Descriptive Statistics Measures of Central Tendency Maan Groupe data: ‘Ungrouped data: fai . , x oe wa of Meatian Grouped dataz Ungrouped data: goF tap ifn odd Median = + (2 ) xe Median — 2 f FE itnisewn where £ is the lover boundary of the median class, F is the cumulative frequency before the median class, f is the frequency of the median class, and c i the class width. Mode Ungrouped data: Mode = The value that occurs most frequently Grouped data: Mode = L + iS) xe in — Si) * Im — I ‘where L is the lower boundary of the modal class, fn iS the frequency of the modal class, ‘fi is the frequency of the class before the modal class, fz is the frequency of the class after the modal class, and ¢ is the class width. Measures of Position Quartiles (Ungrouped Data) ition isan integer: Use the value at that: If position is halfway (0.5) between integers: Calculate the average of the two values If position is neither integer nor halfway: Round up to the next position and use that: value First Quartile (Q,): Position Third Quartile (Q,): Position = Quartites (Grouped Data) Fist Quartile (Q,) = La + (@ Sn 4 Third Quartile (Q,) = Ls + ( 2Range and Intenquartile Range ‘Maximum value — Minimum value Qu Range Interequartile Range Measures of Dispersion Variance Grouped data: Ungrouped data: Vie -2? Vf - nl m1 “Rat = For population data, replace n — 1 with n. Standard Deviation Coefficient of Variation w Standard deviation x 100% Measures of Skewness Pearson's Coefficients of Skeuness edian) or SkLinear Regression and Correlation Sums of Squares and Products Sey = D(H - ls a =Sonw ( n n n 2 Su=da-9= oat (=>) Sw = Solu - 9)? = xe - 2 (5) ‘a ia Simple Linear Regression Coefficient of Determination = 7? Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient: ore n(n? — I) where d, is the difference between the ranks of corresponding values of x and y, and n is the number of observations.Permutation and Combination Permutation Combination "0 (emia "= (ah Probability Basic Probability Rules Number of favorable outcomes Total number of possible outcomes P(not A) = P(A) = 1 P(A) P(A) Combining Events P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) (mutually exclusive events) P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) — P(A B) (general addition mule for any two events) P(ANB) = P(A) x P(B) (independent events) Conditional Probability P(ANB) P(B) P(AN B) = P(B) x P(A|B) = P(A) x P(B\A) P(AIB) = where P(B) > 0 oaRandom Variables Discrete Random Variable Continuous Random Variable Probability Distribution Properties Spx =2)=1 [ S(x)dr=1 Mx P(X =2) E(X?) = Se P(X =2) x 0< P(X <2) <1 fralle > 0 forall Plas X <3) [ Ja) de Expected Value (Mean) n= B(X) n= BX) = [2 se)ar a(x) = [or f(x) dr E(aX +6) =a- B(X) + Variance and Standard Deviation Var(X) = Var(aX +b) =a? = B(X?) — (B(x)? Var(X) Standard deviation, + = /Var(X) Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) F(x) = P(X <2) = SO P(X = 1) F(a) = P(X <2) [ S(t)de ie 4 00 fe) = FF)Special Probability Distribution Functions o> Distribution | Probability Functions Mean | Variance Binomial P(X = 2) (ra =p)", np | np(1—p) where x =0,1,...,.nand00 = 1 (e— 4)? > (x) xp | — a Normal I) = Fase ( aa): ft o where —00 < x < 00, —00 < pt < 00 and,Standard Normal Distribution The standard nomal distribution is given as %~ N(0,1) (Mean = 0, Standard Deviation = 1) To standardize a normal random variable X ~ N(y1,0?) to a standard normal random variable Z ~ (0,1), , Where j« is the mean, and ¢ is the standard deviation. _X-4 o Standard Normal Distribution Table: P(Z < 2) for Negative zevalues Table 1: Cumnlative Probability P(Z < 2) for Negative 2-values z 0.00 | 0.01 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.04 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.07 0.08 0.09 =3.9 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000, -8.8 | 0.0001 | 0,0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 =3.7 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 =3.6 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 -8.5 | 0.0002 | 0,0002 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 -8.4 | 0,0008 | 0,0003 | 0.0008 | 0.0003 | 0.0003 | 0.0008 | 0.0008 | 0.0003 | 0.0003 | 0.0002 =3.3 | 0.0005 | 0.0005 | 0.0005 | 0.0004 | 0.0004 | 0.0004 | 0.0004 | 0.0004 | 0.0004 | 0.0003, =3.2 | 0.0007 | 0.0007 | 0.0006 | 0.0006 | 0.0006 | 0.0006 | 0.0006 | 0.0005 | 0.0005 | 0.0005 8.1 | 0.0010 | 0.0009 | 0.0009 | 0.0009 | 0.0008 | 0.0008 | 0.0008 | 0.0008 | 0.0007 | 0.0007 =3.0 | 0.0013 | 0.0013 | 0.0013 | 0.0012 | 0.0012 | 0.0011 | 0.0011 | 0.0011 | 0.0010 | 0.0010 =2.9 | 0.0019 | 0.0018 | 0.0018 | 0.0017 | 0.0016 | 0.0016 | 0.0015 | 0.0015 | 0.0014 | 0.0014 2.8 | 0.0026 | 0.0025 | 0.0024 | 0.0023 | 0.0028 | 0.0022 | 0.0021 | 0.0021 | 0.0020 | 0.0019 2.7 | 0.0035 | 0.0034 | 0.0033 | 0.0032 | 0.0031 | 0.0030 | 0.0029 | 0.0028 | 0.0027 | 0.0026 =2.6 | 0.0047 | 0.0045 | 0.0044 | 0.0043 | 0.0041 | 0.0040 | 0.0039 | 0.0038 | 0.0037 | 0.0036. 2.5 | 0.0062 | 0.0060 | 0.0059 | 0.0057 | 0.0055 | 0.0054 | 0.0052 | 0.0051 | 0.0049 | 0.0048 2.4 | 0.0082 | 0.0080 | 0.0078 | 0.0075 | 0.0073 | 0.0071 | 0.0069 | 0.0068 | 0.0066 | 0.0064 =2.3 | 0.0107 | 0.0104 | 0.0102 | 0.0099 | 0.0096 | 0.0094 | 0.0091 | 0.0089 | 0.0087 | 0.0084 2.2 | 0.0139 | 0.0136 | 0.0132 | 0.0129 | 0.0125 | 0.0122 | 0.0119 | 0.0116 | 0.0113 | 0.0110 2.1 | 0.0179 | 0.0174 | 0.0170 | 0.0166 | 0.0162 | 0.0158 | 0.0154 | 0.0150 | 0.0146 | 0.0143 =2.0 | 0.0228 | 0.0222 | 0.0217 | 0.0212 | 0.0207 | 0.0202 | 0.0197 | 0.0192 | 0.0188 | 0.0183 =1.9 | 0.0287 | 0.0281 | 0.0274 | 0.0268 | 0.0262 | 0.0256 | 0.0250 | 0.0244 | 0.0239 | 0.0233, 1.8 | 0.0359 | 0.0351 | 0.0344 | 0.0336 | 0.0329 | 0.0322 | 0.0814 | 0.0307 | 0.0301 | 0.0294 Continued on next page0.00 0.01 ‘Table 1 — continued from previous page 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 -L7 1.6 15 “14 13 “1.2 “Ld -1.0 0.9 0.8 -0.7 0.6 0.5, 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 -0.0 0.0116 0.0548, 0.0668, 0.0808 0.0968, O15 0.1357 0.1587 0.1841 0.2119 0.2420 0.2743, 0.3085 0.3446, 0.3821 0.4207, 0.4602 0.5000 0.0136 0.0537 0.0655 0.0793 0.0951 0.1131 0.1335 0.1562 0.1814 0.0427 0.0526 0.0643 0.0778 0.0934 0.1112 0.1314 0.1539 0.1788 0.2061 0.2358 0.2676 0.3015 0.3372 0.3745 0.4129 0.4522 0.4920 0.0118 0.0516, 0.0630, 0.0764 0.0918, 0.1093, 0.1292 O.1515 0.1762 0.2083, 0.2327 0.2643, 0.2981 0.3336 0.3707, 0.4090, 0.4483 0.4880 0.0109 0.0505 0.0618 0.0749 0.0901 0.1075 0.1271 0.1492 0.1736 0.2005 0.2296 0.2611 0.2946 0.3300 0.3669 0.4052 t 0.4840 0.0101 0.0195 0.0606 0.0735 0.0885 0.1056 0.1251 0.1469 0.1711 0.1977, 0.2266 0.2578 0.2912 0.3264 0.3632 0.4013 oAd04 0.4801 0.0392, 0.0485 0.0594 0.0721 0.0869, 0.1038, 0.1230 0.1446 0.1685 0.1949, 0.2236 0.2546, 0.2877, 0.3228 0.3594, 0.3974 0.4364, 0.4761 0.0384 0.0475 0.0582 0.0708 0.0853 0.1020 0.1210 0.1423 0.1660 0.1922 0.2206 0.2514 0.2843 0.3192 0.3557 0.3936 0.4325 0.4721 0.0875 0.0465 0.0571 0.0694 0.0838 0.1003 0.1190 0.1401 0.1635 0.1804 0.2177 0.2483 0.2810 0.3156 0.3520 0.3897, 0.4286 0.4681. 0.0867 0.0455 0.0559, 0.0681. 0.0823, 0.0985 0.1170 0.1379 0.1611 0.1867, 0.218 0.2451 0.2776. 0.3121 0.3483, 0.3859, 0.4247, 0.4641 Standard Normal Distribution Table: zevalues P(Z < 2) for Positive ‘Table 2: Cumulative Probability P(Z < z) for Positive zvalues 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05, 0.06. 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.0 On 02 03 04 05 06 0.7 08 09 1.0 0.5000 0.5398 0.5793 0.6179 0.6554 0.6915 0.7257 7580, 0.7881 0.8159 0.8413 0.5040 0.5438 0.5832 0.6217 0.6591 0.6950 0.7291 0.7611 0.7910 0.8186 0.8438 0.5080, 0.5478, 5871 0.6255 0.6628, 0.6985 0.7324 0.7612 0.7939, 0.8212 0.8461 0.5120 0.5517 0.5910 0.6293 0.6664 0.7019 0.7357 0.7673 0.7967 0.8238 0.8485 0.5160 0.5557, 0.5048 0.6331 0.6700 0.7054 0.7389 0.704 0.7995 0.8261 0.8508 0.5199 0.5596 0.5987 0.6368 0.6736 0.7088 0.7422 0.7734 0.8023 0.8289 0.8531 0.5239 0.5636 0.6026 0.6406 0.6772 0.7123 0.7454 0.7764 0.8051 0.8315 0.8554 0.5279 0.5675 0.6064 0.6143 0.6808 0.7157, 0.7486 0.7794 0.8078 0.8340 0.8577, 0.5319, 0.5714 0.6103 0.6480 0.6844, 0.7190, 0.7517 0.7823, 0.8106, 0.8365 0.8599, 0.5359, 0.5753, 0.6141 0.6517 0.6879, 0.724 0.7549 0.7852 0.8133, 08389 0.8621 ‘Continued on next page0.00 0.01 ‘Table 2 — continued from previous page 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 LL 12 13 14 15 16 7 18 19 2.0 Qa 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3.0 3.1 32 3.3 34 35 36 3.7 38 39 0.8643 0.8819 0.9032 0.9192 0.9332 0.9452 0.9554 0.9641 0.9713 0.9772 0.9821 0.9861 0.9893 0.9918 0.9938 0.9953 0.9965 0.9974 0.9981 0.9987 0.9990 0.9993 0.9995 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 0.8665 0.8869 0.9049 0.9207 0.9345 0.9463 0.9564 0.9649 0.9719 0.9778 0.9826 0.9864 0.9896 0.9920 0.9940 0.9955 0.9966 0.9975 0.9982 0.9987, 0.9991. 0.9993 0.9995 0.9997 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000, (0.8686 0.8888, 0.9066, 0.9222 0.9357, 0.9474 0.9573 0.9656 0.9726, 0.9783, 0.9830 0.9868, 0.9898, 0.9922 0.9941 0.9956, 0.9967 0.9976 0.9982 0.9987, 0.9991. 0.9994, 0.9995 0.9997 0.9998, 0.9999, 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 0.8708 0.8907 0.9082 0.9236 0.9370 0.9484 0.9582 0.9664 0.9732 0.9788 0.9834 0.9871 0.9901 0.9925 0.9943 0.9957 0.9968 0.9977 0.9983 0.9988 0.9991 0.9994 0.9996 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 08729 0.8925 0.9099 0.9251. 0.9382 0.9195 0.9591. 0.9671 0.9738 0.9793 0.9838 0.9875 0.9904 0.9927 0.9945 0.9959 0.9969 0.9977 0.9984 0.9988 0.9992 0.9994 0.9996 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 0.8749 0.8944 0.9115 0.9265 0.9304, 0.9505 0.9599 0.9678 0.9744 0.9798 0.9812 0.9878 0.9906 0.9929 0.9946 0.9960 0.9970 0.9978 0.9984, 0.9989 0.9992 0.9994, 0.9996 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000, 0.8770 0.8962 0.9131 0.9279 0.9406 0.9515 0.9608 0.9686 0.9750 0.9803 0.9816 0.9881 0.9909 0.9931 0.9948 0.9961 0.9971 0.9979 0.9985 0.9989 0.9992 0.9994 0.9996 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 0.8790 0.8980 0.9147, 0.9292 0.9418 0.9525 0.9616 0.9693 0.9756 0.9808 0.9850 0.9884 0.9911 0.9932 0.9949 0.9962 0.9972 0.9979 0.9985 0.9989 0.9992 0.9995 0.9996 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 0.8810 0.8997, 0.9162 0.9306 0.9429, 0.9535 0.9625 0.9699 0.9761 0.9812 0.9854 0.9887, 0.9913, 0.9934 0.9951 0.9963, 0.9973 0.9980 0.9986, 0.9990, 0.9993 0.9995 0.9996, 0.9997 0.9998, 0.9999, 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 (0.8830 0.9015, 0.9177 0.9319 0.9441 0.9545, 0.9633 10Critical Values for the Normal Distribution This table provides critical avalues for the standard normal distribution where Se P(Z> 2) =a, 0 ‘Table 3: Critical Z-Values for P(Z > 2) = 0 a zm | a a | % @ ma 0.000005 | 1172 | 0.025 | 1.9600 | 0.054 | 7.0072 | 0.083 | 1.3852 [0.22 | 0.772 0.00001 | 4.2649 | 0.026 | 1.9131 | 0.055 | 1.5982 | 0.084 | 1.3787 | 0.23 | 0.7388 0.00005 | 3.8906 | 0.027 | 1.9268 | 0.056 | 1.5893 ] 0,085 | 1.3722 | 0.24 | 0.7063 0.00010 | 3.7190 | 0.028 | 1.9110 | 0.057 | 1.5805 | 0.086 | 1.3658 | 0.25 | 0.6745 0.00050 | 3.2005 | 0.029 | 1.8957 | 0.058 | 1.5718 | 0.087 | 1.3595 | 0.26 | 0.633 0.001 | 3.0902 | 0.030 | 1.8808 | 0.059 | 1.5632 | 0.088 | 1.3532 | 0.27 | 0.6128 0.002 | 2.8782 | 0.031 | 1.8663 | 0.060 | 1.5518 | 0.089 | 1.3469 | 0.28 | 0.5828 0.003 | 2.7478 | 0.032 | 1.8522 | 0.061 | 1.5464 | 0.090 | 1.3408 | 0.29 0.004 | 2.6521 | 0.033 | 1.8384 | 0.062 | 1.5382 | 0.091 | 1.3346 | 0.30 0.005 | 2.5758 | 0.034 | 1.8250 | 0.068 | 1.5301 | 0.092 | 1.3285 | 0.31 0.006 | 2.5121 | 0.035 | 1.8119 | 0.064 | 1.5220 | 0.093 | 1.3225 | 0.32 0.007 | 2.4573 | 0.036 | 1.7991 | 0.065 | 1.5141 | 0.094 | 1.3165 | 0.33 0.008 | 2.4089 | 0.037 | 1.7866 | 0.066 | 1.5063 | 0.095 | 1.3106 | 0.34 0.009 | 2.3656 | 0.038 | 1.744 | 0.067 | 1.4985 | 0.096 | 1.3047 | 0.35 0.010 | 2.3263 1.4909 | 0.097 | 1.298 | 0.36 0.011 | 2.2004 1.4833 | 0,098 | 1.2930 | 0.37 0.012 | 22571 1.4758 | 0.099 | 1.2873 | 0.38 0.013 | 2.2962 1.4684 | 0.10 | 1.2816 | 0.39 0.014 | 2.1973 14611 | 0.11 | 1.2265 | 0.40 0.015 | 2.1701 1.4538 | 0.12 | 1.1750 | 0.41 0.016 | 21444 1.4466 | 0.13 | 1.1264 | 0.42 0.017 | 2.1201 .075 | 1.4395 ] 0.14 | 1.0803 | 0.43 0.018 | 2.0969 | 0.047 | 1.6747 | 0.076 | 1.4325 | 0.15 | 1.0364 | 0.44 0.019 | 2.0749 | 0.048 | 1.0616 | 0.077 | 1.4255 | 0.16 | 0.9945 | 0.45 0.020 | 2.0537 | 0.049 | 1.6546 | 0.078 | 1.4187 | 0.17 | 0.9542 | 0.46 0.021 | 2.0335 | 0,050 | 1.6449 | 0.079 | 1.4118 | 0.18 | 0.9154 | 0.47 0.022 | 2.0141 | 0.051 | 1.6352 | 0.080 | 1.4051 | 0.19 | 0.8779 | 0.48 0.023 | 1.9954 | 0.052 | 1.6258 | 0.081 | 1.3984] 0.20 | 0.8416 | 0.49 0.024 _| 1.9774 | 0.053 | 1.6164 | 0.082 | 1.3917 | 0.21 | 0.8064 | 0.50 Note: For P(Z < 2) = a, use 2 = Example: P(Z < -1.96) iq, Where 2, is from P(Z > 2) (1.9600) = -1.9600 uw 0.025, so use a = 0.025 to find z =a