Hydrograph

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

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Hydrograph
Hydrograph is graphical representation of discharge verses time.

 Seepage Flow: This flow joins stream within few hours of precipitation.

 Prompt Interflow is quite less as compared to surface runoff hence direct runoff is almost equal to
surface runoff.

 Base Flow is that infiltrated water which joins the stream long time after its accumulation at the time
of storm. It remains in form of ground water at is assumed to contribute in stream flow at constant rate.

 General Representation of Hydrograph:

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Here, D = Duration of storm or rainfall

tpk = Time of occurrence of peak of hydrograph from the start of the storm

tB = Base period of the hydrograph or the period in which excess runoff due to storm has occurred

 Rising Limb (AB): For the hydrograph, it is also known as concentration curve and it represents increase
in discharge due to gradual building up of storage in channels and over the catchment surface. Shape of
rising limb is a function of catchment slope. Point B is known as the point of inflection of rising limb.

 Falling Limb (CD): For the hydrograph, shape of the falling limb is a function of storage characteristic of
the catchment. Point C is the point of inflection of falling limb.

 Peak Rate of Flow (P): It depends on the intensity of rainfall.

Generally base flow is assumed to be uniform but in fact with the progression of the storm, base flow
increases.

 Factors affecting Runoff Hydrograph:

1. Characteristic of Rainfall: Characteristics of storm such as intensity of rainfall, duration of storm,

direction of storm and climatic conditions such as wind and temperature affect the behaviour of runoff
hydrograph.

2. Characteristic of Catchment: The peak of hydrograph increases with increase of the area of catchment.

 In case of small catchment areas, overland flow is predominant over channel flow and hence land
use and intensity of rain has important role to play.

 In case of large catchment areas, above discussed phenomenon gets suppressed and channel flow
phase becomes dominant and hence peak of hydrograph follows relationship:

Here, Qp = Peak of hydrograph

A = Area of catchment

n = Constant ≈ 0.5

3. Shape of Catchment: This parameter influences the time taken by the water from most remote
location of the catchment to reach the outlet.

Effects of shape of catchment:

 Fan Shaped Catchment: This type of catchment gives away greater runoff as tributaries in it are
of almost same size and hence time of flow is nearly same or small.

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 Leaf Shaped Catchment: In this type of catchment, time of concentration is more since the discharge
is distributed over longer period.

 The effect of shape of catchment can further be expressed in terms of Form Factor or Compactness
Factor.

If Compactness Coefficient is equal to unity, the hydrograph will be symmetrical.

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 Time of Concentration: It is defined as the time needed for water to flow from the most remote point in
a catchment to the catchment outlet. It is a function of the topography, geology, and land use within the
catchment area. Kirpich’s Equation is used to determine time of concentration of runoff hydrograph:

Here, tc = Time of concentration

L = Maximum length of travel of water in meter

S = Catchment Slope (= ΔH/L)

ΔH = Difference between the elevation of catchment outlet and the most remote point in the
catchment

Determination of Runoff
 Determination of Runoff using Runoff Coefficient:

Here, K = Runoff coefficient

P = Average rate of precipitation in cm/hour

 Determination of Runoff using Rational Formula:

Here, QP = Peak Discharge

K = Coefficient of Runoff

Pc = Design rainfall intensity in cm/hour

A = Area of catchment in hectare

 Runoff can be determined using infiltration indices as described above.

 Runoff can also be determined using empirical equations like Ryve’s formula, Dicken’s formula, Burger’s
formula etc.

 Runoff can also be determined using Unit hydrograph and flood hydrograph.

 Sequent Peak Algorithm are used to estimate runoff from rainfall and to estimate reservoir storage.

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 The difference between flood hydrograph and direct runoff hydrograph is that flood hydrograph includes
the base flow and give overall discharge from a catchment whereas direct runoff doesn’t include base
flow and hence represent only the runoff generated by the storm which is in excess of the flow from the
catchment.

Determination of Direct Runoff using Flood Hydrograph

1) Let Q1, Q2… Qn be the ordinates of the flood hydrograph (in m3/s) with interval of ‘t’ hours.

2) For direct runoff hydrograph (DRH), subtract base flow from flood hydrograph ordinates.

3) Obtained hydrograph with ordinates (say) O1, O2… On is called unit hydrograph and its first and last
ordinate will always remain zero.

Here, A = Area of catchment in km2

t = Time in hours

Obtaining Unit Hydrograph from Flood Hydrograph

1) Obtain Direct Runoff Hydrograph using Flood Hydrograph.

2) Calculate direct runoff depth using above given formula:

3) Divide all the ordinates of DRH by computed value of direct runoff depth.

 Unit Hydrograph: It is a Direct Runoff Hydrograph which results in to unit depth of rainfall excess
occurring during storm of uniform rate of specified duration of ‘D’ hours. Unit Hydrograph is based on
L.K. Sherman’s theory of Unit Hydrograph.

 Assumptions of L.K. Sherman’s theory of Unit Hydrograph:

 Linear Response: Hydrograph is assumed to exhibit linear response i.e., for example if the
intensity of rain doubles, the ordinates of the hydrograph will also double and hence it can also be
concluded that superposition theorem is applicable.

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 Time Invariance: It means that DRH or Unit Hydrograph for a given catchment and storm is
always same irrespective of its time of occurrence.

 Rainfall is uniformly distributed throughout the area within the specified time period.

 The ordinates of DRH are directly proportional to total discharge.

 The rainfall intensity is uniform over the entire period of storm.

Note: Unit Hydrograph is valid for a catchment area of greater than 2 km2 and less than 5000 km2.

Applications of Unit Hydrograph

1. Using a unit hydrograph of ‘D’ hour duration, DRH of D-hour duration can be found of required excess
rainfall depth.

2. Using a unit hydrograph, flood hydrograph of required rainfall excess can be found by adding base flow.

3. Using unit hydrograph of ‘D’ hour duration, any other hydrograph of ‘T’ hour duration can be found.

Producing Unit Hydrograph of ‘T’ hour duration using ‘D’ hour Unit
Hydrograph
1. In case of T = ND where N is a positive integer. In such case Unit Hydrograph of T hours can be easily
found by applying principle of superposition.

2. In case of T = nD where n is a positive number but not an integer then in such case T hour unit
hydrograph is found using S-Curve technique.

 For T > D, peak of T hour Unit Hydrograph will be less than that of D hour Unit Hydrograph whereas the
base period of T hour Unit Hydrograph will be more than D hour Unit Hydrograph.

Here, t’B = Base period of T hour Unit Hydrograph

tB = Base period of D hour Unit Hydrograph

and,

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S-Curve Method of Preparing Hydrograph

 It is a hydrograph produced by continuous effective rainfall at constant rate for infinite time period. It is
produced by adding infinite series of hydrographs having a lag of D hours each where ‘D’ is the duration
of given Unit Hydrograph.

 Process to derive S-Curve:

1. Add infinite number of Unit Hydrograph with time lag of D hours each. After adding a continuous
discharge (Qs) is obtained.

2. S-Curve and off-set curve are filled simultaneously.

 Uses of S-Curve: S-Curve can be used to derive T hour Unit Hydrograph from a given D hour Unit
Hydrograph. Procedure:

1. Using ordinated of D hour Unit Hydrograph find ordinates of S-Curve. For preparing S-Curve, off-
set curve should be prepared at D hour offset.

2. Find off-set S-Curve ordinates by giving T hour offset (Duration of required Unit Hydrograph).

3. Find the difference between S-Curve and Offset-Curve (say Δy).

4. Now ordinates of required Unit Hydrograph will be given by:

Complex Hydrograph
 If a storm occurs but its rain intensity isn’t uniform i.e., let if the rainfall in the of (say) N hours have
rainfall intensity of R1 in first (say) n hours such that n is N is a multiple of n, rainfall intensity R2 in second
n hours and so on, then hydrograph derived from such a storm will be known as complex hydrograph
and will result a rainfall excess R1+R2…. Rm units.

 Complex Hydrograph can also be obtained by adding base flow in complex DRH. Further following two
cases can be formed:

1. Ordinates of n-hour Unit Hydrograph is given and a storm of N hour duration occurred which
results in to a rainfall excess R1 cm in first n hours, R2 cm in next n hour and so on then for
forming complex Unit Hydrograph for flood add R1U + R2U…RmU within a time lag of n hours
each to obtain DRH of N hours called complex DRH. This hydrograph will give a rainfall excess of
(R1+R2….) cm.

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2. A complex Unit Hydrograph is given which is made of a storm of variable intensity such that rainfall
excess in first n hours is R1 cm, in next n hours is R2 cm and so on then in such case to find the
ordinates of Unit Hydrograph of n hours, assume ordinates of n hour Unit Hydrograph as U1, U2… Ux
and consider given complex DRH is made of (R1U + R2U…) with a time lag of n hours each. Hence
establish equation in terms of U1, U2… and so on and get their solutions.

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