Serial Position Effect

Aim

To study the effect of the type of material on serial learning

Basic Concepts

Learning

Learning is a persisting ‘change’ in human performance or performance potential

(brought) about as result of a learner’s interaction with the environment.
An enduring change in a behaviour, or a capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results
from practice or other form of experience. It is a change in behaviour potential. It is a
‘relative permanent’ change in a person’s knowledge or behaviour or behaviour potential
produced by experience. The relative permanent changes means that when people learn
something, some physical part of their brain changes in response to that learning.

The whole process of learning actually happens in with our memory system as if we
do remember what happens, we won’t be able to learn, as we will not be able to recall
whatever we did. It can be considered as a process by which experience produces a relatively
enduring change in an organism’s behaviour or capacity. It makes distinction between
“knowing now” versus “doing”. For example - knowing how to ride a bike(knowledge) and
actual performance of the behaviour (Ciccarelli and white).

Types of Learning

Verbal Learning
Verbal learning is an acquired skilled which is developed in our daily life.
It is acquired by human beings only and is concerned with learning of words, letter, digits,
symbols etc. it is a basic and significant skill because of its usefulness in communication and
concept formation. Learning involves the use of both, meaningless item and meaningful
words. According to Morgan, King, Weisz and Schopler (1997) verbal learning is a learning
that involves words either as a stimulus or as a response.

“Generally verbal learning refers to the study of learning using verbal stimulus
material and verbal responses. Verbal here is rather inclusive, covering printed and written, as
well as spoken material.” – Reber and Reber (Hussain).

Sensory Motor Learning

A type of learning which involves the learning of the movement of parts of the body
is called Sensory Motor Learning. Motor organs are guided and controlled by sensory
information, necessitating coordination between sensory data and motor movements. It is
associated with developing simple habits through sensory experiences, such as children
learning skills in nursery playground. It differs from perceptual motor learning, which
involves acquiring social habits and mastering complex motor skills, such as playing a
musical instrument. Both sensory motor learning and perceptual learning are considered type
of motor learning. Many experiments are conducted to illustrate the process of sensory motor
learning. (Hussain)
Process of Learning

Habituation
Habituation is a decrease in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus. It occurs
across different species from humans to birds to sea animals it might be because it is
considered to be the simplest form to learning. Considering for instance that we touch a fish,
at first it might contract its gill but if do it often, the fish might no longer contract its gill and
will not react to your touch anyway. Habituation serves as a adaptive function. If organisms
react to every stimuli they come across to then they would be overwhelmed and exhausted.

So, by learning not to respond to uninterested and unfamiliar stimulus, organisms

conserve their energy which help them attend to stimuli which is considered to be more
important and eventful. Habituation plays an important role in the study of behaviour.
Whether in observing animal behaviour in wild or in comparing children behaviour in
presence and absence of a teacher. Thus, the researchers try to habituate the subjects with
their presence, so that the results won’t change.

Association
Learning through association is considered to be foundation for human and animal
cognition. It works through the association of experiences, ideas and stimulus for developing
an understanding, behaviour and emotional response. Since time immemorial, in both
psychological and teaching world, learning by association has emerged as the strongest
behavioural influence. The concept learning through association gained its prominent place
through the work of Ivan Pavlov and BF Skinner. Pavlov’s classical conditioning states that
an organism learns to associate two stimulus such that one stimulus comes to elicit a response
that originally was elicited only by the other stimulus.

Just as habituation, classical conditioning is a basic form of learning across various

species. The discovery dates back to the 1860s. Skinner coined the term operant conditioning
which states that it is a type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by the consequence
that follows it. During his experiments with the rat he identified two types of consequences:
reinforcement and punishment. With reinforcement, a response is strengthened by an
outcome that follows it. While punishments occur when a response is weakened by outcomes
that follows it.

Imitation and Modelling

Learning may also occur by following of an observed behaviour. This type of learning
is called observational learning: learning that occurs by observing the behaviour of a model.
Teachers or parents often help us learn by intentional modelling skill. But observational
learning extends beyond such contexts. Observational learning is highly adaptive. By
observing others people learn the importance and value of an event. Observational learning is
both positive and negative in a sense that we not only learn positive ways of behaving but
also negative ways. As we grow in relation with our society, it makes possible for an
individual to differentiate between a positive and negative ways of behaving due to the
consequences attached to it.
Bandura’s social- learning theory, also known by its former name social-learning
theory, emphasises that people learn by observing the behaviour of models and acquiring the
belief that they can produce behaviours to influence events in their life. He views modelling
as four step processes that include some cognitive factors: first is attention, we must pay
enough attention to the behaviour of model; second is retention, we must retain the behaviour
so that it can be recalled when needed; third is Reproduction, a person must be able to
reproduce the exact or something similar to the behaviour which was paid attention be;
fourth is the Motivation, a person should be motivated to perform the observed behaviour,
otherwise all the above three processes will be of no use. And according to Bandura self –
efficacy (represents people’s belief that they have the capability to perform a certain
behaviour) is the best motivational factor in observational learning.

Consequence

Typically, most of the behaviours are governed by its consequences, which may
strengthen or weaken a behaviour. Two types of reinforcement strengthen those behaviour
and two major types of punishment weakens those behaviour. Reinforcement aims to
strengthen a behaviour by introducing or eliminating a stimulus. One of such reinforcement is
positive reinforcement. It occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent
presentation of a stimulus. The stimulus that follows and strengthens the response is called
positive reinforcement. A child being praised for doing homework which results in the
increase of doing his homework sincerely, is a type of positive reinforcement. Food, drinks,
comforting physical contact, attention, praise, gifts and money are some common kinds of
positive reinforcers.
It is important to keep in mind that rewards are not same as positive reinforcer.
Behaviourist use the term positive reinforcer as it focuses on how consequences affect
behaviour. Rewards and positive reinforcers differ in a way that, it is possible if we a give
reward for a particular behaviour and that particular behaviour does not occurs again and it
did not reinforce positive behaviour while when a positive reinforcement make a particular
behaviour to happen again. There are two types of positive reinforcement: Primary and
secondary reinforcement.
Primary reinforcement are stimuli, like water or food as they satisfy our biological
needs while Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that acquire their reinforcing value in
association with primary reinforcers, for instance money, money gets associated with our
biological needs which in turn makes money to be important in our life. As we associate two
stimuli or element secondary reinforcement is likely to develop. Secondary reinforcers often
illustrate how behaviour depends on both classical as well as operant conditioning. While
negative reinforcement is a response that is strengthened by the subsequent removal of an
aversive stimulus. The aversive stimuli is removed is called negative reinforcement.
Often punishment is confused as negative reinforcement. Punishment weakens a
response whereas reinforcement either positive or negative strengthens a response. When we
talk about reinforcement being in positive and negative form, the term negative and positive
does not mean good or bad but rather refers to the procedures that is positive refers to
resenting a stimulus and negative means the removal of stimuli. Negative reinforcements are
helpful in learning to escape from and avoid avoiding aversive situations.

Operant extinction is the process where a behaviour weakens or even disappears

because it is no longer being reinforced. For instance, if a child is rewarded every time, he
cleans the room but the child will someday stop doing so the reward is not given. Resistance
of extinction depends on the reinforcement history. Some behaviours might take long to get
vanish if that behaviour was strongly reinforced in the past, while others might stop quickly if
reinforcement was weak or inconsistence. In practical scenarios, operant extinction can be
used to reduce unwanted behaviour.
Aversive punishment involves reduction in occurrence of behaviour by applying an
unpleasant or aversive stimuli after the behaviour occurs. This is also known as positive
punishment or punishment by application such as slapping or scolding after an unwanted
behaviour occurs on the part of child. The aversive stimuli discourage the behaviour from
being repeated in the future. While it can produce quick results, especially for stopping
dangerous behaviour its use such as spanking can be controversial. (passer and smith)

Factors Affecting Verbal Learning

Meaningfulness
Material which are meaningless, require more mental effort to be learned. As in
meaningless words or letters cannot be associated with any other material, it becomes hard
for the learner to learn such material. In the process of verbal learning Meaningfulness of a
presented material hinders in a person ability to learn and remember.

Attention
Attention plays an importance role in verbal learning, as in verbal learning mental
effort is required. Paying more attention will lead to better retention and understanding of the
task or material. Whereas even a small distraction can create attentional split which results in
poor performance in the task due to less understanding of the task.

Novelty
Tasks which are novel or new to a person’s experience require more time to learn and
understand. While task which familiar to a person require less time to learned. Novel tasks
require more mental and conscious effort. Such task affects a person ability in performance
due to the unfamiliarity in the task which may lead to bad results.

Organisation
Imagery
Expectancy

Memory
Traditionally memory was first studied by in the fields of philosophy, including with
the studies of techniques for artificially enhancing the memory. In the early twentieth
century, memory was placed within the paradigms of cognitive psychology. In psychology,
memory is considered as a process through which a person records, stores and later retrieve
experiences and information. It is considered to be a cognitive system in the brain for storing
and retrieving. Memory helps people learn from experience and adapt to changing
environment accordingly and we are to benefit from this learning because of memory.
Memory in a way helps people in adding richness and context to their lives. [Shergill]

Theories of Memory

Information Processing Model

The Information Processing Model was proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968). The theory
used an analogy of computer to explain the theory. The theory states that the memory is
processes in three stages: Encoding(input), Storage(processing) and Retrieval(output). In the
first stage, Encoding, humans transfer sensory stimuli and coming information into a form
that can be placed in memory. The second stage is the Storage stage, which means creation of
permanent record of the encoded information. In this this, the information either gets
transferred to short- term memory or long-term memory. The third stage is the Retrieval, it is
a stage where human successfully retrieve their encoded information which was stored in the
long- term memory. The model is also called “stage model of memory”. According to
Atkinson & Shiffrin information differs on the basis of this functions. The information stored
in short term memory or long-term memory differ on the basis of their characteristic and
importance. Information in the sensory memory enters short term memory when the
information becomes the focus of attention, whereas information that are not engage in
attention gets fade. Then, through elaborative rehearsal, the information in the short- term
memory enter the long-term memory. [Shergill]

Levels of Processing Model

The level of processing model was proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972). It emphasises on
the depth and method of processing information, which affects how an information is stored
in memory. The model proposed the idea that the retention of memory depends on the nature
of cognitive processes involved in encoding information. The model states that information is
processed through a continuum of depth. The three level of processes involved are Shallow
Processing, Intermediate Processing and Deep Processing. The shallow processing focuses on
surface features which results in weak memory retention. Intermediate Processing involves
recognition of patters and phonetics. Whereas Deep Processing the meaning and significance
of the information resulting in better memory retention. Also involved are the types of
processing: Structural Processing (analysis of physical structure of the stimuli), Structural
Processing (focuses on sounds of the word) and Semantic Processing (understanding meaning
and making connections). The deeper the processing, the more probability of the information
to be stored in the long- term memory for better retention. [Shergill]

PDP

Forgetting
“Forgetting is fading of original experience with passage of time. It arises due to disuse.”-
Aristotle
“Forgetting is failing to retain or to be able to recall which has been acquired.”- Munn

Forgetting is a very common phenomena related to the loss of ability to recall,

recognise or reproduce the information which was previously learned. Forgetting refers to
apparent loss of information. The information are the ones which were originally encoded
and were stored in an individual’s memory. It is considered as a failure to recall what was
once learned and experienced. It is a gradual process in which old memories are unable to be
recalled from the memory system. The phenomena usually occurs when the learned
information are left untouched for a considerable period.

Relationship between Memory and Learning

Memory and learning are closely related as learning is essential for survival and development
for organisms. Learning is a process of acquiring knowledge while memory is the retention of
those acquired knowledge. Learning and memory work together and go hand in hand. The
survival of any species would become difficult if organisms keep learning and is unable
retrieve the same. Learning will be of no importance if it cannot be used for future. Thus,
learning and memory are important, absence of any one of the two hinders in the ability of
the one.

Methods of Learning:

Spaced vs Massed Learning

The spaced method learning involves learning in divided sessions with breaks in
between the session. Learning in short units helps in better retention and motives the learner
to continue the task after a break. The rest period in between reduces the fatigue and
improves the efficiency of the learner. Whereas in Massed Learning involves learning for a
continuous period without any break. Continuously learning for a long period induces fatigue,
reducing the efficiency to learn. The fatigued state of the learner leads to the loss of speed
and inaccuracy in the performance of an individual. (hussain)

Massed learning yields quicker initial results but often leads to lower retention and
efficiency. Whereas spaced learning enhances long-term learning and reduces the cognitive
and physical stress associated with continuous practice It has been found that for the
acquisition of psycho-motor skills spaced learning makes the learning easier as compared to
the massed learning. Not only in psycho-motor skills but in most of the situation spaced
learning is better than massed learning.

Whole vs Part Learning

Whole learning leads to learning whole information as whole without breaking them
into parts. The method suits best for learning short and simple materials which are easy to
grasp. The method is beneficial for holistic understanding of the concepts. Whole learning
works better for some learner who can learn better in continuity and not in parts. In part
learning an individual divides the task or information into smaller chunks or parts and learn
each part of the information individually before combining them as whole. This method is
particularly used when the material is long, complicated or is in continuity. The method helps
individual to have a detailed knowledge of each part before combing them as whole.

The learner chooses to learn the material in either of the way is based on the nature of
the material and learner’s capability. For children and less experienced learner, the method of
Part Learning may provide with better results as it reduces cognitive load. Whole Learning
may work better when the continuity and context of the material is required. However,
Research suggests that there is no absolute rule for which method is better. And in some
situation combination of the two may offer better results. (hussain)

Active vs. Passive Learning

Active learning requires conscious mental effort to acquire a knowledge. The learner has a
clear motive and objective in gaining the knowledge. It is type of Intentional learning as it
happens with an intention of learning. While passive learning occurs in the absence of
conscious effort. It occurs unintentionally and without any goal and motive. Passive learning
happens in in a less systematic way. (hussain)
 Incidental vs. Intentional Learning
Incidental learning happens without any conscious or mental effort. It is unintentional
and happens with a by product of other activities. It happens in everyday situations and
occurs naturally, often without the learner realizing it. In such learning their no specific goal.
incidental learning can be effective in certain contexts, it is generally less systematic and
slower than intentional learning. (Hussain)

While in Intentional learning is when a person deliberately sets out to learn something with a
specific goal or purpose in mind. This type of learning requires conscious and mental effort to
acquire any knowledge. Intentional learning requires a learner to have active focus and
engagement in the learning process. It often occurs in structured environments and the learner
has a clear objective. (Hussain)

Types of Recall
There are types of recall through which memory can be retained

Free Recall:
Free recall is a method that involves recalling of the learned items, which can be in
any sequence. The person is not obliged to recall the items in a particular sequence. People
can recall the information in the sequence in which they can retain the information.
Correctness of the recall is important but not the sequence in which it is remembered. The
method of free recall is also called Simple Reproduction Method because a learner is
supposed to reproduce the items which they remember, irrespective of the order. [Shergill]

Anticipatory Recall:
Anticipation Recall is a memory and learning method where individuals try to predict
the next item in a sequence before it is revealed. This technique is frequently utilized in
experiments to examine serial learning and how memory is reinforced. This method is also
known as Method of Serial Anticipation. In the serial positioning effect, a neutral item,
symbolically represented, is added at the start of the list. This neutral item acts as a stimulus
for the first item. Each subsequent item is presented to the learner for two seconds initially. In
this method, the learner is first shown the neutral item, after which they are asked to
anticipate the first item on the list. After that the first item is shown and the learner is
prompted to anticipate the second item, and so on. Each item acts as a stimulus for the
subsequent one. The method's name reflects its function—each item prompts the learner
based on what they anticipate or recall for the next item in the sequence. [Shergill]

Serial Recall:
In the method of serial recall, the person has to recall the learned items in the same
sequence in which the items were presented. Therefore, learning with this method becomes
difficult on the part of the learner. The pace of serial recall is slower as compared to free
recall as in serial recall the person has to learn the relative positions each item as well the
items itself. This methos is also called Method of Serial Reproduction, as learner has to
reproduce the learned items in order.it has been observed that material learned through this
method is usually stringer than the free recall. In this method, learner tries to associate
between the items so that their position can be remembered. [Shergill]

Paired-Associate Recall:
 Paired associate recall is a technique in which an individual establishes a connection
between two related items, namely stimulus and response. This method is commonly applied
in memory and learning studies to understand how individuals form associations between
paired elements. In the serial learning studies, pair of words are used instead of one item. At
the beginning of the learning process, each pair is shown to the learner for a brief period.
Then, the first item of each pair is showed as a cue, and the learner is asked to recall the other
word which is associated with the cue presented. Paired associate recall emphasizes the direct
connection between two related items. The paired associate method is effective in studying
how connections between related stimuli are formed and reinforced, making it a valuable
approach for exploring associative memory processes. [Shergill]

Methods of Recall:
Reproduction-
Recognition
Anticipation-
Relearning-
Reconstruction

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Serial position effect

Serial position effect is a phenomenon where an individual recall the item present in the list
and the recalling of the items depends on the position of the of item in the list. The
phenomenon observes that the items in the begging and in the end are better recalled as
compared to items present in the middle. Finding in the serial recall situation states the
primary items are more correctly recalled followed by the end items than the middle order
items. In serial position effect, the person has to recall the items in the serial order i.e. from
the star to the end. The serial position effect consists of two phenomena viz. primacy effect
and recency effect. Primacy effect refers to the better recall of items from the beginning of
list (first three or four items) whereas recency effect refers to the better recall of items from
the end of the list (last three or four items) than middle items of the list. The primacy effect
corresponds to the tail of the U on the left. The recency effect corresponds to the tail of the U
on the right

Serial Position Curve

The serial position curve of first described by Nipher (1878). Th serial position curve can be
defined as “U-shaped relationship between a word's position in a list and its probability of
recall”. It is a ‘U’ shaped learning curve obtained while recalling a list of word words due to
the greater accuracy of recall of words from the beginning and end of the list than words from
the middle of the list. Seral position curve can be demonstrated by means of using a free
recall task using a verbal learning test.

Reasons for Serial Position Curve

The serial position effect, encompassing both the recency and primacy effects, is
reflected in the serial position curve. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) attributed the recency
effect to the output from what they described as primary memory, specifically a short-term
memory buffer. This effect is also explained through retroactive interference during
encoding, where earlier items in the list are disrupted by later ones (Oberauer, 2003).
 From Atkinson and Shiffrin's perspective, the primacy effect arises because the initial
items in a list receive more focused attention and rehearsal. This enhanced processing enables
these items to transfer into long-term memory, increasing their likelihood of later retrieval.
Supporting evidence for this explanation comes from a study by Rundus (1971), which
demonstrated that the primacy effect is linked to increased rehearsal of the first few items.

The serial position curve itself reflects the influence of interference among items,
which makes it easier to recall words from the beginning or end of a list while items in the
middle are more likely to be forgotten.

Remote Associations:
In Ebbinghaus' perspective on serial learning, "remote association" refers to the link
between two items that are not adjacent in a sequence. The strength of this connection is
believed to decrease as the number of intervening items increases, making it inversely
proportional to the degree of separation. For many years, remote associations were widely
accepted as an explanation for various phenomena in serial learning. However, recent
research over the past decade has shown that the traditional remote association theory is
insufficient. This inadequacy arises from two flawed assumptions: (1) that the "effective
stimuli" for forming remote associations are the items in the list themselves, and (2) that the
development of remote associations of varying strengths relies on a consistent sequence in
which the items are presented.

Anchor Points:
In the serial position effect, anchor point refers to a specific position in a sequence
and this specific position serves as a reference a point for memory. These positions are often
associated with primacy and recency effect. In the primacy effect items at the beginning of
the list are better remembered due to rehearsal and these items are likely to enter the long-
term memory. In the recency effect, the items at the end of the list are better remembered and
are more likely to enter the short- term memory as they are encountered most recently. Thus,
items at the end and at the beginning are better remembered as compare to the items in the
middle. The middle items tend to suffer from interference and are not associated with either
anchor and therefore are less likely to benefit from rehearsal, making the items difficult to
recall. To make the memory better anchor point acts as a cognitive landmark which helps an
individual to organize information in a systematic way so that the retrieval of the same
information could be easier in the future.

Plateau:
It is caused because of the recency and primacy effect which happens during the
experiment. Primacy effect is the tendency to remember the items which were presented at
the beginning of the list. This does not only happen in the case of remembering the items
which are presented in the list but also happens in our daily life. For instance: when a mother
says the names of the items which are to be bought from the grocery store, the kid soften
remember the items which were pronounced at the begining and forget the other items which
were to be bought.
In the recency effect the person remembers the items which were presented at the end of the
list. It is the tendency of an individual to remember the items which are most recently
occurred. For Instance: students tend to remember the recently studied chapter as compared
to the chapters which they had studied few weeks back.
Reasons for Distortion of Serial Position Curve:

Related Researches

The study "The Interaction Between the Production Effect and Serial Position in
Recognition and Recall" was conducted by Sébastien Gionet, Dominic Guitard, and Jean
Saint-Aubin from the School of Psychology at Université de Moncton, Canada, and Cardiff
University, UK. The study aimed to investigate the production effect—a phenomenon where
reading items aloud enhances memory retention compared to silent reading—and its
interaction with the serial position effect in memory tasks. The study focused on whether this
interaction is consistent across different memory tasks, such as recognition and recall, and
how task demands influence memory processes. The researchers hypothesized that the
distinctiveness of produced items would enhance their recall, particularly at later serial
positions, but that production might interfere with rehearsal, leading to reduced recall
effectiveness for earlier items. The experiment was done across four experiments, they used
various methodologies, including two-alternative forced-choice recognition tests, old–new
recognition tests, and immediate serial recall tasks, to evaluate memory performance under
different conditions. In each experiment, participants were asked to read some items aloud
(produced condition) and others silently (silent condition). Memory performance was tested
under varying task constraints. The findings showed that while the production effect
consistently benefited memory for items at later positions in recognition tasks, it did not
display a cross-over interaction as seen in recall tasks. In recall, a trade-off was evident,
where production hindered early item recall due to disrupted rehearsal but enhanced memory
for later items through increased distinctiveness. These results contribute to the understanding
of how production influences memory processes differently across tasks, supporting the idea
that distinctiveness and rehearsal demands vary with task requirements.

The study "Serial Position Effects in Recall of Television Commercials" was

conducted by W. Scott Terry from the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. the study
aimed to explore how the placement of television commercials within a sequence influences
memory. Specifically, to investigate whether serial position effects, such as the primacy
effect (better recall of the first items in a list) and recency effect (better recall of the last
items), are applicable to memory for commercials. The study also examined the impact of
commercial length and testing conditions on recall performance. The research hypothesized
that commercials at the beginning of a sequence would benefit from enhanced rehearsal and
reduced interference, leading to better recall (primacy effect). It also suggested that
commercials at the end of a sequence would show better recall in immediate memory tests
due to their retention in short-term memory (recency effect), though this effect would
diminish with delayed recall. Another hypothesis proposed was that longer commercials
would be more memorable, especially at earlier serial positions, due to extended exposure
time. The study was divided into three experiments. In Experiment 1, participants viewed
lists of 15 commercials, alternating between 15-second and 30-second durations. Memory
was tested both immediately after viewing and at the end of the session. A counterbalanced
design ensured that each commercial appeared in different serial positions, allowing an
analysis of position-based memory effects. Experiment 2 embedded 30-second commercials
into a 21-minute sitcom to mimic real-world viewing conditions. Participants were informed
of a delayed recall test at the session’s end. Experiment 3 followed the same format as
Experiment 2 but used a recognition test, where participants identified brand names from
previously viewed commercials alongside distractors. The findings revealed a consistent
primacy effect across all experiments, with commercials at the beginning of the sequence
being better recalled or recognized. Recency effects, however, were only observed in
immediate recall during Experiment 1 and disappeared in delayed recall tests (Experiments 2
and 3). Commercial length had no significant impact on memory performance, indicating that
serial position played a more crucial role. The study validated earlier findings from
naturalistic studies, showing that commercials positioned early in a sequence benefit from
enhanced rehearsal and reduced interference. The inclusion of controlled experimental
methods strengthened the reliability of these findings and demonstrated how combining
laboratory and real-world approaches can provide deeper insights into advertising memory.
The research highlights the importance of serial position effects in designing more effective
commercial breaks and suggests future exploration into how these effects influence consumer
preferences and brand attitudes.

The study "Serial Position Effects in Mild Cognitive Impairment," conducted by

Diane B. Howieson and colleagues which aimed to investigate how serial position effects
advantages memory for items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a
list manifest in individuals with MCI (mild cognitive impairment), Alzheimer’s disease, and
cognitively intact controls. The experimenters hypothesized that MCI patients would show a
diminished primacy effect similar to AD patients, as both conditions impair episodic memory
and an enhanced scoring methods that incorporate serial position data might better identify
MCI than standard word-list scoring techniques. Th experiment was conducted in two parts
where in Experiment 1: Participants completed the CERAD Word List task, recalling words
from a list of 10 items presented over three trials, with delayed recall assessed after an
intervening activity. Serial position effects (primacy and recency) were compared across
groups. Four scoring methods—standard scoring, retention weighted scoring (RWS),
correspondence analysis (CA), and a short-term memory penalty method—were evaluated for
their effectiveness in distinguishing participant groups. Whereas in Experiment 2: A similar
procedure was used, but this experiment focused on replicating the findings of Experiment 1.
Participants with MCI and intact cognition completed the word-list task, and their serial
position effects were analysed. The results indicated that MCI participants had a reduced
primacy effect, consistent with their impaired ability to consolidate new information into
long-term memory, while their recency effect, tied to short-term memory, remained intact.
The MCI group’s performance fell between that of cognitively intact controls and AD
patients, highlighting its intermediate position in the spectrum of cognitive decline. The
researchers tested alternative scoring methods, including retention weighted scoring (RWS)
and correspondence analysis (CA), but found that standard scoring was as effective as these
methods for distinguishing MCI from controls. However, RWS was more effective in
differentiating MCI from AD. The study highlights the potential of serial position analysis to
improve the diagnosis of cognitive impairments and their progression to dementia.

The study "Using Serial Position Effects to Investigate Memory Dysfunction in

Homeless and Precariously Housed Persons" was conducted by Kristina M. Gicas and
colleagues. The study aimed to explore the nature of memory dysfunction in homeless and
precariously housed adults through serial position effects, focusing on primacy and recency
in verbal memory. The research involved 227 participants from the ongoing Hotel Study, a
20-year longitudinal project targeting adults from Vancouver's Downtown Eastside who were
homeless or precariously housed. Memory performance was assessed using the Hopkins
Verbal Learning Test-Revised (HVLT-R), which measured the recall of words in primacy,
middle, and recency positions. Neuroanatomical data were collected through brain imaging,
examining volumes of the hippocampus, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and
entorhinal cortex. Findings revealed a diminished recency effect compared to primacy,
indicating deficits in working memory and executive control rather than long-term memory.
Larger hippocampal volumes were associated with better recall of primacy items, but no
significant relationship was found between brain regions and recency recall. The study also
showed that serial position scores correlated positively with sustained attention and cognitive
control, further emphasizing the role of frontal lobe functioning in memory performance.
These findings suggest that memory dysfunction in this population may stem from executive
control deficits rather than primary memory impairments, highlighting the need for cognitive
rehabilitation strategies focused on attention and executive functioning to mitigate cognitive
decline and improve functional outcomes in this vulnerable group.

Arthur R. Jensen conducted a study titled "Spelling Errors and the Serial-Position
Effect" to explore whether the serial-position effect, commonly observed in serial learning, is
also evident in spelling tasks. The serial-position effect describes how the position of items in
a sequence influences error frequency, with more errors typically occurring in the middle of
the sequence. The study involved three groups of participants: 150 eighth graders, 148 tenth
graders, and 89 junior college freshmen, who were tasked with spelling 7-letter, 9-letter, and
11-letter words, respectively, selected randomly from the Thorndike-Lorge word list.
Participants were presented with the words in a standard spelling test format, and the
positions of errors within the words were recorded. Jensen found that the distribution of
spelling errors followed the characteristic bow-shaped serial-position curve, with errors being
most frequent in the middle of the words and fewer at the beginning and end. The shape of
the curve varied with word length, mirroring patterns observed in serial rote learning tasks.
Additionally, Jensen compared these findings to serial learning experiments using colored
geometric forms, revealing a strong similarity in error distribution across learning types.
Notably, spelling errors more closely resembled patterns observed in spatial serial learning,
where all items are presented simultaneously. The study concluded that the serial-position
effect applies to spelling, suggesting that common psychological processes underlie both
spelling and serial learning, offering valuable insights into the nature of spelling errors and
their distribution across word positions.

Method

Hypotheses:

1. (a) The number of trials taken to learn meaningful words will be less than NSS.
(b) The number of errors made in learning meaningful words will be less than NSS.
2. Primacy and Recency Effect will be observed in both meaningful words and NSS.

Variables:

Independent Variable:
Type of material –
 - List 1 - NSS items of 40% association value (12 words)
- List 2 - MW items (12 words)

Dependent Variable:
1) Number of trials required to produce one correct serial order
2) Absolute number of errors at each serial position

Control Variable:
1) Same number of items in both the lists (12)
2) Three letters CVC (consonant variable consonant)
3) Font size, ink colour, font style, position of the words should be uniform
throughout.
4) Duration of exposure (2 seconds per item)

Preliminaries of the Participant

Name: A.S.
Age: 18 years
Gender: Female
Date of Conduction: 2nd November, 2023
Educational Background: Undergraduate Student
Exclusion Criteria: Participants with an academic background in Psychology were
excluded.

Design:

Procedure:
Materials Required:

1. Two lists (NSS with 40% association value and NSS with 100% association value
(MW)}
2. Recall slips
3. A black screen
4. Table and chair
5. Pen
6. A laptop with ppts for list I and list II

Preparation of the List

12 NSS items each for both the list will be taken from the association value list
(Glaze, 1928).

The instructions to select the NSS syllables for the list were as follows-
● A consonant appears as the first letter of a syllable only within a list
● A consonant appears as the third letter of a syllable once within a list.
● No vowel occurs more than once in any four consecutive syllables.
● No consonant appears more than once in any four consecutive syllables.
● No two letters of a syllable in a list are the same as two letters of another syllable in
the same list.
● As far as possible the list is considered as a circular series =, so that the rules apply
 if the first syllables of the list are considered to follow the end of the list.
● Alphabetical sequences of consonants from syllable and within a syllable are
avoided as far as possible.
● The syllables are chosen in reference to their degree of association value.

To convert the list in the form of ppt following criteria were kept in mind-
● Font size of 80
● Times New Roman font style
● The words were centrally aligned
● The words were exposed for 2 seconds
● Ink colour for the words was black
● The background was kept white.

Arrangement of Materials:

1) Two chairs and a table for the conduction were kept ready.
2) Two lists in the form of ppt were kept open and minimised.
3) A black screen was used to hide the material.

Rapport Formation:

Instructions:
Further, the participant was given detailed instructions regarding what the experiment
entailed. Before the first list of NSS words began, the participant was told: “You will
be presented with a list of Non Sense Syllables in the following PPT. An NSS is a
word that does not mean anything, and is simply a sequence of a consonant followed
by a vowel, followed by a consonant. The NSS will appear in the centre of the screen,
like this (demonstration of a test slide). As the items are presented, you are required to
read them out loud- not as complete words, but as a group of alphabets. For instance,
the item “TIN” shall be read out as “T-I-N” and not “TIN”. Please try learning the
words as well as their order of presentation as you are being shown the list. The items
will only be presented for a short duration. At the end of the presentation, you will be
provided with a slip of paper and asked to write down as many items as you can
recall, in their order of presentation. You will once again be shown the list of words,
and asked to recall them, and this process will repeat until you can recall all items in
their correct sequence. You are allowed as many trials and as much time as you may
require. If you have any questions, feel free to ask them. Should we now begin?”

After these instructions were given, the experiment began. Once the first list had been
recalled completely and in the correct order, the following instructions were given
before presentation of the second list- “You will now be shown another similar list of
NSS; however, this time the words will be meaningful. Read out the items as a
collection of alphabets and not as an entire word. The same process of presentation
and recall will be followed. Do you have any questions?” It was made sure that the
participant had completely understood the tasks expected of her.

Actual Conduction:

Experimenter’s Report:
 Introspective Report:

Result and Result Analysis:

Recall slips were carefully examined to check whether the items recalled are in the
correct serial position. In case the wrong word was recalled, the right word was
recalled at the wrong position or the word was not recalled at all, it was considered an
error. Absolute number of errors were computed for each serial position for NSS and
MW as shown in Table 1 and 2.

Table 1: Table showing Number of Trials Taken and Total Number of Errors in List I
and List II

NSS MW
No. of Trials Taken
Total No. of Errors

Table 2: Table showing Number of Trials Taken, Absolute Number of Errors

Table 3: Table showing Number of Trials Taken, Absolute Number of Errors

Graphical Representation of Results Obtained

1. Number trial for List 1 and List 2
2. Number of errors for List 1 and List 2
3. Serial Position Curve for Absolute Number of Errors

Interpretation and Discussion

Conclusion