked large objects not moving with the local wind speed. Also, the
method is not able to detect velocities normal to the image plane.
However, the photogrammetric method has enabled several significant features of torna-
does, such as ‘suction vortices’ – smaller vortex systems rotating around the main vortex
core, and the high vertical velocities. In the latter case, analysis of a tornado at Kankakee,
Illinois in 1963 (Golden, 1976) indicated vertical velocities of 55–60 m/s, at a height above
the ground of <200 m.
Analyses of failures of engineered buildings in tornadoes have generally indicated lower
maximum wind speeds in tornadoes than those obtained by photogrammetric or other
methods (e.g. Mehta, 1976). After considering all the available evidence at that time, Golden
(1976) estimated the maximum wind speeds in tornadoes to be not more than 110 m/s.
In recent years, portable Doppler radars have been successfully used in the United States
for more accurate determination of wind speeds in tornadoes.
An intensity scale for tornadoes was originally proposed in 1971 (Fujita, 1971). Several
F-scale classifications are associated with wind speed ranges, although, in practice, classifica-
tions are applied based on observed damage to buildings and other structures. The original
scaling was criticised by engineers for several reasons: for example, for failing to account for
variations in the quality of construction, and that it has not been based on a proper correla-
tion of damage descriptions and wind speeds. The wind speed ranges of the original Fujita
Scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale (McDonald and Mehta, 2004) for F0 to F5 categories
are given in Table 1.2. Ranges are given for 3-s average gust speeds in metres per second. The
Enhanced Fujita Scale is now used for operational purposes in the United States.
An engineering model of wind speed distributions in a tornado is discussed in Section 3.2.7.

1.3.5 Downbursts
Figure 1.9 shows an anemograph from a severe thunderstorm downburst, recorded at the
Andrews Air Force Base, near Washington, DC, USA in 1983, with a timescale in minutes.
The short duration of the storm is quite apparent, and there is also a rapid change of wind
 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 13

Front-side peak wind

130 130 KTS
120

110 112 KTS

100

90
Back-side peak wind
84 KTS
80

70

Eye of microburst
60 62 KTS

50

40 Air force one

landed
30

20

10
EDT
8 1400
21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 59 58
KTS
6 15 8 16 26
22 12 76112 54 17 13 15 20 15 17 15 18 14 13 13 13 12
29 26

37 62 23

Figures 1.9 A
 nemograph for a severe downburst at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, USA, 1983. (From
Fujita, T.T. 1985. The Downburst. Report on Projects NIMROD and JAWS. Published by the
author at the University of Chicago.)

direction during its passage across the measurement station. Such events typically produce
a damage footprint that is 2–3 km wide and 10–15 km long.
The horizontal wind speed in a thunderstorm downburst with respect to the moving
storm is similar to that in a jet of fluid impinging on a plain surface. It varies approximately
linearly from the centre of impact to a radius where the wind speed is maximum, and then
decays with increasing radius. The forward velocity of the moving storm can be a significant
component of the total wind speed produced at ground level, and must be added as a vector
component to that produced by the jet.

1.3.6 Downslope winds
In certain regions such as those near the Rocky Mountains of the United States, Switzerland,
Croatia, and the Southern Alps of New Zealand, extreme winds can be caused by thermal
amplification of synoptic winds on the leeward slopes of mountains. The regions affected
are usually quite small, but are often identified as ‘special regions’, in wind-loading codes
and standards (see Appendix D).

1.4 WiND DAmAGE

Damage to buildings and other structures by wind storms has been a fact of life for human
beings from the time they moved out of cave dwellings to the present day. Trial and error
14 Wind loading of structures

has played an important part in the development of construction techniques and roof shapes
for small residential buildings, which have usually suffered the most damage during severe
winds. In the past few centuries, heavy masonry construction, as used for important com-
munity buildings such as churches and temples, was seen, by intuition, as the solution to
resist wind forces (although somewhat less effective against seismic action). For other types
of construction, wind storm damage was generally seen as an ‘Act of God’, as it is still
viewed today by some insurance companies.
The nineteenth century was important as it saw the introduction of steel and reinforced
concrete as construction materials, and the beginnings of stress analysis methods for the
design of structures. The latter was developed further in the twentieth century, especially in
the second half, with the development of computer methods. During the last two centuries,
major structural failures due to wind action have occurred periodically, and provoked much
interest in wind forces by engineers. Long-span bridges often produced the most spectacular
of these failures, with the Brighton Chain Pier, England (1836) (Figure 1.10), the Tay Bridge,
Scotland (1879) and Tacoma Narrows Bridge, Washington State, USA (1940) being among
the most notable, with the dynamic action of wind playing a major role.
Other large structures have experienced failures as well – for example, the collapse of
the Ferrybridge Cooling Towers in the United Kingdom in 1965 (Figure 1.11), and the per-
manent deformation of the columns of the Great Plains Life Building in Lubbock, Texas,
during a tornado (1970). These events were notable, not only as events in themselves, but
also for the part they played as a stimulus to the development of research into wind loading
in the respective countries. Another type of structure which has proved to be dynamically
sensitive to wind is the guyed mast; it has also suffered a high failure rate – in one 10-year
period (from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s), there were 83 failures of this type of struc-
ture worldwide. In many cases of mast failures, a combination of wind and ice action was
involved.

(a) Sketch showing the manner in which the central span of the chain pier at Brighton undulated
just before it gave way in a storm on 20 November 1836.

255 feet

(b) Sketch showing the appearance of the central span after it gave way

Figure 1.10 Failure of the Brighton Chain Pier, 1836.

 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 15

Figure 1.11 Ferrybridge Cooling Tower failures, 1965 (photo).

Some major wind storms, which have caused large-scale damage to residential build-
ings, as well as some engineered structures, are also important for the part they have
played in promoting research and understanding of wind loads on structures. The
Yorkshire (UK) storms of 1962, Cyclone ‘Tracy’ in Darwin, Australia in 1974, and
Hurricane ‘Andrew’ in Florida, USA, in 1992, can be mentioned as seminal events of this
type. However, these extreme events occur intermittently, and it is unfortunate that the
collective human memory after them is only about 10 years, and often, old lessons have
to be re-learned by a new generation. However, an encouraging sign is the recent interest
of some major insurance and re-insurance groups in natural hazards, in the estimation of
the potential financial losses, and the beginnings of a realisation that any structure can
be made wind resistant, with appropriate knowledge of the forces involved, and suitable
design approaches.

1.4.1 Recent history of wind loss and damage

Figure 1.12 shows the annual insured losses in billions of $US from all major natural
disasters, from 1970 to 2012. Wind storms account for about 70% of the total insured
losses. Bearing in mind that property insurance is much less common in the less-developed
16 Wind loading of structures

140
US$ billions at 2012 prices

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
70
72

74

76

78
80

82
84

86

88

90

92
94

96

98

00

02

04

06

08

10

12
19
19

19

19

19
19

19
19

19

19

19

19
19

19

19

20

20

20

20

20

20

20
Year

Figure 1.12 W
 orld insurance losses from major natural disasters 1970–2012. (From Swiss Reinsurance
Company. With permission.)

economies, Figure 1.12 does not show the total property damage from natural events, and
in fact is biased towards losses in Europe and North America. However, the graph does
show that the level of insured losses from natural disasters increased dramatically after
about 1987. The major contributor to the increase was wind storms, especially tropical
cyclones such as Hurricanes ‘Hugo’ (1989) ‘Andrew’ (1992), ‘Charley’ (2004), ‘Ivan’ (2004),
‘Katrina’ (2005) and ‘Sandy’ (2012) in the United States, and winter gales in Europe in
1987, 1990 and 1999.
In 2012, there was an estimated $US71 billion of insured losses from natural disasters, of
which the majority originated from hurricanes and typhoons.
Some notable wind storms and the losses resulting from them are listed in Table 1.3. All
the events listed in Table 1.3 have had a major influence on the insurance industry, and
structural engineering profession.
Table 1.3 does not include tornadoes. However, the aggregate damage from multiple
events can be substantial. For example, in the ‘super-outbreak’ of 3–4 April, 1974, the total

Table 1.3 Some disastrous wind storms of the last 30 years

Approximate
economic losses
Year Name Country or region ($US mill) Lives lost
1974 Cyclone ‘Tracy’ Australia 500 52
1987 Gales Western Europe 3700 17
1989 Hurricane ‘Hugo’ Caribbean, United States 9000 61
1990 Gales Western Europe 15,000 230
1992 Hurricane ‘Andrew’ United States 30,000 44
1999 Gales France 10,000 140
2003 Typhoon ‘Maemi’ Japan, Korea 6000 131
2004 Hurricane ‘Ivan’ Caribbean, United States 11,000 124
2005 Hurricane ‘Katrina’ Southern United States 150,000 1830
2011 Cyclone ‘Yasi’ Australia 3500 1
2012 Hurricane ‘Sandy’ United States 35,000 117
Source of data apart from Cyclone Tracy and Hurricane Katrina: Munich Reinsurance and Swiss Reinsurance.
 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 17

Table 1.4 A
 nnual count of tornadoes in the United States,
and deaths caused by them
Year Number Deaths
2001 1219 40
2002 938 55
2003 1394 54
2004 1820 35
2005 1262 38
2006 1117 67
2007 1102 81
2008 1685 126
2009 1305 21
2010 1543 45
2011 1894 553
2012 1119 70
Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

damage in the state of Ohio alone was estimated to be US$100 million. The estimated total
damage from tornadoes in the United States, in the recent active year of 2011 was US$10
billion, with about US$3 billion of that coming from the Joplin, Missouri, tornado of 22
May, 2011.
Tornadoes are also notable for the loss of life they produce in the United States. Table 1.4
summarises the number of confirmed tornadoes in the United States and the loss of life for
the period 2001–2012. The average number of tornadoes per annum is about 1370, with an
average number of deaths per year produced by them of about 100.

1.5 WiND-GENERAtED DEBRiS

As well as damage to buildings produced by direct wind forces – either overloads caused by
overstressing under peak loads, or fatigue damage under fluctuating loads of a lower level,
a major cause of damage in severe wind storms is flying debris. Penetration of the build-
ing envelope by flying missiles has a number of undesirable results: high internal pressures
threatening the building structure, wind and rain penetration of the inside of the building,
the generation of additional flying debris and the possibility of flying missiles inside the
building endangering the occupants.
The area of a building most vulnerable to impact by missiles is the windward wall region,
although impacts could also occur on the roof and side walls. As the air approaches the
windward wall, its horizontal velocity reduces rapidly. Heavier objects in the flow with
higher inertia will probably continue with their velocity little changed until they impact
on the wall. Lighter and smaller objects may lose velocity in this region or even be swept
around the building with the flow if they are not directed at the stagnation point (see
Chapter 4).

1.5.1 Threshold of flight

Wills et al. (1998) carried out an analysis of debris flight conditions, and the resulting build-
ing damage in severe winds. They considered ‘compact’ objects, sheet objects and rods and
18 Wind loading of structures

Compact

Sheet

Rod

Figure 1.13 T
 hree types of flying debris. (After Wills, J., Wyatt, T. and Lee, B.E. 1998. Warnings of high
winds in densely populated areas. United Kingdom National Coordination Committee for the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction.)

poles (Figure 1.13), and established relationships between the body dimensions and the
wind speed, Uf, at which flight occurs and the objects become missiles. For each of the three
categories, these relationships are:

(1/ 2)ρaU f2CF

 = (1.13)
Iρm g

(1/ 2)ρaU f2CF

t = (1.14)
Iρm g

(2 /π)ρaU f2CF
d = (1.15)
Iρm g

where
 is a characteristic dimension for ‘compact’ objects
t is the thickness of sheet objects
d is the effective diameter of rod-type objects
ρa is the density of air
ρm is the density of the object material
C F is an aerodynamic force coefficient (see Section 4.2.2)
Uf is the wind speed at which flight occurs
 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 19

I is a fixing strength integrity parameter, that is the value of force required to dis-
lodge the objects expressed as a multiple of their weight (for objects resting on the
ground I ≅ 1)
g is the gravitational constant

Equations 1.13 through 1.15 illustrate the important point that the larger the value of the
characteristic dimension, , t or d, the higher the wind speed at which flight occurs. These
equations also show that the higher the value of the density, ρm, the higher is the wind speed
for lift off. Thus, as the wind speed in a cyclone builds up, the smaller lighter objects – for
example, gravel, small loose objects in gardens and backyards – ‘fly’ first. At higher wind
speeds, appurtenances on buildings are dislodged as the wind forces exceed their fixing resis-
tance, and they also commence flight. At even higher wind speeds, substantial pieces of build-
ing structure, such as roof sheeting and purlins, may be removed, and become airborne.
As examples of the application of Equation 1.13, Wills et al. (1998) considered wooden
compact objects (ρm = 500 kg/m3) and stone objects (ρm = 2700 kg/m3). Assuming C F = 1,
and I = 1, Equation 1.13 gives  equal to 110 mm for the wooden missile, but only 20 mm
for the stone missile, for a lift-off speed of 30 m/s.
For sheet objects, Equation 1.14 shows that the wind speed for flight depends on the
thickness of the sheet, but not on the length and width. Wills et al. expressed Equation 1.14
in a slightly different form:

(1/ 2)ρaU f2CF

ρm t = (1.16)
Ig

The left-hand side of Equation 1.16 is the mass per unit area of the sheet. This indicates
that the wind speed for the flight of a loose object depends essentially on its mass per unit
area. Thus, a galvanised iron sheet of 1 mm thickness with mass per unit area of 7.5 kg/m 2
will fly at about 20 m/s (C F = 0.3).
For ‘rod’-like objects, which include timber members of a rectangular cross section, a
similar formula to Equation 1.16 can be derived from Equation 1.15, with the ‘t’ replaced
by ‘d’, the equivalent rod diameter. Using this, Wills et al. calculated that a timber rod of
10 mm diameter will fly at about 11 m/s, and a 100-mm-by-50-mm timber member, with an
equivalent diameter of 80 mm, will fly at about 32 m/s, assuming C F is equal to 1.0.

1.5.2 Trajectories of compact objects

A missile, once airborne, will continue to accelerate until its flight speed approaches the
wind speed, or until its flight is terminated by impact with the ground or with an object
such as a building. The trajectories of compact objects are produced by drag forces (Section
4.2.2), acting in the direction of the relative wind with respect to the body.
Consider first the aerodynamic force on a compact object (such as a sphere) in a horizontal
wind of speed, U. Neglecting the vertical air resistance initially, the aerodynamic force can
be expressed as

1
Accelerating force = ρ (U − vm )2 CD A (1.17)
2 a

where
v m is the horizontal velocity of the missile with respect to the ground
A is the reference area for the drag coefficient, C D (Section 4.2.2)
20 Wind loading of structures

Table 1.5 Flight times and distances for a steel ball (neglecting vertical air resistance)
Object/speed Time taken (s) Horizontal distance travelled (m)
Steel ball to 20 m/s   5.4   71
Steel ball to 30 m/s 49 1270

Applying Newton’s law, the instantaneous acceleration of the object (characteristic dimen-
sion, ) is given by

dvm (1/ 2)ρa (U − vm )2 CD A (1/ 2)ρa (U − vm )2 CD

Acceleration = = = (1.18)
dt ρm  3 ρm 

taking A equal to  2 .
Equation 1.18 shows that heavier and larger objects have lower accelerations, and hence
their flight speeds are likely to be lower than smaller or lighter objects. The equation also
shows that the initial acceleration from rest (v m = 0) is high, but the acceleration rapidly
reduces as the difference between the missile speed and the wind speed reduces, so that the
wind speed is approached very slowly. Of course, the missile speed cannot exceed the wind
speed in steady winds.
Equation 1.18 can be integrated to obtain the time taken to accelerate to a given speed,
v m , and the distance travelled in this time. These equations are as follows:
Time taken to accelerate from 0 to v m ,

vm
T = (1.19)
kU(U − vm )

  1  
Distance travelled = U T −   ln(1 + kUT ) (1.20)
  kU  

where k = (ρa C D)/(2ρm ) with units of (1/m).

Using Equation 1.20, the flight times and distance travelled by a steel ball of 8 mm diameter
and 2-g mass have been calculated, for a wind speed, U, of 32 m/s, and are given in Table 1.5.
The calculations show that it takes nearly a minute and 1.27 km for the steel ball to reach
30 m/s – that is within 2 m/s of the wind speed. In reality, such a long flight time and distance
would not occur since the object would strike a building, or the ground, and lose its kinetic
energy.
A more accurate analysis of the trajectories of compact objects requires the vertical air
resistance to be included, and the neglect of it results in underestimation of the missile speed
and distance travelled in a given time (Holmes, 2004).

1.5.3 Trajectories of sheet and rod objects

Tachikawa (1983) carried out a fundamental study of the trajectories of missiles of the sheet
type. Aerodynamic forces on auto-rotating plates were measured in a wind tunnel. These
results were then used to calculate the trajectories of the plates released into a wind stream.
Free-flight tests of model plates with various aspect ratios were made in a small wind tunnel,
and compared with the calculated trajectories. A distinct change in the mode of motion and
 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 21

the trajectory, with an initial angle of attack of the plate, was observed. The calculated tra-
jectories predicted the upper and lower limits of the observed trajectories, with reasonable
accuracy. A later study by Tachikawa (1990) extended the experiments to small prismatic
models as well as flat plates, and gave a method of estimating the position of a missile impact
on a downstream building. The critical non-dimensional parameter for determination of
trajectories is K = ρaU2 A/2 mg, where
ρa is the density of air
U is the wind speed
A is the plan area of a plate
m is the mass of the missile
g is the gravitational constant
This parameter, now known as the ‘Tachikawa Number’ (Holmes et al., 2006a), rep-
resents the ratio of aerodynamic forces to gravity forces, and can also be expressed as the
product of three other non-dimensional parameters:

1 ρa U 2 
K = (1.21)
2 ρm g t

where
ρm is the missile density
t is the plate thickness
 is √A, that is a characteristic plan dimension

In Equation 1.21, ρa /ρm is a density ratio and (U2 /g) is a Froude Number, both of which
are important non-dimensional quantities in aerodynamics (see also Section 7.4).
The equations of motion for horizontal, vertical and rotational motion of a flat plate mov-
ing in a vertical plane must be solved numerically. Good agreement has been obtained when
such numerical solutions are compared with measurements of trajectories of many small
plates in a wind tunnel (Lin et al., 2006; Holmes et al., 2006b).

1.5.4 Standardised missile-testing criteria

In regions subjected to hurricanes and tropical cyclones (Section 1.3.2), where the occur-
rence of damage to buildings by wind-generated missiles has been shown to be a major
problem, standardised missile tests have been devised. These demonstrate the ability of wall
claddings of various types to resist penetration by flying debris, or assist in the development
of window protection screens.
When specifying appropriate test criteria for missile impact resistance, the following prin-
ciples should be followed:

• The missiles should be representative of the actual objects available.

• The criteria should be physically realistic, that is if the flight threshold speed is greater
than the expected wind speed in the storm, then the object should not be regarded as
a potential missile.
• Realistic missile speeds should be specified for the expected separation distances
between buildings.

Missile-testing criteria were included in the Darwin Area Building Manual, follow-
ing Cyclone ‘Tracy’ in 1974, in Australia. This specified that windows and doors should
22 Wind loading of structures

withstand impact at any angle of a piece of 100-mm-by-50-mm timber weighing 4 kg, trav-
elling at 20 m/s. A more severe test was specified for cyclone refuge shelters: ‘end-on’ impact
of a piece of 100-mm-by-50-mm timber weighing 8 kg, travelling at 30 m/s. Later, the
test requirement for windows and doors of buildings was modified to a piece of 100-mm-
by-50-mm timber weighing 4 kg, travelling at 15 m/s. More recent debris speeds given in
Australian Standards are linked to the regional gust speed used for wind-loading design,
with a horizontal debris speed of 40% of that wind speed.
Wind-borne debris impact test standards in the United States were discussed by Minor
(1994). Following investigations of glass breakage (mainly in high-rise buildings), dur-
ing several U.S. hurricanes, Pantelides et al. (1992) proposed a test protocol involving
impacts from small spherical missiles of 2 gr. This was taken up in South Florida following
Hurricane Andrew in 1992. The Dade County and Broward County editions of the South
Florida Building Code required windows, doors and wall coverings to withstand impacts
from large and small debris. The large missile test, which is similar to the Australian one,
is only applicable to buildings below 9 m in height. The small missile test is only applicable
to windows, doors and wall coverings above 9 m, and differs between the two counties.
The Dade County protocol uses 10 2-g pieces of roof gravel impacting simultaneously at
26 m/s, while the Broward County version uses 10 2-g steel balls impacting successively
at 43 m/s.

1.6 WiND StORm DAmAGE AND LOSS PREDiCtiON

The trend towards increased losses from wind storms has provoked concern in the insurance
and re-insurance industries, and many of these groups are requiring detailed assessments
of the potential financial losses from the exposure of their portfolios of buildings to large-
scale severe wind storms. Government bodies are also requiring predictions of damage and
economic losses to aid in planning for disaster and emergency management.
The prediction of the average annual loss, or accumulated losses over an extended period,
say 50 years, requires two major inputs: hazard models and vulnerability curves. The hazard
model focusses on the wind storm hazard itself, and makes use of historical meteorological
data and statistics to predict potential wind speeds at a site into the future. Vulnerability
curves attempt to predict building (and sometimes contents) damage, given the occurrence
of a particular wind speed.

1.6.1 Hazard models

The purpose of wind hazard models is to define the risk of occurrence of extreme wind
speeds at the site of a single structure, on a system such as a transmission line, or on a
complete city or region. The basis for these models is usually the historical record of wind
speeds from anemometer stations, but often, larger-scale storm parameters such as central
pressures for tropical cyclones, and atmospheric stability indices for thunderstorm occur-
rences, are studied. The methods of statistics and probability are extensively used in the
development of hazard models in wind engineering.
The application of statistical methods to the prediction of extreme wind speeds is dis-
cussed in Chapter 2.
An understanding of the structure of the wind within a storm enables predictions of
‘footprints’ such as that shown in Figure 1.14 (Holmes and Oliver, 2000), which shows
simulated contours of maximum wind speeds, occurring at some time during the passage
 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 23

15 m/s 20 30 40 50

Direction of storm

Figure 1.14 W
 ind speed threshold footprint during the passage of a downburst. (Reprinted from Engineering
Structures, Holmes, J.D. and Oliver, S.E., An empirical model of a downburst. 22: 1167–72.
Copyright 2000, with permission from Elsevier.)

of a downburst (Section 1.3.5). This information, in combination with knowledge of the

strength or ‘vulnerability’ of structures, enables predictions of potential damage to be made.

1.6.2 Vulnerability curves

Insurance loss predictions are quite sensitive to the assumed variations of relative build-
ing and contents damage, as a function of the local wind speed – usually a gust speed (see
Section 3.3.3). Such graphs are known as ‘vulnerability curves’. Vulnerability curves can be
derived in a number of ways. Leicester (1981) proposed the simplified form, with straight-
line segments, for Australian houses, shown in Figure 1.15. The ordinate is a ‘damage index’
defined as follows for the building:

Damage index (D) = (Repair cost)/(Initial cost of building)

Equal Equal Equal

1.0
ts

ing
en
Damage index

nt

ild
Co

Bu

0.2

0.0
Minor Major Wind gust speed
damage damage
level level

Figure 1.15 F orm of a vulnerability curve proposed by Leicester, R.H. 1981. A risk model for cyclone dam-
age to dwellings. Proceedings, 3rd International Conference on Structural Safety and Reliability,
Trondheim, Norway.
24 Wind loading of structures

For insurance purposes, it may be more appropriate to replace the denominator with the
insured value of the building. A similar definition can be applied to the building contents,
with ‘replacement cost’ in the numerator.
Separate lines are given for the building and contents. Only two parameters need to be
specified – a threshold gust speed for the onset of minor damage, and a speed for the onset
of a major building damage (damage index > 0.2).
Walker (1995) proposed the following relationships for housing in Queensland, Australia.
For pre-1980 buildings:

2 6
 U − 30   U − 30  (1.22)
D = 0 .2   + 0.5  30 
 30   

For post-1980 buildings:

2 6
 U − 37.5   U − 37.5  (1.23)
D = 0 .2   + 0.5  37.5 
 37 . 5   

Clearly, in both cases, D is limited to the range 0–1.0.

The relationship of Equation 1.22 was also found to agree well with recorded damage and
wind speed estimates in Hurricane ‘Andrew’ (see Table 1.1).
A simple form of a vulnerability curve for a fully engineered structure consisting of a large
number of members or components with strengths of known probability distribution can
be derived. The failure of each component is assumed to be independent of all the others,
and they are all designed to resist the same wind load, or speed. Thus, the expected frac-
tional damage to the complete structure, for a given wind speed, is the proportion of failed
components expected at that wind speed. If all the components have the same probability
distribution of strength, which would be true if they were all designed to the same codes,
then the vulnerability curve can simply be derived from the cumulative distribution of the
strength of any element.
A curve derived in this way (Holmes, 1996) is shown in Figure 1.16, for a structure
composed of components with a lognormal distribution of strength, with a mean/nominal
strength of 1.20 and a coefficient of variation of 0.13, values which are appropriate for steel
components. The nominal design gust wind speed is taken as 65 m/s. This curve can be
compared with that proposed by Walker, for post-1980 Queensland houses, in the tropical

Fully engineered (Holmes, 1996)

Walker (1995)
1
Damage index

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Gust wind speed (m/s)

Figure 1.16 Theoretical and empirical vulnerability curves.

 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 25

cyclone-affected coastal region (Equation 1.23). The theoretical curve, representing fully
engineered structures, is steeper than the Walker curve, which has been derived empirically,
and incorporates the greater variability in the components of housing structures.
Alternatively, vulnerability curves for individual building types can be derived through
a probabilistic approach, based on assessing individual building component strengths, and
on progressive failure simulation (e.g. Henderson and Ginger, 2007; Hamid et al., 2010).
Following methods adopted for predicting damage due to earthquakes, this approach often
introduces intermediate ‘fragility curves’ which plot the probability of exceeding a particu-
lar damage state against wind speed. Several of these are then combined, with a weighting
based on the relative cost of repair of each state, to give a vulnerability curve.

1.6.3 Damage produced by flying debris

Wills et al. (1998) carried out an analysis of the damage potential of flying missiles, based
on the assumption that the damage of a given missile is proportional to its kinetic energy in
flight. A number of interesting conclusions arose from this work:

• For compact objects, lower-density objects have more damage potential.

• Sheet and rod objects have generally more damage potential than compact objects.
• Very little energy is required to break glass (e.g. 5-g steel ball travelling at 10 m/s is
sufficient to break 6-mm-annealed glass).
• On the basis of an assumed distribution of the available missile dimensions, Wills et al.
found that the total damage is proportional to Un , where n is a power equal to about 5.

Probabilistic damage modelling has recently been extended to incorporate modelling of

damage produced by flying debris, as well as that due to direct wind forces. The main fea-
tures required for an engineering wind-borne debris damage model are summarised as fol-
lows (Twisdale et al., 1996):

• A windfield model – similar to those discussed in Section 1.6.1.

• A debris generation model – This is required to establish the source, numbers and
generic shapes of debris items.
• A debris trajectory model – Once they become airborne, a debris trajectory model is
required to predict consequent damage due to impact on downwind buildings.
• A debris impact model – This represents the magnitude of damage produced by an
impacting wind-borne missile.

Twisdale et al. (1996) surveyed observed missiles after the 1995 Hurricanes ‘Erin’ and
‘Opal’ in the United States, and found that the clearly dominant contributors were roofing
tiles, shingles, sheathing and structural members from roof trusses, with lesser contribu-
tions from wall cladding, miscellaneous house materials such as guttering, vents and yard
items and accessories. This led to the development of a wind-borne debris damage model,
with the generation part focussed on the generation of wind-borne roofing elements.
Twisdale et al. (1996) then described a debris generation model, which is essentially a wind
load failure model for roofing elements of low-rise buildings. It is based on simulating wind
loads on elements of a simple representative gable-roof building, and checking whether these
exceed the resistance of roof sheeting and roof truss elements. The resistance is based on the
pull-out strength of nails, and an assessment of errors in construction – that is an assessment
of the number of nails attaching plywood roof sheathing to the underlying roof trusses.
26 Wind loading of structures

Damage produced by wind-borne debris is primarily generated by the horizontal energy

and momentum at impact. The trajectories of missiles of the generic ‘compact’, ‘rod’ and
‘sheet’ types were discussed in Sections 1.5.2 and 1.5.3.
The horizontal velocities attained by all three types are mainly determined by the mass of
the debris object, and product of the average drag coefficient and the exposed area, during
the trajectories.
It was shown, numerically and experimentally (Baker, 2007; Lin et al., 2007), that the
horizontal velocity component of a wind-borne missile can be well represented by the fol-
lowing function:

um
≅ 1 − exp  −b x  (1.24)
Vs  

where
um is the horizontal missile velocity
Vs is the local (gust) wind speed
x is the horizontal distance travelled (this can be related to the average building spacing)
b is a dimensional parameter depending on the shape of the missile and its drag coef-
ficient, and its mass (Equation 1.25)

ρaCD, av A
b = (1.25)
m

In Equation 1.25, C D,av is an average drag coefficient, averaged over the rotations of the
body with respect to the relative wind. Note that the right-hand side of Equation 1.24 does
not include the wind speed, and is only a function of the horizontal distance travelled (or
building spacing in the case of an impact), and the missile properties in Equation 1.25.
Following from Equation 1.14, the momentum and kinetic energy at impact can be repre-
sented by Equations 1.26 and 1.27, respectively.

{
m ⋅ um ≅ mVs 1 − exp  −b x  } (1.26)

{ }
2
E = 1
2 m ⋅ um 2 ≅ 1
2 mVs 2 1 − exp  −b x  (1.27)

where
m is the mass of the missile

The previous discussion has indicated that the horizontal velocities (and hence impact
momenta and kinetic energy) of wind-borne debris are relatively simple functions of wind
gust speeds and the distance travelled – and hence of building separation. The damage
produced by an impacting missile on a building surface is dependent on the component of
momentum normal to the surface and/or its kinetic energy at impact. The change of momen-
tum at impact is direct related to the force applied to a surface – it is equal to the impulse
applied – the integral of force with respect to time. A perfectly elastic surface (i.e. with a
coefficient of restitution at impact of 1.0) would not absorb any of the kinetic energy of the
missile; it would be retained as kinetic energy of the missile moving away from the surface.
 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 27

The total energy at impact must be conserved, and for many building materials suffering
plastic deformation, most of the kinetic energy of the debris item will be dissipated through
deformation of the material.

1.7 HURRiCANE-DAmAGE MODELLiNG

The prediction of losses resulting from hurricane impact on buildings and facilities has
become a major activity that several companies have embraced for the service of the insur-
ance and re-insurance industry. While the details of most of these are commercial in confi-
dence, some useful discussion of the background methodologies is in the public domain (e.g.
Vickery et al., 2000a).
A publicly available model has been funded by the State of Florida (Hamid et al., 2010),
and will be used to illustrate the main components and features of these models in the fol-
lowing paragraphs. The Florida Public Hurricane Loss Model (FPHLM) consists of three
components:

1. An ‘atmospheric science component’

2. An ‘engineering’ component
3. An ‘actuarial’ component

The atmospheric science component is essentially a form of the ‘hazard model’ as intro-
duced in Section 1.6.1. The first function of this component is to model the annual hurri-
cane occurrences within the defined area chosen to encompass the historical origin points
of hurricanes affecting Florida – a circle with a radius of 1000 km centred on a particular
location just off the southwest coast of Florida. The Poisson Distribution (Section C3.5) was
used to model the annual rate of hurricane occurrences within the defined area of interest.
The points of origin of the simulated hurricanes were derived from the historical record of
land-falling Atlantic tropical cyclones known as ‘HURDAT’ with small random perturba-
tions. In this way, thousands of years of simulated hurricane tracks are generated. The inten-
sity of each storm, represented by the difference in barometric pressure at sea level at the
centre of the storm, and that at the periphery, was also varied at 24-h intervals by sampling
from an appropriate probability distribution.
The wind-field model is implemented when the simulated hurricane is close to a coastline.
In the FPHLM, the slab boundary-layer model of Shapiro (1983) is used; a similar model
was used by Vickery et al. (2000b). The model is initialised by a vortex in gradient balance
(see Section 1.2.4), with a radially symmetric pressure profile given by the Holland (1980)
expression (Equation 1.10).
As part of the engineering component, vulnerability curves (Section 1.6.2) were generated
by Monte Carlo simulations for 168 cases for every combination of structural type (timber
frame or masonry), geographical location in Florida and roof type (gable, hip, tile, shingle,
etc.). The strength of building components is determined as a function of gust wind speed
through a detailed wind and structural engineering approach that includes an allowance
for wind-borne debris damage. The latter is included empirically rather than through the
detailed approach outlined in Section 1.6.3.
In the actuarial model, the expected annual insurance losses for the building structure,
contents and additional living expenses using the vulnerability matrices are derived as dis-
cussed above. The probability distribution of gust wind speeds for each zip code is derived
from the simulated set of hurricanes. These wind speeds are applied to the vulnerability
curves, and using the insured values, the expected losses are estimated for each policy.
28 Wind loading of structures

Another public-domain hurricane-damage model is the Hazards U.S. Multi-Hazard

(HAZUS-MH) described by Vickery et al. (2006a,b). The hurricane hazard model is based on
the methods described by Vickery et al. (2000a,b). HAZUS-MH includes a detailed mechan-
ics-based model of wind-borne debris impacts, and the hazard component includes estimates
of rainfall rates to enable the prediction of damage due to water ingress into buildings.

1.8 PREDiCtED EffECtS Of CLimAtE ChANGE

It has often been suggested that global warming is having significant effects on the num-
bers and strengths of wind storms – particularly on tropical cyclones (including hurricanes
and typhoons). For example, there have been a number of studies of the effects of global
warming on tropical cyclones in recent years (e.g. Emanuel, 2005; Webster et al., 2005;
Klotzbach, 2006; Kossin et al., 2007).
As discussed in Section 1.3.2, a sea surface temperature of 26°C is required for tropical
cyclone formation in the current climate; hence, it might be expected that there would be an
increase in the number of tropical cyclones worldwide with increasing average sea tempera-
tures. In fact, Webster et al. (2005) found there was no significant trend in global cyclones of
all strengths. However, they did show a statistically significant increasing trend in Category
4–5 storms from the 1970s to the decade 1995–2004. These mainly seem to have occurred
in the North Atlantic basin.
Klotzbach (2006) extended the analysis to all basins with tropical cyclone activity, and
excluded the data before 1986 on the basis that, before the mid-1980s, only visible satellite
information was available and hence night-time observations were excluded; also, the quality
and resolution of satellite imagery had improved greatly by the later period. Klotzbach’s anal-
ysis, using the more recent (and more reliable) data, found only a small increase in Category
4–5 hurricanes in the North Atlantic and Northwest Pacific during the 20-year study period.
The following summary statement in the U.N. International Panel on Climate Change
Report of 2007 is relevant:

There is observational evidence for an increase in intense tropical cyclone activity in the
North Atlantic since about 1970, correlated with increases in sea surface temperatures.
There are also suggestions of increased intense tropical cyclone activity in some other
regions where concerns over data quality are greater. … There is no clear trend in the
annual numbers of tropical cyclones.

Although some have suggested that higher design wind speeds should be introduced in
the United States, as a result of trends in hurricane occurrences (e.g. Mudd et al., 2013; Liu
and Pang, 2013), this is premature until the biasses resulting from changes in observational
practices have been eliminated. Clearly, there is a great deal of uncertainty in the predic-
tions, and regulators may be reluctant to impose additional economic costs of higher design
wind loads on the community without more confidence in the trends. A rational approach
to design in these circumstances might suggest a small increase in load factor to cover these
uncertainties.

1.9 SUmmARY

In this chapter, the physical mechanisms and meteorology of strong wind storms of all types
have been described. The balance of forces in a large-scale synoptic system was established,
 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 29

and the gradient wind equation was derived. Smaller-scale storms – tornadoes and down-
bursts – were also introduced.
The history of significant damaging wind storms was discussed. The mechanics of wind-
generated flying debris was considered, and vulnerability curves relating the fractional dam-
age potential to wind speed, for insurance loss prediction, were derived. The modelling of
wind damage from direct wind forces and from wind-borne debris, for disaster management
and insurance purposes, has been outlined. Two hurricane loss models that are publicly
available in the United States have been described.
The predicted effects of climate change on the frequencies and strengths of tropical
cyclones have also been briefly discussed.

1.10 ThE FOLLOwiNG ChAPtERS AND APPENDiCES

Following this introductory chapter, Chapters 2 through 7 are directed towards fundamen-
tal aspects of wind loading, common to all or most structures – for example, atmospheric
wind structure and turbulence (Chapter 3), bluff-body aerodynamics (Chapter 4), reso-
nant dynamic response of structures (Chapter 5) and wind-tunnel techniques (Chapter 7).
Chapters 8 through 14 deal with aspects of wind loading for particular types of structures:
buildings, bridges, towers and so on. Finally, Chapter 15 discusses contemporary wind-
loading codes and standards – the most common point of contact of practising structural
engineers with wind loads.
Appendices A and B cover the terminology of wind engineering and the symbols used
in this book, respectively. Appendix C describes probability distributions relevant to wind
loading. Appendix D attempts to summarise the extreme wind climate of more than 80
countries, and Appendix E gives some approximate formulae for natural frequencies of
structures. Appendix F gives a simple example of the calculation of effective static wind
load distributions.

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Henderson, D.J. and Ginger, J.D. 2007. Vulnerability model of an Australian high-set house subjected
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and Engineering Research Center, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA.
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Industrial Aerodynamics, 53: 207–27.
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U.S. East Coast hurricane hazard: Sea temperature, hurricane frequency and hurricane track.
Proceedings, 12th Americas Conference on Wind Engineering, Seattle, Washington, United States,
16–20 June, 2013.
Pantelides, C.P., Horst, A.D. and Minor, J.E. 1992. Post-breakage behaviour of architectural glazing in
wind storms. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 41–44: 2425–35.
Shapiro, L. 1983. The asymmetric boundary layer flow under a translating hurricane. Journal of
Atmospheric Sciences, 40: 1984–98.
Tachikawa, M. 1983. Trajectories of flat plates in uniform flow with application to wind-generated mis-
siles. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 14: 443–53.
Tachikawa, M. 1990. A method for estimating the distribution range of trajectories of windborne mis-
siles. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 29: 175–84.
Twisdale, L.A., Vickery, P.J. and Steckley, A.C. 1996. Analysis of Hurricane Windborne Debris Impact
Risk for Residential Structures. Report prepared for State Farm Mutual. Applied Research
Associates, Rayleigh, North Carolina, Report 5503, March 1996.
 The nature of wind storms and wind-induced damage 31

Vickery, P.J., Skerjl, P.F. and Twisdale, L.A. 2000a. Simulation of hurricane risk in the United States
using an empirical storm track modeling technique. Journal of Structural Engineering, 126:
1222–37.
Vickery, P.J., Skerjl, P.F., Steckley, A.C. and Twisdale, L.A. 2000b. A hurricane wind field model for use
in simulations. Journal of Structural Engineering, 126: 1203–22.
Vickery, P.J., Lin, J., Skerjl, P.F., Twisdale, L.A. and Huang, K. 2006a. HAZUS-MH hurricane model
methodology. I: Hurricane hazard, terrain and wind load modeling. Natural Hazards Review, 7:
82–93.
Vickery, P.J., Skerjl, P.F., Lin, J., Twisdale, L.A., Young, M.A. and Lavelle, F.M. 2006b. HAZUS-MH hur-
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Walker, G.R. 1995. Wind Vulnerability Curves for Queensland Houses. Alexander Howden Insurance
Brokers (Australia) Ltd., Sydney, NSW, Australia.
Webster, P.J., Holland, G.J., Curry, J.A. and Chang, H.R. 2005. Changes in tropical cyclone number,
duration and intensity in a warming environment. Science, 309: 1844–6.
Wills, J., Wyatt, T. and Lee, B.E. 1998. Warnings of high winds in densely populated areas. United
Kingdom National Coordination Committee for the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction.
References

1 Chapter 1: The nature of wind storms

and wind-induced damage

Baker, C.J. 2007. The debris flight equations. Journal of

Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 95: 329–53.

Emanuel, K.A. 2005. Increasing destructiveness of tropical

cyclones over the past thirty years. Nature, 436: 686–8.

Fujita, T.T. 1971. Proposed characterization of tornadoes

and hurricanes by area and intensity. Report SMRP No. 91,
University of Chicago.

Fujita, T.T. 1985. The Downburst. Report on Projects NIMROD

and JAWS. Published by the author at the University of
Chicago.

Fujita, T.T., Pearson, A.D., Forbes, G.S., Umenhofer, T.A.,

Pearl, E.W. and Tecson, J.J. 1976. Photogrammetric
analyses of tornados. Symposium on Tornadoes: Assessment of
Knowledge and Implications for Man, Texas Tech University,
Lubbock, TX, 22–24 June 1976, pp. 43–88.

Golden, J.H. 1976. An assessment of windspeeds in tornados.

Symposium on Tornadoes: Assessment of Knowledge and
Implications for Man, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX,
22–24 June 1976, pp. 5–42.

Goliger, A.M., Milford, R.V., Adam, B.F. and Edwards, M.

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Technology and S.A. Weather Bureau, Pretoria, South Africa.

Hamid, S., Kibria, B.M.G., Gulati, S., Powell, M., Annane,

B., Cocke, S., Pinelli, J.-P., Gurley, K. and Chen, S.-C.
2010. Predicting losses of residential structures in the
State of Florida by the public hurricane loss evaluation
model. Statistical Methodology, 7: 552–73.

Henderson, D.J. and Ginger, J.D. 2007. Vulnerability model

of an Australian high-set house subjected to cyclonic wind
loading. Wind and Structures, 10: 269–85.

Hoecker, W.H. 1960. Wind speed and airflow patterns in the

Dallas tornado of 2 April, 1957. Monthly Weather Review,
88: 167–80.

Holland, G.J. 1980. An analytic model of the wind and

pressure profiles in a hurricane. Monthly Weather Review,
108: 1212–8.

Holmes, J.D. 1996. Vulnerability curves for buildings in

tropical-cyclone regions for insurance loss assessment.
ASCE EMD/STD Seventh Specialty Conference on Probabilistic
Mechanics and Structural Reliability, Worcester,
Massachusetts, USA, 7–9 August.

Holmes, J.D. 2004. Trajectories of spheres in strong winds

with applications to wind-borne debris. Journal of Wind
Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 92: 9–22.

Holmes, J.D. and Oliver, S.E. 2000. An empirical model of a

downburst. Engineering Structures, 22: 1167–72.

Holmes, J.D., Baker, C.J. and Tamura, Y. 2006a. Tachikawa

number: A proposal. Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics, 94: 41–7.

Holmes, J.D., Letchford, C.W. and Lin, N. 2006b.

Investigations of plate-type windborne debris. II.
Computed trajectories. Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics, 94: 21–39.

Klotzbach, P.J. 2006. Trends in global tropical cyclone

activity in the last twenty years (1986–2005). Geophysical
Research Letters, 33: L10805.

Kossin, J.P., Knapp, K.R., Vimont, D.J., Murnane, R.J. and

Harper, B.A. 2007. A globally consistent reanalysis of
hurricane variability and trends. Geophysical Research
Letters, 34: L04815.

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dwellings. Proceedings, 3rd International Conference on
Structural Safety and Reliability, Trondheim, Norway.

Lin, N., Holmes, J.D. and Letchford, C.W. 2007.

Trajectories of windborne debris in horizontal winds and
applications to impact testing. ASCE Journal of Structural
Engineering, 133: 274–82.

Lin, N., Letchford, C.W. and Holmes, J.D. 2006.

Investigations of plate-type windborne debris. I.
Experiments in full scale and wind tunnel. Journal of Wind
Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 94: 51–76.

Liu, F. and Pang, W. 2013. Projection of future U.S. design

wind speeds due to changes in hurricane activity: Storm
frequency and sea surface temperature. Proceedings, 12th
Americas Conference on Wind Engineering, Seattle,
Washington, United States, 16–20 June, 2013.

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USA.

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analyses. Symposium on Tornadoes: Assessment of Knowledge
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envelope. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
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Wind Engineering, Seattle, Washington, United States,
16–20 June, 2013.

Pantelides, C.P., Horst, A.D. and Minor, J.E. 1992.

Post-breakage behaviour of architectural glazing in wind
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Aerodynamics, 41–44: 2425–35.

Shapiro, L. 1983. The asymmetric boundary layer flow under

a translating hurricane. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences,
40: 1984–98.

Tachikawa, M. 1983. Trajectories of flat plates in uniform

flow with application to wind-generated missiles. Journal
of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 14:
443–53.

Tachikawa, M. 1990. A method for estimating the

distribution range of trajectories of windborne missiles.
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics,
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Twisdale, L.A., Vickery, P.J. and Steckley, A.C. 1996.

Analysis of Hurricane Windborne Debris Impact Risk for
Residential Structures. Report prepared for State Farm
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Vickery, P.J., Skerjl, P.F., Lin, J., Twisdale, L.A.,

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