Index

Sr.No. Contents Page No.

1. Title 1

2. Certificate 2

3. Acknowledgment 3

4. Index 4

5. Introduction 5

6. Objective 6

7. Theory 7-8

8. Apparatus Used 9

9. Experimental Setup 10

10. Procedure 11-12

11. Observations and Readings 13-15

12. Calculations 16-17

13. Result 18

14. Precautions 19

15. Sources of Error 20

16. Conclusion 21

17. Bibliography 22

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 Introduction
"Electricity is the power that lights up our world — understanding its flow
begins with resistance."
Electricity plays a vital role in our daily lives — from lighting our homes to
powering devices and running industries. One of the fundamental concepts in
the study of electricity is resistance, which refers to the opposition offered by a
material to the flow of electric current. The concept of resistance is governed by
Ohm’s Law, which states that the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the voltage applied across it, provided the temperature
remains constant.

In this investigatory project, we aim to explore the various factors that affect the
resistance of a wire. These factors include the length of the wire, its cross-
sectional area (thickness), and the material from which it is made. According
to the formula R=ρl/A, where R is resistance, ρ\rhoρ is the resistivity of the
material, l is the length of the wire, and A is its cross-sectional area, we can see
how these physical parameters directly influence the resistance.

Through this project, we will perform simple experiments using wires of

different lengths and thicknesses to measure how resistance changes. The data
collected will be analysed and compared with theoretical values to verify the
laws governing electric resistance.

The findings of this project not only strengthen our understanding of basic
physics principles but also have practical implications in real-world applications
— such as designing electrical circuits, choosing materials for wiring, and
improving energy efficiency.

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 Objective
The primary objective of this investigatory project is to examine

and analyse the various factors that influence the electrical resistance of a
metallic wire. Resistance is a fundamental property of materials that plays a
crucial role in the functioning of all electrical circuits and devices. A thorough
understanding of how different variables affect resistance is essential for
designing efficient electrical systems.

This project aims to:

 Study the variation of resistance with respect to the length of a wire,
keeping all other factors constant.
 Investigate how the cross-sectional area (or thickness) of the wire
affects its resistance.
 Understand the role of different materials (resistivity) in determining the
overall resistance of a conductor.
 Apply Ohm’s Law and the mathematical relationship:
R=ρl/A
where:
R = Resistance,
ρ = Resistivity of the material,
l = Length of the wire,
A = Cross-sectional area of the wire.
 Perform a series of experiments to measure voltage and current across
wires of varying lengths and thicknesses using basic apparatus.
 Graphically represent the results to validate the proportional relationships
and draw meaningful conclusions.
By the end of this project, the learner will be able to practically verify the
theoretical laws governing resistance and understand their applications in
everyday electrical systems, from household wiring to industrial equipment.

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 Theory
In an electric circuit, when a potential difference is applied across a conductor,
electric charges begin to flow. However, this flow is not without opposition. The
opposition faced by the electric charges during their movement through a
conductor is termed electrical resistance. Resistance is a crucial concept in
understanding how electrical circuits function and how materials behave under
the flow of electric current.

The resistance offered by a conductor depends on several physical factors:

1. Length of the Conductor (l):

Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the wire. The longer
the wire, the greater the distance electrons must travel, leading to more
collisions and hence more resistance.
R∝l
2. Cross-sectional Area (A):
Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the
wire. A thicker wire provides more space for the flow of electrons and
thus offers less resistance.
R∝1/A
3. Material of the Conductor (Resistivity, ρ):
Different materials have different intrinsic properties that affect how
easily current can pass through them. This property is called resistivity.
Materials like copper and silver have low resistivity and are good
conductors, whereas materials like nichrome and constantan have higher
resistivity.
R∝ρ
4. Temperature:
For most conductors, resistance increases with temperature due to
increased vibrations of atoms which hinder electron flow. However, some
materials like semiconductors show the opposite trend.
Combining all these dependencies, the resistance R of a wire is given by the
fundamental relation:

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R=ρl/A

Where:

 R = Resistance (Ohms, Ω)
 ρ = Resistivity of the material (Ohm meter, Ω⋅m)
 l = Length of the conductor (meters)
 A = Cross-sectional area of the conductor (m²)
This equation shows that resistance increases with length and resistivity and
decreases with an increase in thickness (area).

The project is also based on Ohm’s Law, which relates current, voltage, and
resistance:

V=IR

Where:
 V = Voltage (Volts)
 I = Current (Amperes)
 R = Resistance (Ohms)
According to this law, if a constant voltage is applied, the current is inversely
proportional to the resistance. By measuring current and voltage across a wire
and varying its physical properties, we can understand how resistance behaves
under different conditions.

In this project, we practically verify these theoretical relationships through

controlled experiments, thereby strengthening our understanding of electric
current flow and resistance in conductors.

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 Apparatus Used
To study the effect of length, cross-sectional area, and material on the resistance
of a wire, the following apparatus and materials were used during the
experiment:

1. Battery Eliminator (0–12 V)

– Provides a stable and adjustable DC power supply to the circuit.
2. Ammeter (0–1 A, least count 0.01 A)
– Measures the amount of current flowing through the wire accurately.
3. Voltmeter (0–5 V, least count 0.1 V)
– Measures the voltage (potential difference) across the wire under test.
4. Rheostat (or Variable Resistor)
– Used to vary the resistance and control the current in the circuit
smoothly.
5. Nichrome / Copper Wires
– Wires of different lengths, thicknesses, and materials to study
variations in resistance.
6. Wire Cutter or Stripper
– Used to cut the wire and remove insulation at the ends.
7. Meter Scale (1 meter or longer)
– To accurately measure the length of the wire under test.
8. Connecting Wires with Banana Plugs
– To establish secure electrical connections between circuit components.
9. Switch or Plug Key
– Allows easy opening and closing of the circuit during the experiment.
10.Sandpaper
– Used to clean the ends of the wire for good electrical contact.
11.Crocodile Clips
– To hold the wire firmly and allow connection at specific points along its
length.
12.Support Board / Ruler Stand
– A flat, mounted surface or ruler stand used to neatly arrange the wire
and ensure accurate measurements.

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 13.Multimeter (optional)
– Can be used to double-check voltage, current, or resistance readings.

Experimental Setup
The experimental setup is arranged in such a way that a known length of wire
can be connected into a circuit consisting of a battery eliminator, ammeter,
voltmeter, rheostat, key (switch), and connecting wires.

The wire under investigation is mounted on a scale or board using crocodile

clips so that specific lengths can be selected for measurement. A battery
eliminator supplies a constant voltage. The ammeter is connected in series to
measure the current flowing through the circuit, while the voltmeter is
connected in parallel across the wire to measure the potential difference.

A rheostat is included in series to vary the current and control it safely. The
plug key is used to open and close the circuit.

By varying one factor at a time (length, thickness, or material), and measuring

the corresponding current and voltage, the resistance is calculated using Ohm’s
Law:

R=V/I

This setup allows systematic study of how resistance changes with respect to
different parameters.

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Fig1: Experimental Setup to Study the Factors Affecting the Resistance of a
Wire

Procedure
The experiment was conducted in three parts to individually study the effect of
length, cross-sectional area, and material on the resistance of a wire. The setup
was arranged according to the circuit diagram and experimental layout.

A. Studying the Effect of Length on Resistance

1. The circuit was connected using a battery eliminator, ammeter (in series),
voltmeter (in parallel), plug key, rheostat, and connecting wires.
2. A nichrome wire of uniform cross-section was mounted on a meter scale
using insulated clips.
3. Two crocodile clips were attached to the wire to select a specific length
(e.g., 20 cm).
4. The key was inserted to complete the circuit and the rheostat was adjusted
to obtain a readable current.
5. The values of current (I) from the ammeter and voltage (V) from the
voltmeter were noted.
6. Resistance R was calculated using the formula:
R=V/I
7. The same steps were repeated for other lengths: 40 cm, 60 cm, 80 cm,
and 100 cm.
8. Observations were recorded and a graph was plotted between Resistance
(R) and Length (L) to analyse the relationship.

B. Studying the Effect of Cross-Sectional Area on Resistance

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 1. Nichrome wires of different standard gauges (i.e., varying thickness) but
same length were taken.
2. One wire was connected in the circuit while keeping the setup the same
as before.
3. The key was closed, the current and voltage were measured, and
resistance was calculated.
4. The same procedure was repeated for wires of other thicknesses, keeping
the length constant (e.g., 1 meter).
5. Resistance was calculated for each wire and compared.
6. A graph of Resistance (R) vs. 1/Cross-sectional Area (1/A) was plotted
to show the inverse relation.

C. Studying the Effect of Material on Resistance

1. Wires of equal length and thickness but made of different materials (e.g.,
copper, nichrome, iron) were taken.
2. One wire was selected, and the rest of the setup was kept constant.
3. Current and voltage were measured as before, and resistance was
calculated.
4. This was repeated for each type of wire material.
5. Differences in resistance were observed due to the intrinsic property of
resistivity (ρ) of each material.

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 Observations and Readings
The experiment was conducted in three parts to study the variation of resistance
with length, cross-sectional area, and material of the wire. Voltage (V) and
current (I) were measured for each case, and resistance (R) was calculated using
the formula: R=VIR = \frac{V}{I}R=IV

A. Variation of Resistance with Length

Wire Material: Nichrome; Diameter: Constant

Sr.No. Length of Voltage (V) Current (I) Resistance (R =

Wire (L) cm volts amperes V/I) ohms

1 20 1.2 0.40 3.00

2 40 2.1 0.42 5.00

3 60 2.8 0.40 7.00

4 80 3.2 0.39 8.21

5 100 3.8 0.38 10.00

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Graph: Resistance (R) vs. Length (L) — A straight line passing through origin,
showing direct proportionality.

B. Variation of Resistance with Cross-Sectional Area

Wire Material: Nichrome; Length: 1 meter

Sr.No. Diameter Area Voltage Current Resistance

of Wire (A) (V) volts (I) (R = V/I)
(mm) mm² amperes ohms

1 0.20 0.0314 3.5 0.25 14.00

2 0.30 0.0707 3.5 0.45 7.78

3 0.40 0.1256 3.5 0.65 5.38

4 0.50 0.1963 3.5 0.85 4.12

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Graph: Resistance (R) vs. 1/Area — Shows direct proportionality.

C.
Variation of
Resistance with
Material

Sr.No Material Length Diameter Voltage Current Resistance

. (cm) (mm) (V) (I) (R = V/I)
volts amperes ohms

1 Nichrome 50 0.30 2.8 0.30 9.33

2 Copper 50 0.30 2.8 0.98 2.86

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 3 Iron 50 0.30 2.8 0.52 5.38

4 Constanta 50 0.30 2.8 0.35 8.00

n

Observation: Resistance depends on resistivity; copper has the lowest

resistance due to low resistivity.

Calculations

The resistance of a conductor was calculated using Ohm’s Law, which provides
the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance:
R=V/I

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Where:
- R = Resistance in ohms (Ω)
- V = Potential difference in volts (V)
- I = Electric current in amperes (A)

To ensure accuracy, multiple sets of readings were taken for each condition
(length, area, material), and resistance was calculated individually. All
measurements were done carefully using calibrated ammeters and voltmeters,
and the rheostat was adjusted to maintain stable values of current.

I. Sample Calculation – Resistance with Varying Length

Material: Nichrome
Cross-sectional Area: Constant
Length of Wire: 60 cm
Voltage (V): 2.8 V
Current (I): 0.40 A

R = V / I = 2.8 / 0.40 = 7.00 Ω

Thus, the resistance for 60 cm wire = 7.00 Ω

II. Sample Calculation – Resistance with Varying Cross-Sectional
Area

Material: Nichrome
Length: 100 cm
Diameter of Wire: 0.30 mm

Area (A) = πd² / 4 = 3.14 × (0.30)² / 4 = 0.0707 mm²

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Voltage (V): 3.5 V
Current (I): 0.45 A

R = V / I = 3.5 / 0.45 = 7.78 Ω

Thus, the resistance for wire of area 0.0707 mm² = 7.78 Ω

III. Sample Calculation – Resistance with Different Materials

Material: Copper
Length: 50 cm
Diameter: 0.30 mm
Voltage (V): 2.8 V
Current (I): 0.98 A

R = V / I = 2.8 / 0.98 = 2.86 Ω

So, the resistance of the copper wire = 2.86 Ω, which is significantly lower due
to copper's low resistivity.

Result
From the observations, calculations, and plotted graphs, the following results
were obtained:

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 1. Resistance increases linearly with the length of the wire
➤ This confirms that R∝LR \propto LR∝L, when cross-sectional area and
material remain constant.

2. Resistance decreases with an increase in the cross-sectional area

(thickness) of the wire
➤ This verifies that R∝1AR \propto \frac{1}{A}R∝A1, as a thicker wire
allows more charge to pass through with less opposition.

3. Different materials offer different resistances even for the same

length and area
➤ This proves that resistance depends on the resistivity (ρ) of the
material.
➤ Copper, having the lowest resistivity, offered the least resistance, while
nichrome and constantan offered higher resistances.

The experimental data and graphical analysis are in full agreement with the
theoretical concepts of resistance, Ohm’s Law, and the resistivity formula:

R=ρL/A

Thus, the experiment successfully verified the dependence of resistance on

length, area, and material of the wire.

Precautions
To ensure accuracy, safety, and reliability of the experiment, the following
precautions were taken:

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 1. All electrical connections were checked properly to ensure they were
tight and secure, avoiding loose contacts which could cause fluctuations
in readings.
2. The wire ends were cleaned using sandpaper to remove any oxide
layer or insulation for proper electrical contact.
3. The key (switch) was kept closed only while taking readings to
prevent the wire from heating up, which could change its resistance.
4. The rheostat was adjusted slowly and carefully to avoid sudden surges
of current that might damage the ammeter or wire.

5. The ammeter and voltmeter readings were noted accurately, avoiding

parallax error by viewing the scale directly from the front.

6. Only one factor (length, area, or material) was changed at a time,

keeping the others constant to ensure a fair comparison.

7. Thick wires were not bent sharply, and care was taken while fixing
wires on the board to avoid mechanical strain or stretching.

8. Wires of uniform material and standard gauge were selected to ensure

consistency across different sets of readings.
9. The same battery eliminator and measuring instruments were used
throughout the experiment to avoid instrument error due to calibration
differences.
10.Readings were taken multiple times and averaged wherever necessary
to minimize observational error.

Sources of Error
Despite careful observations and precautions, the following sources of error
may have affected the accuracy of the results:

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 1. Heating of the wire during current flow could have slightly changed the
resistance, as resistance increases with temperature.

2. Loose or imperfect connections might have caused fluctuations in

current or voltage readings.

3. Zero error or calibration error in the ammeter or voltmeter may have

introduced slight inaccuracies in the measured values.

4. Contact resistance at the wire ends or crocodile clips might have added
additional, unaccounted resistance.

5. Parallax error may have occurred while reading analog meters if the
needle was not observed perpendicularly.

6. Inconsistent thickness of the wire due to manufacturing tolerances may

have slightly affected cross-sectional area assumptions.

7. Difficulty in measuring exact lengths of the wire, especially when

fixing crocodile clips, might have introduced minor length variation.

8. Environmental factors, such as room temperature and humidity, might

have influenced the resistance slightly, particularly for certain materials.

Conclusion
The experiment was conducted with the objective of studying how the electrical
resistance of a wire varies with its length, cross-sectional area, and the material

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used. Based on the experimental observations, graphical analysis, and
calculations, the following conclusions were drawn:

1. Resistance increases linearly with length, confirming that longer wires

offer more obstruction to the flow of current due to greater collisions
between charge carriers and atoms.
2. Resistance decreases with an increase in cross-sectional area,
supporting the fact that thicker wires allow more space for electrons to
flow with less resistance.
3. Resistance depends significantly on the material of the wire, as each
material has a unique resistivity (ρ) value. Materials like copper and
silver have low resistivity and thus low resistance, while nichrome and
constantan have higher resistivity and show greater resistance.
4. The results obtained from this experiment strongly support the theoretical
relationship:
R=ρl/A

where R is resistance, ρ is resistivity, L is length, and A is cross-sectional area of

the wire.

5. The plotted graphs — Resistance vs. Length and Resistance vs. 1/Area —
showed clear linear trends, further validating the theoretical principles.

6. Minor variations in data were within acceptable limits and can be

attributed to practical limitations and sources of error.

Overall, the experiment successfully demonstrated the core concepts of

electrical resistance and resistivity. It enhanced the understanding of how
physical parameters influence resistance in real-world applications, such as in
electrical wiring, appliances, and circuits. The hands-on approach also
developed precision, critical thinking, and experimental analysis skills.

Bibliography

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The following sources were referred to during the preparation of this
Physics investigatory project:

1. NCERT Textbook for Physics – Class XII (Part 1 and Part 2)

– Chapter: Current Electricity

2. Physics Lab Manual – Class XII

– By: Together with / S. Chand / Laxmi Publications

3. www.physicsclassroom.com
– Concepts and simulation reference for Ohm’s Law and
Resistance

4. www.topperlearning.com
– Study materials and sample investigatory projects

5. www.wikipedia.org
– General information on resistance, resistivity, and materials

6. YouTube –
Channels like Learn with Physics Wallah and Khan Academy for
practical demonstrations and concepts

7. School Laboratory Manual & Teacher Guidance

– Practical instructions and apparatus handling techniques

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 Thank You!
“This project illuminated how even the smallest
wire holds the power to resist — revealing the
beauty of physics in everyday materials.”

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