Introduction to Resources

Everything available in our environment that can be used to satisfy human needs is termed
as a ‘resource,’ provided that it is:

1. Technologically accessible – It should be usable with available technology.

2. Economically feasible – Its extraction and usage should be cost-effective.
3. Culturally acceptable – It should align with societal values and norms.

Resources are not mere free gifts of nature; they are created through human interaction
with nature using technology and institutions. Human beings transform natural materials
into useful resources, making them essential components in resource development.

Classification of Resources

Resources can be categorized based on different criteria:

1. On the basis of origin:

o Biotic resources – Derived from living organisms (e.g., forests, animals,
fisheries).
o Abiotic resources – Derived from non-living elements (e.g., minerals, water,
soil).
2. On the basis of exhaustibility:
o Renewable resources – Can be replenished naturally (e.g., solar energy, wind
energy, forests, groundwater).
o Non-renewable resources – Exist in finite amounts and take millions of years
to form (e.g., coal, petroleum, natural gas, minerals).
3. On the basis of ownership:
o Individual resources – Owned by private individuals (e.g., land, houses, wells,
plantations).
o Community resources – Shared by a community (e.g., public parks, grazing
lands, village ponds).
 o National resources – Owned and regulated by the government (e.g., roads,
canals, railway, minerals, and forests within a country).
o International resources – Beyond national jurisdiction and regulated by
international organizations (e.g., high seas, oceanic resources, Antarctica).
4. On the basis of the status of development:
o Potential resources – Exist in an area but are not yet utilized (e.g., solar and
wind energy in Rajasthan and Gujarat).
o Developed resources – Resources that are identified and are currently in use
(e.g., coal in Jharkhand, water from dams for irrigation).
o Stock – Resources available but lacking technology for utilization (e.g.,
hydrogen as a fuel source, potential solar and wind energy).
o Reserves – A subset of stock that can be utilized in the future with existing
technology (e.g., water stored in dams Stored groundwater, coal deposits).

Essential Resources in Villages and Towns

To make life comfortable, various resources are used, including:

 Houses – Built using bricks (clay), cement (limestone, gypsum), steel (iron), and
wood.
 Electricity – Generated from coal, hydro, solar, and wind energy.
 Transportation – Vehicles made from steel, rubber (tyres), petroleum products
(fuel).
 Water Supply – Pumps, pipelines made of iron, plastic, and copper.
 Furniture – Made from wood, plastic, and metals.
 Food – Derived from agricultural resources like crops, dairy, poultry, and fisheries.

Development of Resources
Resources play a vital role in human survival and quality of life. However, the belief that
resources are free gifts of nature has led to their indiscriminate use, resulting in:

1. Resource depletion – Overuse of resources to satisfy the greed of a few individuals.

2. Unequal resource distribution – Leading to societal division into rich and poor.
3. Environmental issues – Global warming, ozone layer depletion, pollution, and land
degradation.

To ensure sustainable life on Earth, equitable resource distribution is necessary. If

overexploitation continues, the future of our planet will be at risk. Hence, resource planning
is crucial for the sustainable existence of all forms of life.
Sustainable Development

Sustainable development refers to progress that meets present needs without

compromising future generations It ensures that economic growth does not harm the
environment.

Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

In June 1992, over 100 world leaders met in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for the first International
Earth Summit to discuss environmental protection and socio-economic development. Key
outcomes included:

 Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity

 Endorsement of Global Forest Principles
 Adoption of Agenda 21 for sustainable development in the 21st century

Agenda 21

A global action plan adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, 1992. It aims to:

 Combat environmental damage, poverty, and disease

 Promote global cooperation based on mutual needs and responsibilities
 Encourage local governments to develop their own local Agenda 21

Impact of Oil Supply Depletion

If oil supply runs out, it would significantly affect modern lifestyles:

 Transportation crisis – Vehicles dependent on petrol and diesel will cease

functioning.
 Industrial slowdown – Many industries rely on petroleum-based products.
 Increased costs – Prices of goods will skyrocket due to expensive alternatives.
 Energy crisis – Electricity production from oil-based power plants will halt.

Resource Planning
Resource planning is crucial for efficient and sustainable use. In India, it involves:

1. Identification and inventory of resources via surveys and mapping. Qualitative and
quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.
2. Creating planning structures with technology and skilled institutions.
3. Integrating resource development plans with national development strategies.
Examples of Resource-Rich but Economically Backward Regions

 Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh – Rich in minerals and coal but

economically weak due to poor infrastructure and governance.
 Odisha – Abundant in minerals but faces underdevelopment due to low
industrialization.

Examples of Resource-Poor but Economically Developed Regions

 Delhi – Lacks natural resources but thrives due to its technological, service, and
financial industries.
 Mumbai – Poor in natural resources but developed due to trade, finance, and
industrialization.

India’s Experience with Colonisation

 India faced multiple phases of colonisation (Mughals, British, etc.).

 During British rule, India’s resources were exploited without benefiting the local
population.
 Technological backwardness and lack of institutions led to dependency and
underdevelopment.

Present-Day Resource Development in India

 In India, resource development includes:

o Use of modern technology
o Improvement in the quality of human resources (education, skills)
o Learning from historical experiences
 Development today focuses on sustainable use of resources with proper planning
and support.

Resource Conservation
Unchecked resource exploitation causes environmental degradation and socio-economic
problems. Conservation strategies include:

 Gandhian Principles – “There is enough for everybody’s need and not for anybody’s
greed.”
What was Mahatma Gandhi’s view on resource depletion and how did he
propose to address it? (120 WORDS)

Gandhiji’s View on Resource Depletion and Its Solution

Belief in Need over Greed

 Gandhiji stated, “There is enough for everybody’s need and not for anybody’s
greed.”
 He believed resources should be used to meet needs, not to satisfy greed.

Cause of Resource Depletion

 He identified greedy and selfish individuals as the root cause.

 Criticized the exploitative nature of modern technology, which benefits only a few.

Opposition to Mass Production

 Gandhiji was against mass production, which leads to overexploitation of resources.

 It centralizes production and wealth in the hands of a few.

Promotion of Production by the Masses

 Supported production by the masses to ensure:

o Wider participation
o Equitable distribution
o Sustainable resource use

Relevance Today

 His ideas promote sustainable development.

 Encourage balanced resource use considering both present and future needs
Global Initiatives:
o Club of Rome (1968) – Advocated resource conservation.
o Schumacher’s ‘Small is Beautiful’ (1974) – Supported Gandhian philosophy.
o Brundtland Commission Report (1987) – Introduced ‘Sustainable
Development.’ also published “Our Common Future”
o Rio Earth Summit (1992) – Strengthened global commitment to
sustainability.

Land as a Resource
What is land?

 Land includes surface area, underground resources, vegetation, and topography. It

forms the foundation of all human, economic, and natural activities.

Why is land called a finite resource?

 Unlike water (which can be recycled) or air (which circulates), land cannot be
expanded. The area of Earth’s land is fixed.
 For example :- India’s geographical area: 3.28 million sq. km (2.4% of the world’s
total land).

Examples of human dependence:

 Urban housing: Cities like Mumbai are overcrowded due to limited land.
 Agriculture: States like Punjab & Haryana are agriculturally rich because of fertile
land.

Relief Features of India

Relief Feature Role & Examples

Alluvial plains of
Ganga–Brahmaputra – support 50%+
Plains (43%)
population due to fertility and flat
terrain.
Himalayas – source of rivers like
Ganga, Yamuna. Rich in forests and
Mountains (30%)
biodiversity. Protect from cold
Siberian winds.
 Relief Feature Role & Examples

Deccan Plateau – rich in minerals

Plateaus (27%) like iron ore, coal (Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh).

Andaman & Nicobar – strategic

Islands naval base; Lakshadweep – tourism,
coral biodiversity.

Land Utilization

Category Explanation Example

Used for forest

Central Indian
growth; doesn’t
Forests forests (Madhya
include forest-based
Pradesh)
industries.
a) Barren land
Land not Rajasthan
(deserts, rocky areas)
available for (deserts), Cities (Delhi,
b) Land under houses,
cultivation Bengaluru)
roads, factories

Hills of
Other Pastures, groves,
Uttarakhand
uncultivated land culturable wasteland
(orchards), Tribal belts

Practiced in rain-
Left uncultivated
Fallow land fed areas like parts of
to regain fertility
MP

Net Sown Area Land cultivated Punjab – has

(NSA) once in a year NSA > 80%

Gross Cropped Area = NSA + Area sown more than once

example:- if a farmer grows rice (Kharif) and wheat (Rabi) on the same land, it's
counted twice in gross cropped area.
Land Use Pattern in India – Trends and Challenges
Latest facts (as per 2017–18 Govt data):

 NSA in India: ~141 million hectares (46% approx)

 Forest Area: ~24% (still less than 33% goal)
 Fallow Land: ~8%
 Wasteland: ~18%

sIssues:

 Urban expansion reducing cultivable land

 Population pressure causing deforestation
 Unequal distribution:
o Punjab & Haryana: > 80% land is cultivated
o Mizoram & Arunachal: < 10% NSA

Forest Area in India

Forest Goals:

 National Forest Policy 1952: Forest cover should be:

o 33% of total geographical area (plain regions)
o 67% in hilly areas

Current forest cover:

 India: Around 24% as per FSI report (Forest Survey of India, 2023)
 Madhya Pradesh: Highest forest cover (77,000+ sq km)
 Area wise top three states having largest forest cover are Madhya Pradesh (77,073
sq km) followed by Arunachal Pradesh (65,882 sq km) and Chhattisgarh (55,812 sq
km)

Why short of target?( 24%<33%)

 Industrialization, mining, encroachment, poor afforestation efforts

Land Degradation

 Land degradation refers to the decline in the quality and productivity of land
due to natural or human-induced factors.
  It results in the loss of fertility, reduced capacity to support life, and can
ultimately make land barren or unfit for use.

Cause State Example

Jharkhand,
Deforestation
Odisha

Gujarat,
Overgrazing
Rajasthan

Over-irrigation Punjab, UP

Chhattisgarh,
Mining
Odisha

Industrial belts in
Industrial
Maharashtra, Tamil
effluents
Nadu

Around 130 million hectares of land is degraded in India (~40% of total).

Soil as a Resource
Why is soil vital?

 Without soil, there would be no food production, no forests, no animal life –

foundation of agriculture and ecosystem.
Composition of soil:

 Minerals (from rocks)

 Organic matter (humus)
 Air and water

Soil Profile
A soil profile is a vertical cross-section of the soil, made of layers running parallel to the
surface These layers are known as soil horizons

1. Topsoil (A horizon) – fertile, dark, rich in humus

2. Subsoil (B horizon) – minerals and less humus
3. Parent rock (C horizon) – broken rock pieces
4. Bedrock – hard unweathered rock

Formation Time:

 1 cm soil takes about 100 to 400 years to form under natural conditions!

Soil Formation:
Soils are formed over time through the weathering of rock and the accumulation of
organic matter

Weathering is the breakdown of rocks and minerals at or near the Earth’s surface. It
is caused by chemical and physical interactions with air, water, and living organisms.
 Factors affecting Soil Formation
How it affects

Type determines texture –

Parent rock granite = sandy soil, basalt = clayey
soil
Rainfall & temperature influence
Climate
weathering
Decompose matter, mix soil
Organisms
layers (like earthworms)

Time Older soils are more developed

Hills have thin soil due to

Topography
erosion; plains have deep soil

Classification of Soil
Alluvial Soil
Formation

 Formed by the deposition of silt, sand, and clay carried by rivers.

 Brought down by the three major Himalayan river systems: Indus, Ganga, and
Brahmaputra.
 Also deposited by Peninsular rivers in delta regions.

Region

 Northern Plains (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, etc.)
 Eastern Coastal Plains (Deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri)
 Parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat via narrow river corridors

Characteristics

 Texture:
o Varies from coarse near the source (piedmont plains) to fine in lower valleys.
o Contains sand, silt, and clay in different proportions.
 Fertility:
o Highly fertile; rich in potash, phosphoric acid, and lime.
o Requires minimal treatment for productivity.
 Moisture Retention:
 o Good moisture-retaining capacity.
o Supports intensive and multiple cropping.
 Alkalinity:
o Soils in drier regions may be alkaline.
o Can be made productive with irrigation and soil treatment.

Crops Grown

 Paddy (Rice)
 Wheat
 Sugarcane
 Pulses
 Other cereals and cash crops

Types

 Khadar (New Alluvial):

o Found in floodplains
o Finer texture
o More fertile
o Replenished annually by floods
 Bangar (Old Alluvial):
o Located at slightly elevated areas
o Coarser texture
o Contains lime nodules (kankar)
o Comparatively less fertile

Other Facts

 Most extensive and agriculturally important soil type in India.

 Supports dense population due to its fertility.
 Constant replenishment by rivers enhances its productivity.
 Suitable for multiple cropping and intensive farming practices.

Black Soil
Formation

 Formed from the weathering of basalt (igneous rock) or lava flows.

 Found in the Deccan Trap region, which is made up of volcanic rock.
 The climatic conditions along with the parent rock material contribute to its
formation.

Region
  Widely found in the northwestern part of the Deccan Plateau.
 Major states include:
o Maharashtra
o Saurashtra (Gujarat)
o Malwa (Madhya Pradesh)
o Chhattisgarh
o Extend southeastward along the Godavari and Krishna valleys

Characteristics

 Texture:
o Composed of extremely fine clayey material.
o Sticky when wet and difficult to plough unless done at the right time.
 Fertility:
o Rich in:
 Calcium carbonate
 Magnesium
 Potash
 Lime
o Poor in phosphoric content.
 Moisture Retention:
o Has a high moisture-retaining capacity.
o Very suitable for dry farming due to its water-holding nature.
 Alkalinity:
o Can be slightly alkaline in nature, depending on the location.
o Lower layers may develop alkaline horizons due to accumulation of salts.
 Other Physical Features:
o Develop deep cracks during hot weather, allowing proper aeration.
o Becomes very sticky when wet; difficult to till unless ploughed after the first
rain or in pre-monsoon period.

Crops Grown

 Cotton (main crop, hence also called Black Cotton Soil)

 Millets
 Oilseeds (like sunflower, soybean)
 Pulses
 Sorghum (jowar)
 Sugarcane
 Wheat (in irrigated areas)

Types

 Shallow Black Soil:

o Found in upper slopes and marginal areas.
o Less moisture-retentive.
 Deep Black Soil:
 o Found in valley bottoms and plains.
o More clay content and better for long-duration crops like cotton.

Other Facts

 Also called regur soil, a local term.

 Best suited for cotton cultivation; hence often called black cotton soil.
 Soil cracking helps in natural tilling and air circulation.
 Requires timely tilling due to stickiness when wet.
 Supports crops even with low rainfall due to moisture retention.
 Plays a vital role in the agricultural economy of central and western India

Red and Yellow Soil

Formation

 Formed by the weathering of crystalline igneous rocks.

 Develops under conditions of low rainfall.
 Red color is due to the diffusion of iron in metamorphic and crystalline rocks.
 Appears yellow when in hydrated form.

Region

 Eastern and southern parts of the Deccan Plateau.

 Found in Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain.
 Also along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.

Characteristics

 Texture:
o Sandy to loamy texture.
 Fertility:
o Less fertile; needs added fertilizers for productivity.
 Moisture Retention:
o Moderate moisture retention; less than black or alluvial soil.
 Alkalinity:
o Generally neutral to slightly acidic.

Crops Grown

 Cotton
 Wheat
 Pulses
 Millets
 Groundnut
Types

 No major sub-classifications, but varies based on location and hydration level.

Other Facts

 Rich in iron content.

 Requires proper management (manure/fertilizer) for high yields.
 Common in semi-arid regions of India.

Laterite Soil
Formation

 Derived from the Latin word Later meaning “brick.”

 Formed under tropical and subtropical climate with alternating wet and dry
conditions.
 Result of intense leaching due to heavy rainfall.

Region

 Southern states (Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu)

 Western Ghats region of Maharashtra
 Parts of Odisha, West Bengal, and Northeast India.

Characteristics

 Texture:
o Coarse in texture, varies with depth.
 Fertility:
o Poor in plant nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potash).
o Acidic in nature (pH < 6.0).
 Moisture Retention:
o Low due to porosity and leaching.
 Alkalinity:
o Acidic in nature.

Crops Grown

 Tea
 Coffee
 Cashew Nut
 Tapioca
Types

 Red Laterite Soil (found in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh—better for cashew
cultivation).

Other Facts

 Deep to very deep in structure.

 Humus-rich in forested areas, humus-poor in dry regions.
 Requires soil conservation techniques to reduce erosion and enhance productivity.

Arid Soil

Formation

 Formed in dry and semi-arid regions due to weathering of rocks under high
temperature and low rainfall conditions.

Region

 Western Rajasthan, parts of Gujarat and other arid regions of northwest India.

Characteristics

 Texture:
o Sandy and coarse.
 Fertility:
o Poor in organic matter and humus.
 Moisture Retention:
o Very low due to sandy texture.
 Alkalinity:
o Saline and alkaline; lower horizons contain kankar due to calcium
accumulation.

Crops Grown

 With proper irrigation: Barley, Mustard, Bajra, Jowar

 Some regions used for salt extraction.

Types

 Varies with salinity and depth of kankar layers.

Other Facts

 Common salt is obtained by evaporating saline water.

  Requires irrigation and treatment to be made cultivable.
 Kankar layers restrict water percolation.

Forest Soil
Formation

 Developed in forested and mountainous regions due to accumulation and

decomposition of organic matter.
 Affected by rainfall, slope, and vegetation.

Region

 Himalayan region (both eastern and western parts).

 Hilly regions of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and northeastern
states.

Characteristics

 Texture:
o Loamy and silty in valley areas; coarse-grained on upper slopes.
 Fertility:
o Fertile in valley areas; poor in upper snow-covered areas.
 Moisture Retention:
o Moderate to good in lower valleys.
 Alkalinity:
o Acidic, especially in higher altitudes due to slow decomposition.

Crops Grown

 Apples
 Tea
 Barley (in some cultivated valleys)
 Horticultural crops (where irrigation and terracing are possible)

Types

 Vary by altitude and vegetation type—Humus-rich in forested valleys, humus-poor in

alpine regions.

Other Facts

 Prone to erosion in sloped areas.

 Found on river terraces and alluvial fans which can be fertile.
 Used mainly for forestry and horticulture.
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
What is Soil Erosion?

 Soil erosion is the removal or wearing away of the topsoil layer due to natural forces
or human activities.
 It occurs when the rate of soil removal exceeds the rate of soil formation.
 The balance between soil formation and erosion can be disrupted by both natural
and human causes.

Causes of Soil Erosion

Natural Causes

 Water: Running water cuts deep channels (gullies) or washes soil in thin layers (sheet
erosion).
 Wind: Blows away loose soil, especially in dry, bare, or sandy areas.
 Glaciers: Movement of glaciers can scrape away soil layers.

Human Activities

 Deforestation: Loss of tree cover leaves soil unprotected.

 Over-grazing: Animals strip the land of vegetation, loosening soil.
 Mining and Construction: Disturb the land surface and accelerate erosion.
 Faulty Farming Practices:
o Ploughing along the slope (instead of across it) creates channels for water to
flow quickly, eroding the soil.

Types of Soil Erosion

Type of Erosion Description

Running water cuts through

clayey soil forming deep gullies; land
Gully Erosion
becomes infertile, called badlands
(e.g., ravines in the Chambal basin).

Water flows in a thin sheet over

Sheet Erosion
slopes, washing away the topsoil.
 Type of Erosion Description

Wind blows away the loose, dry

Wind Erosion
soil on flat or sloped land.

Methods of Soil Conservation

Method Description

Ploughing along the contour

Contour Ploughing
lines of a hill to slow down water flow.

Cutting steps into slopes;

Terrace Farming common in the Western and Central
Himalayas to prevent runoff.
Crops are grown in alternating
Strip Cropping strips with grass; grass breaks wind
flow and prevents erosion.
Rows of trees are planted to act
Shelter Belts as windbreaks; useful in stabilising
sand dunes and deserts.