UNIT III – FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS (FULL DETAILED NOTES)
1. PERMUTATION
Definition:
A permutation is an arrangement of objects in a specific order.
Order is important in permutations.
Formula:
nPr = n! / (n - r)!
Example:
How many ways can 3 students be arranged out of 5?
^5P_3 = 5! / (5-3)! = 120 / 2 = 60 ways
Real-Life Examples:
- Arranging letters or numbers
- Assigning ranks or posts
- Seating students in rows
2. COMBINATION
Definition:
A combination is a way of selecting items without caring about order.
Order does not matter in combinations.
Formula:
nCr = n! / r!(n - r)!
Example:
Choosing 3 players from 5:
^5C_3 = 5! / (3! × 2!) = 120 / (6 × 2) = 10 ways
Real-Life Examples:
- Selecting a team from a group
- Choosing food items
- Forming a group of friends
3. COUNTING PRINCIPLES
Definition:
The Counting Principle helps us find the total number of ways something can happen.
Fundamental Principle of Multiplication:
If one event can occur in m ways, and another in n ways,
Then both events can occur in m × n ways.
Example:
If a person has 3 shirts and 2 trousers: Total = 3 × 2 = 6 outfits
Extended:
a × b × c × ... for multiple events
Fundamental Principle of Addition:
If one task can be done in m ways, another in n ways, and only one is to be chosen:
Total = m + n
Example:
Going to school by bus (3 ways) or train (2 ways): Total = 3 + 2 = 5 ways
Applications:
- Passwords
- License plates
- Menus
- Exam paper selection
4. FACTORIAL
Definition:
n! = n × (n - 1) × (n - 2) × ... × 1
Special Case:
0! = 1
Examples:
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
5! = 120
5. COMPARISON: PERMUTATION VS COMBINATION
| Feature | Permutation | Combination
|
|-------------|-------------------------------------|------------------------------
--------|
| Order | Matters | Doesn’t matter
|
| Formula | nPr = n! / (n - r)! | nCr = n! / (r!(n - r)!)
|
| Example | ^5P_2 = 20 | ^5C_2 = 10
|
| Use | Arrangements | Selections
|
6. MATRICES
Definition:
Matrix = rectangular array of numbers in rows and columns
Example:
A = [ [1, 2], [3, 4] ]
Order of a Matrix:
m rows and n columns = order m × n
Types:
- Row Matrix: One row
- Column Matrix: One column
- Square Matrix: Rows = Columns
- Zero Matrix: All 0s
- Diagonal Matrix: Non-zero only on diagonal
- Scalar Matrix: Same diagonal values
- Identity Matrix: Diagonal = 1, others 0
- Symmetric Matrix: A^T = A
Operations:
- Addition/Subtraction: Same order
- Scalar Multiplication: Each element × constant
- Matrix Multiplication: A (m×n), B (n×p) ⇒ AB (m×p)
Transpose:
Swap rows with columns
If A = [ [1, 2], [3, 4] ], A^T = [ [1, 3], [2, 4] ]
7. INVERSE OF MATRIX
Definition:
If A × A⁻¹ = A⁻¹ × A = I, then A⁻¹ is the inverse
Condition:
- Square matrix
- Determinant ≠ 0
Formula for 2×2 Matrix:
If A = [ [a, b], [c, d] ]
Then A⁻¹ = 1 / (ad - bc) × [ [d, -b], [-c, a] ]
Example:
A = [ [4, 7], [2, 6] ]
Det(A) = (4×6 - 7×2) = 10
A⁻¹ = (1/10) × [ [6, -7], [-2, 4] ] = [ [0.6, -0.7], [-0.2, 0.4] ]
Application:
To solve AX = B ⇒ X = A⁻¹B
