Genetic engineering Clone: group of cells or organisms that are

 direct modification of an organism’s genetically identical as a result of asexual

genome, which is the list of specific traits reproduction
(genes) stored in the DNA. -They will have the same exact DNA as the
 This organisms are called Genetically parent. Cloning is a form of asexual
Modified Organism (GMO) reproduction.
Example: Only one genetic parent.
 Bacteria that produce human insulin - DOLLY was the first mammal cloned. She
 Genetically Modified organism are called had the same exact DNA as her mother and
transgenic organism; since genes are had no father.
transferred from one organism to another. 3. Gene Splicing - DNA is cut out of one
GMO Bacteria organism and put into another organism
 Bacteria are the most common GMOs A trait will be transferred from one organism
because their simple structure permits easy to another.
manipulation of their DNA. For example: the human insulin gene can
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) be removed from a human cell. It can be put
 PCR makes many copies of a specific DNA into a bacterial cell.
sequence in a few hours. The bacterial will now make human insulin.
 PCR amplifies DNA samples. 4. Gel Electrophoresis - a technique used to
 PCR is similar to DNA replication. compare DNA from two or more organisms.
Steps in PCR cycle Why compare DNA?
 heat is used to separate double-stranded -Find your baby’s daddy
DNA molecules -Who committed a crime.
 primers bind to each DNA strand on -How closely species are related.
opposite ends of the segment to be copied Steps in electrophoresis
 DNA polymerase binds nucleotides together A. The DNA is cut into fragments with a
to form new strands of DNA restriction enzyme.
Genetic Engineering Technique B. The cut DNA is then put into the wells of
1. Artificial Selection - breeders choose a machine filled with gel. The gel is spongy
which organism to mate to produce and the DNA squeezes through the pores.
offspring with desired traits. C. The machine is plugged in and the
They cannot control what genes are fragments get separated based on their
passed. size. The smaller fragments move further
a. Selective breeding - when animals with than the large.
desired characteristics are mated to
produce offspring with those desired DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
traits.  Molecules called nucleotides, on opposite
-Passing important gene to the next strands of the DNA double helix, that form
generation chemical bonds with one another. These
-Example: Angus cows are bred to chemical bonds are act like rungs in a
increase muscle mass so that we get ladder and help hold the two strands of DNA
more meat together. There are four nucleotides or
b. Hybridization - two individuals with bases, in DNA:
unlike characteristics are crossed to - Adenine (A)
produce the best in both organisms. - Cytosine (C)
Example: LIGER - Guanine (G)
c. Inbreeding - breeding of organism that - Thymine (T)
genetically similar to maintain desired  Under normal circumstance, the nitrogen-
traits. Dogs breeds are kept pure this containing bases adenine (A) will pair with
way. thymine (T), and cytosine ( C) and guanine
-It’s how a Doberman remains a (G) pairs together.
Doberman.It keeps each breed unique  Example:
from others. • DNA code: TTATGGCCATACGGCCTT
2. Cloning - creating an organism that is an • DNA pair: AATACCGGTATGCCGGAA
exact genetic copy of another.
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

 The Geologic Time Scale is a system used by scientists to describe the timing and relationships
between events in Earth’s history. It covers a vast expanse of time, from the formation of the planet
nearly 4.6 billion years ago to the present day. The layers of sedimentary rocks, called strata, showed
the different life forms in different age of the earth
 The Geologic Time Scale is divided into several large units of time, including eons, eras, periods, and
epochs. The largest unit of time is the eon, which is divided into eras. Eras are further divided into
periods, and periods are divided into epochs. Each unit of time is defined by specific events and
changes that took place on Earth, such as the formation of the planet, the evolution of life, and mass
extinctions.
 The two eons in the Geologic Time Scale are the Precambrian eon and the Phanerozoic eon. The
Precambrian eon covers the first four billion years of Earth’s history and is divided into three eras: the
Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic.

EONS
1. Precambrian –
 Longest part of earth’s history where trace fossils appeared.
 covers the first four billion years of Earth’s history and is divided into three eras:
Hadean
 named after the Greek word for “hell,” was a time of intense heat and volcanic activity, and it is
thought to have lasted from 4.6 billion to 4 billion years ago. It was a time of intense volcanic
activity and frequent meteor impacts, and it is thought that the first oceans formed during this
eon.
 The Hadean Eon is the earliest and shortest of the three eons of the Precambrian era and
covers the time interval between the formation of the Earth and the start of the Archean Eon,
approximately 4 billion years ago.
 During the Hadean Eon, the Earth was still in its early stages of formation, and the conditions
were extremely harsh. The Earth’s surface was constantly bombarded by asteroids, comets,
and other debris, resulting in frequent impacts and the formation of large craters. The early
 atmosphere was also composed of mostly hydrogen and helium, with little to no oxygen, making
it hostile to life as we know it today.
 Despite these harsh conditions, the Hadean Eon was a critical time in the history of the Earth,
as it set the stage for the evolution of life. It was during this time that the first oceans formed,
and the first minerals and rocks were created, providing the building blocks for life to eventually
emerge.
Archean
 lasted from 4 to 2.5 billion years ago. This was a time of early life on Earth, and the first
microorganisms appeared during this eon. formation of the first continents and the evolution of
the first simple life forms
 The Archean Eon was a time of significant change and evolution in the history of the Earth.
During this time, the first single-celled life forms evolved and the first primitive ecosystems were
established. The Archean Eon also saw the formation of the first continents and the first stable
environments suitable for life.
 One of the most significant events of the Archean Eon was the emergence of the first living
organisms. The exact origin of life on Earth is still uncertain, but the evidence suggests that life
evolved sometime during the Archean Eon. This was a major milestone in the history of the
Earth and represents a critical step forward in the evolution of life on our planet.
Proterozoic
 lasted from 2.5 billion to 541 million years ago. This was a time of the evolution of early life
forms and the formation of the first continents. saw the evolution of more complex life forms and
the formation of the first multicellular organisms.
 The Proterozoic Eon was a time of significant change and evolution in the history of the Earth.
During this time, the first multicellular life forms evolved, and the first primitive ecosystems were
established. The Proterozoic Eon also saw the first signs of plate tectonics, the formation of the
first supercontinents, and the development of the first oceanic crust.
 One of the most significant events of the Proterozoic Eon was the evolution of oxygen-
producing photosynthetic organisms, which eventually led to the buildup of free oxygen in the
atmosphere. This had a profound effect on the evolution of life on Earth and set the stage for
the evolution of complex life forms.

2. Phanerozoic
 which began 541 million years ago and continues to the present day, is characterized by the
evolution of multicellular life forms and the development of the first animals. This eon is divided
into three eras:
Paleozoic
 which lasted from 541 million to 252 million years ago, saw the evolution of the first fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, and dinosaurs, as well as the formation of the first forests, land plants and
the first mass extinctions. It was also a time of great diversification, as new groups of animals
evolved and formed complex ecosystems.
Mesozoic
 period of middle age from 252 to 66 million years ago, is best known for the dinosaurs. This era
also saw the evolution of the first birds and mammals and the reign of the dinosaurs, as well as
the formation of the continents as we know them today and the extinction of the dinosaurs.
 Earth is through so many changes. It was the end of this era that thought that a comet or
asteroid collided with earth which resulted in a massive cloud of dust and smoke rising into the
sky and obstructing the sun and killed the dinosaurs.
Cenozoic
 from 66 million years ago to the present day, saw the evolution of modern mammals and the
rise of humans and the development of modern ecosystems.

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
1. Plato (427-347 BC)
Believed in 2 worlds: the real world (ideal and eternal), and an illusionary world (imperfect and
perceived through the senses). Typological view of nature – individual variation as the imperfect
manifestation of ethos.
2. Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Believed that all living organisms could be arranged in a “scale of nature” or Great Chain of Being.
The ladder of life consists of graduation from inanimate material through plants, through lower animals
and humans to other spiritual beings.
-philosopher that first classified organisms
3. Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (1809 Philosophie Zoologique)
First articulated theory of evolution:
 Organisms continually arise by spontaneous generation.
 “Nervous fluid” acts to move each species up the “great chain of being”.
 Organisms develop adaptations to changing environment through the use and disuse of organs.
(Heavy use attracts more “nervous fluid”.)
  Acquired characteristics are inherited.

4. Charles Lyell (Principles of Geology)

 Emerging field of GEOLOGY lead to a new concept of the age of the Earth.
 The history of the earth extends back through vast time periods.
 The processes at work today are the same as those that have been operating throughout the
entire history of Earth.
 These concepts became known as UNIFORMITARIANISM or ACTUALISM.
5. Georges Cuvier (1769-1832)
o Fossils resemble but are not exactly the same as modern species
o Many past species are extinct
6. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
 Populations reproduce exponentially.
 Natural populations have a large capacity to reproduce and if left unchecked they will increase
at a rapid rate.
 MANY MORE ORGANISMS ARE BORN THAN CAN POSSIBLY SURVIVE.
7. Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)
 Believed that populations tend to increase at a faster rate than their food supply normally allows.
 Published the book “Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection” which contributed a lot in
taxonomist thinking.
4 theories of evolution
o Evolution has occurred. Species are not unchanging entities, but evolve over time. All
species derive from very different species living in the past.
o The primary cause of evolutionary change is natural selection. Species change over time
because bearers of different traits have different probabilities of contributing offspring to the next
generation. Natural selection eliminates unsuccessful variation.
o Splitting of single species into two or more species has occurred. All species share
common ancestors. Evolution has altered and diversified ancestral species and have arisen by
descent with modifications.
o Evolutionary change is gradual. Evolution occurs by the gradual transformation of
populations over long periods of time (hundreds to millions of years) rather than by a species
changing nearly instantaneously into something different.
8. Carolus Linnaeus
o Established the modern system of taxonomy to discover order in the diversity of life “for the
greater glory of God”.
o Groupings based on similarity
o Hierarchal relationships of organisms
o Swedish naturalist from the 18th century and is considered the father of taxonomy who first
began to separate organisms into hierarchical categories.
o When Linnaeus developed his system of hierarchical categories he called it ‘Systema Naturae’.
o Developed binomial nomenclature (Binomen), a two word naming system (genus and species)
for naming all species on earth and written in Latin.
o Linnaeus’ hierarchical system of classification includes seven levels called taxa.
They are, from largest to smallest, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.

TAXONOMY
 is the branch of biology that groups and names organisms based on studies of their different
characteristics.
CLASSIFICATION
 the grouping of objects or information based on similarities.
 provides a framework in which to study the relationships among living and extinct species.
SYSTEMATICS
 logically classifying taxonomic information
 The goal of systematics is to determine the phylogeny – the evolutionary history of a species or group
of related species.
PHYLOGENY
 inferred by identifying organismal features, characters, that vary among species.
 These characters can be:
- Morphological
- Chromosomal
- Molecular
- Behavioral or ecological
 Shared primitive character - is a homologous structure that is older than the branching of a particular
clade from other members of that clade. It is shared by more than just the taxon we are trying to define.
Example – mammals all have a backbone, but so do other vertebrates.
  shared derived character - is a new evolutionary feature, unique to a particular group. These are the
features that are most useful for determining evolutionary relationships!
 Example - all mammals have hair, and no other animals have hair.
CLADOGRAMS
 are diagrams that show the evolutionary relationships among a group of organisms.
 A phylogenic tree is a specific type of cladogram.

Example of a phylogenic tree.

A B C D E F

TI
Clade or M
lineage E

Speciation: formation of two

new species from one

This cladogram shows the evolutionary relationship among several

vertebrates.

Lizard Mouse
Fish
Hagfish Frog
Pigeon Chimp

Feathers

Fur &
Mammary
Glands

Claws
or Nails
Lungs

Jaws
LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION
1. Kingdom – highest level on the biological classification scale. All living creatures are classed as part of
the Animalia kingdom.
2. Phylum – splits animals by major characteristics. Vertebrates (fish, birds, mammals) are in the
Chordata
Phylum
3. Class – distinguishes further. Fish are divided in to Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) and
Osteichthyes (bony fish)
4. Order – further differentiates physical characteristics.
5. Family – follows on from order by placing into groups by further physical characteristics. For example,
cod, coalfish, pollock and whiting are all members of Gadidae family, and share features
such as all having three dorsal fins
6. Genus – Contains closely related organisms and Is used as the first word in an organisms scientific
name. for example, cod are in the Gadus genus to differentiate them from the other fish from Gadidae
family.
7. Species – Consist of organism of same type and are able to breed and produce young of the same kind
Species used as second word in organisms scientific name.
Species is the final stem and pinpoints the exact creature. For example Atlantic cod’s species
name is Gadus morhua.

5 KINGDOMS
1. Monera (has been replaced with two domains)
- Archaebacteria
 Unicellular, Prokaryote
 Either autotroph or heterotroph
 Cell walls made of peptidoglycan
 Reproduces by binary fission
 Lives in Harsh environments: salty lakes, hot springs, anaerobic environments
- Eubacteria
 Unicellular, prokaryote
 Either autotroph or heterotroph
 Cell walls made of peptidoglycan
 Reproduces by binary fission
 Includes common bacteria: tooth decay, yogurt production, food poisoning
2. Protista
 Unicellular or multicellular
 Eukaryotic
 Cell walls made of varying materials
 Autotroph or heterotroph
 About 50,000 species
 Reproduces-asexually
 Examples include: Euglena and Amoeba
3. Fungi
•Unicellular or multicellular
•Eukaryotic
•Heterotrophic
•Cells walls made of chitin.
•Reproduces - asexually
•100,000 species
•Including: toadstools, mushrooms, puffballs, rusts or smut
4. Plantae
•Multicellular
•Eukaryotic
•Autotrophic
•Can reproduce both ways.
•Cell walls made of cellulose.
•All but a few are land dwellers. 350,000 species
•Has individuals that emerged via endosymbiotic relationship between an ancient cyanobacterium
and proteobacterium.
•Including:mosses, ferns, conifers, flower plants
5. Animalia
•Multicellular
•Eukaryotic
•Heterotrophic
•No cell walls
•Reproduces sexually by meiosis.
•All animals have some type of symmetry