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Transport
Phenomena
Revised Second Edition

R. Byron Bird
Warren E. Stewart
Edwin N. Lightfoot
Chemical and Biological Engineering Department
University of Wisconsin-Madison

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

New York / Chichester / Weinheim / Brisbane / Singapore / Toronto
Preface

W hile momentum, heat, and mass transfer developed independently as branches of

classical physics long ago, their unified study has found its place as one of the funda-
mental engineering sciences. This development, in turn, less than half a century old, con-
tinues to grow and to find applications in new fields such as biotechnology,
microelectronics, nanotechnology, and polymer science.
Evolution of transport phenomena has been so rapid and extensive that complete
coverage is not possible. While we have included many representative examples, our
main emphasis has, of necessity, been on the fundamental aspects of this field. More-
over, we have found in discussions with colleagues that transport phenomena is taught
in a variety of ways and at several different levels. Enough material has been included
for two courses, one introductory and one advanced. The elementary course, in turn, can
be divided into one course on momentum transfer, and another on heat and mass trans-
fer, thus providing more opportunity to demonstrate the utility of this material in practi-
cal applications. Designation of some sections as optional () and other as advanced (●)
may be helpful to students and instructors.
Long regarded as a rather mathematical subject, transport phenomena is most impor-
tant for its physical significance. The essence of this subject is the careful and compact
statement of the conservation principles, along with the flux expressions, with emphasis
on the similarities and differences among the three transport processes considered. Often,
specialization to the boundary conditions and the physical properties in a specific prob-
lem can provide useful insight with minimal effort. Nevertheless, the language of trans-
port phenomena is mathematics, and in this textbook we have assumed familiarity with
ordinary differential equations and elementary vector analysis. We introduce the use of
partial differential equations with sufficient explanation that the interested student can
master the material presented. Numerical techniques are deferred, in spite of their obvi-
ous importance, in order to concentrate on fundamental understanding.
Citations to the published literature are emphasized throughout, both to place trans-
port phenomena in its proper historical context and to lead the reader into further exten-
sions of fundamentals and to applications. We have been particularly anxious to
introduce the pioneers to whom we owe so much, and from whom we can still draw
useful inspiration. These were human beings not so different from ourselves, and per-
haps some of our readers will be inspired to make similar contributions.
Obviously both the needs of our readers and the tools available to them have
changed greatly since the first edition was written over forty years ago. We have made a
serious effort to bring our text up to date, within the limits of space and our abilities, and
we have tried to anticipate further developments. Major changes from the first edition
include:
• transport properties of two-phase systems
• use of “combined fluxes” to set up shell balances and equations of change
• angular momentum conservation and its consequences
• complete derivation of the mechanical energy balance
• expanded treatment of boundary-layer theory
• Taylor dispersion
• improved discussions of turbulent transport

iii
iv Preface

• Fourier analysis of turbulent transport at high Pr or Sc

• more on heat and mass transfer coefficients
• enlarged discussions of dimensional analysis and scaling
• matrix methods for multicomponent mass transfer
• ionic systems, membrane separations, and porous media
• the relation between the Boltzmann equation and the continuum equations
• use of the “Q
W” convention in energy discussions, in conformity with the lead-
ing textbooks in physics and physical chemistry
However, it is always the youngest generation of professionals who see the future most
clearly, and who must build on their imperfect inheritance.
Much remains to be done, but the utility of transport phenomena can be expected to
increase rather than diminish. Each of the exciting new technologies blossoming around
us is governed, at the detailed level of interest, by the conservation laws and flux expres-
sions, together with information on the transport coefficients. Adapting the problem for-
mulations and solution techniques for these new areas will undoubtedly keep engineers
busy for a long time, and we can only hope that we have provided a useful base from
which to start.
Each new book depends for its success on many more individuals than those whose
names appear on the title page. The most obvious debt is certainly to the hard-working
and gifted students who have collectively taught us much more than we have taught
them. In addition, the professors who reviewed the manuscript deserve special thanks
for their numerous corrections and insightful comments: Yu-Ling Cheng (University of
Toronto), Michael D. Graham (University of Wisconsin), Susan J. Muller (University of
California-Berkeley), William B. Russel (Princeton University), Jay D. Schieber (Illinois
Institute of Technology), and John F. Wendt (Von Kármán Institute for Fluid Dynamics).
However, at a deeper level, we have benefited from the departmental structure and tra-
ditions provided by our elders here in Madison. Foremost among these was Olaf An-
dreas Hougen, and it is to his memory that this edition is dedicated.

Madison, Wisconsin R. B. B.
W. E. S.
E. N. L.

Comments on the Revised Second Edition:

Since the appearance of the second edition in 2002, the authors have found a num-
ber of errors—some major and some minor—and we have endeavored to correct these.
In addition, well over a hundred readers have joined in suggesting how improvements
could be made or how errors could be corrected. Some letters came from students, some
from teachers, and some from practitioners. We have appreciated receiving their com-
ments and have enjoyed corresponding with them. We regret any problems or confusion
caused by our mistakes and have taken seriously the job of correcting the text for this re-
vised second edition, to the extent that it was feasible. The publisher has been very gen-
erous in allowing us to do this, and we thank all concerned for their patience. We wish to
give special thanks to Professor Carlos A. Ramírez at the University of Puerto Rico
(Mayagüez) for his diligence and effort in corresponding with us. His many comments
have been particularly valuable, and as a result the book has been greatly improved.

September 2006 RBB, WES, ENL

Contents

Preface §2.4 Flow through an Annulus 53

§2.5 Flow of Two Adjacent Immiscible Fluids 56
Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport §2.6 Creeping Flow around a Sphere 58
Phenomena 1 Ex. 2.6-1 Determination of Viscosity from the
Terminal Velocity of a Falling Sphere 61
Questions for Discussion 61
Problems 62
Part I Momentum Transport
Chapter 3 The Equations of Change for
Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Isothermal Systems 75
Momentum Transport 11 §3.1 The Equation of Continuity 77
§1.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity (Molecular Momentum Ex. 3.1-1 Normal Stresses at Solid Surfaces for
Transport) 11 Incompressible Newtonian Fluids 78
Ex. 1.1-1 Calculation of Momentum Flux 15 §3.2 The Equation of Motion 78
§1.2 Generalization of Newton’s Law of Viscosity 16 §3.3 The Equation of Mechanical Energy 81
§1.3 Pressure and Temperature Dependence of §3.4O The Equation of Angular Momentum 82
Viscosity 21 §3.5 The Equations of Change in Terms of the
Ex. 1.3-1 Estimation of Viscosity from Critical Substantial Derivative 83
Properties 23 Ex. 3.5-1 The Bernoulli Equation for the Steady
§1.4O Molecular Theory of the Viscosity of Gases at Low Flow of Inviscid Fluids 86
Density 23 §3.6 Use of the Equations of Change to Solve Flow
Ex. 1.4-1 Computation of the Viscosity of a Gas Problems 86
Mixture at Low Density 28 Ex. 3.6-1 Steady Flow in a Long Circular
Ex. 1.4-2 Prediction of the Viscosity of a Gas Tube 88
Mixture at Low Density 28 Ex. 3.6-2 Falling Film with Variable
§1.5O Molecular Theory of the Viscosity of Liquids 29 Viscosity 89
Ex. 1.5-1 Estimation of the Viscosity of a Pure Ex. 3.6-3 Operation of a Couette Viscometer 89
Liquid 31 Ex. 3.6-4 Shape of the Surface of a Rotating
§1.6O Viscosity of Suspensions and Emulsions 31 Liquid 93
§1.7 Convective Momentum Transport 34 Ex. 3.6-5 Flow near a Slowly Rotating
Questions for Discussion 37 Sphere 95
Problems 37 §3.7 Dimensional Analysis of the Equations of
Change 97
Ex. 3.7-1 Transverse Flow around a Circular
Chapter 2 Shell Momentum Balances and Velocity
Cylinder 98
Distributions in Laminar Flow 40
Ex. 3.7-2 Steady Flow in an Agitated Tank 101
§2.1 Shell Momentum Balances and Boundary Ex. 3.7-3 Pressure Drop for Creeping Flow in a
Conditions 41 Packed Tube 103
§2.2 Flow of a Falling Film 42 Questions for Discussion 104
Ex. 2.2-1 Calculation of Film Velocity 47 Problems 104
Ex. 2.2-2 Falling Film with Variable
Viscosity 47 Chapter 4 Velocity Distributions with More than
§2.3 Flow Through a Circular Tube 48 One Independent Variable 114
Ex. 2.3-1 Determination of Viscosity from Capillary
Flow Data 52 §4.1 Time-Dependent Flow of Newtonian Fluids 114
Ex. 2.3-2 Compressible Flow in a Horizontal Ex. 4.1-1 Flow near a Wall Suddenly Set in
Circular Tube 53 Motion 115

v
vi Contents

Ex. 4.1-2 Unsteady Laminar Flow between Two Ex. 6.2-2 Flow Rate for a Given Pressure
Parallel Plates 117 Drop 183
Ex. 4.1-3 Unsteady Laminar Flow near an §6.3 Friction Factors for Flow around Spheres 185
Oscillating Plate 120 Ex. 6.3-1 Determination of the Diameter of a Falling
§4.2O Solving Flow Problems Using a Stream Sphere 187
Function 121 §6.4O Friction Factors for Packed Columns 188
Ex. 4.2-1 Creeping Flow around a Sphere 122 Questions for Discussion 192
§4.3O Flow of Inviscid Fluids by Use of the Velocity Problems 193
Potential 126
Ex. 4.3-1 Potential Flow around a Cylinder 128 Chapter 7 Macroscopic Balances for
Ex. 4.3-2 Flow into a Rectangular Channel 130 Isothermal Flow Systems 197
Ex. 4.3-3 Flow near a Corner 131
§4.4O Flow near Solid Surfaces by Boundary-Layer §7.1 The Macroscopic Mass Balance 198
Theory 133 Ex. 7.1-1 Draining of a Spherical Tank 199
Ex. 4.4-1 Laminar Flow along a Flat Plate §7.2 The Macroscopic Momentum Balance 200
(Approximate Solution) 136 Ex. 7.2-1 Force Exerted by a Jet (Part a) 201
Ex. 4.4-2 Laminar Flow along a Flat Plate (Exact §7.3 The Macroscopic Angular Momentum
Solution) 137 Balance 202
Ex. 4.4-3 Flow near a Corner 139 Ex. 7.3-1 Torque on a Mixing Vessel 202
Questions for Discussion 140 §7.4 The Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Problems 141 Balance 203
Ex. 7.4-1 Force Exerted by a Jet (Part b) 205
Chapter 5 Velocity Distributions in §7.5 Estimation of the Viscous Loss 205
Turbulent Flow 152 Ex. 7.5-1 Power Requirement for Pipeline
Flow 207
§5.1 Comparisons of Laminar and Turbulent §7.6 Use of the Macroscopic Balances for Steady-State
Flows 154 Problems 209
§5.2 Time-Smoothed Equations of Change for Ex. 7.6-1 Pressure Rise and Friction Loss in a
Incompressible Fluids 156 Sudden Enlargement 209
§5.3 The Time-Smoothed Velocity Profile near a Ex. 7.6-2 Performance of a Liquid–Liquid
Wall 159 Ejector 210
§5.4 Empirical Expressions for the Turbulent Ex. 7.6-3 Thrust on a Pipe Bend 212
Momentum Flux 162 Ex. 7.6-4 The Impinging Jet 214
Ex. 5.4-1 Development of the Reynolds Stress Ex. 7.6-5 Isothermal Flow of a Liquid through an
Expression in the Vicinity of the Wall 164 Orifice 215
§5.5 Turbulent Flow in Ducts 165 §7.7O Use of the Macroscopic Balances for Unsteady-
Ex. 5.5-1 Estimation of the Average Velocity in a State Problems 216
Circular Tube 166 Ex. 7.7.1 Acceleration Effects in Unsteady Flow
Ex. 5.5-2 Application of Prandtl’s Mixing Length from a Cylindrical Tank 217
Formula to Turbulent Flow in a Circular Ex. 7.7-2 Manometer Oscillations 219
Tube 167 §7.8• Derivation of the Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Ex. 5.5-3 Relative Magnitude of Viscosity and Eddy Balance 221
Viscosity 167 Questions for Discussion 223
§5.6O Turbulent Flow in Jets 168 Problems 224
Ex. 5.6-1 Time-Smoothed Velocity Distribution in a
Circular Wall Jet 168 Chapter 8 Polymeric Liquids 231
Questions for Discussion 172
Problems 172 §8.1 Examples of the Behavior of Polymeric
Liquids 232
Chapter 6 Interphase Transport in §8.2 Rheometry and Material Functions 236
Isothermal Systems 177 §8.3 Non-Newtonian Viscosity and the Generalized
Newtonian Models 240
§6.1 Definition of Friction Factors 178 Ex. 8.3-1 Laminar Flow of an Incompressible
§6.2 Friction Factors for Flow in Tubes 179 Power-Law Fluid in a Circular Tube 242
Ex. 6.2-1 Pressure Drop Required for a Given Flow Ex. 8.3-2 Flow of a Power-Law Fluid in a Narrow
Rate 183 Slit 243
 Contents vii

Ex. 8.3-3 Tangential Annular Flow of a Power- Chapter 10 Shell Energy Balances and
Law Fluid 244 Temperature Distributions in
§8.4O Elasticity and the Linear Viscoelastic Solids and Laminar Flow 290
Models 244
Ex. 8.4-1 Small-Amplitude Oscillatory §10.1 Shell Energy Balances; Boundary
Motion 247 Conditions 291
Ex. 8.4-2 Unsteady Viscoelastic Flow near an §10.2 Heat Conduction with an Electrical Heat
Oscillating Plate 248 Source 292
§8.5• The Corotational Derivatives and the Nonlinear Ex. 10.2-1 Voltage Required for a Given
Viscoelastic Models 249 Temperature Rise in a Wire Heated by an
Ex. 8.5-1 Material Functions for the Oldroyd 6- Electric Current 295
Constant Model 251 Ex. 10.2-2 Heated Wire with Specified Heat
§8.6• Molecular Theories for Polymeric Liquids 253 Transfer Coefficient and Ambient Air
Ex. 8.6-1 Material Functions for the FENE-P Temperature 295
Model 255 §10.3 Heat Conduction with a Nuclear Heat
Questions for Discussion 258 Source 296
Problems 258 §10.4 Heat Conduction with a Viscous Heat
Source 298
§10.5 Heat Conduction with a Chemical Heat
Source 300
Part II Energy Transport §10.6 Heat Conduction through Composite
Walls 303
Ex. 10.6-1 Composite Cylindrical Walls 305
Chapter 9 Thermal Conductivity and §10.7 Heat Conduction in a Cooling Fin 307
the Mechanisms of Energy Ex. 10.7-1 Error in Thermocouple
Transport 265 Measurement 309
§10.8 Forced Convection 310
§9.1 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction (Molecular
§10.9 Free Convection 316
Energy Transport) 266
Questions for Discussion 319
Ex. 9.1-1 Measurement of Thermal
Problems 320
Conductivity 270
§9.2 Temperature and Pressure Dependence of Thermal
Conductivity 272 Chapter 11 The Equations of Change for
Ex. 9.2-1 Effect of Pressure on Thermal Nonisothermal Systems 333
Conductivity 273
§9.3O Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Gases at Low §11.1 The Energy Equation 333
Density 274 §11.2 Special Forms of the Energy Equation 336
Ex. 9.3-1 Computation of the Thermal §11.3 The Boussinesq Equation of Motion for Forced
Conductivity of a Monatomic Gas at Low and Free Convection 338
Density 277 §11.4 Use of the Equations of Change to Solve Steady-
Ex. 9.3-2 Estimation of the Thermal Conductivity State Problems 339
of a Polyatomic Gas at Low Density 278 Ex. 11.4-1 Steady-State Forced-Convection Heat
Ex. 9.3-3 Prediction of the Thermal Conductivity Transfer in Laminar Flow in a Circular
of a Gas Mixture at Low Density 278 Tube 342
§9.4O Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Ex. 11.4-2 Tangential Flow in an Annulus with
Liquids 279 Viscous Heat Generation 342
Ex. 9.4-1 Prediction of the Thermal Conductivity of Ex. 11.4-3 Steady Flow in a Nonisothermal
a Liquid 280 Film 343
§9.5O Thermal Conductivity of Solids 280 Ex. 11.4-4 Transpiration Cooling 344
§9.6O Effective Thermal Conductivity of Composite Ex. 11.4-5 Free Convection Heat Transfer from a
Solids 281 Vertical Plate 346
§9.7 Convective Transport of Energy 283 Ex. 11.4-6 Adiabatic Frictionless Processes in an
§9.8 Work Associated with Molecular Ideal Gas 349
Motions 284 Ex. 11.4-7 One-Dimensional Compressible Flow:
Questions for Discussion 286 Velocity, Temperature, and Pressure Profiles in a
Problems 287 Stationary Shock Wave 350
viii Contents

§11.5 Dimensional Analysis of the Equations of Change §13.4O Temperature Distribution for Turbulent Flow in
for Nonisothermal Systems 353 Tubes 411
Ex. 11.5-1 Temperature Distribution about a Long §13.5O Temperature Distribution for Turbulent Flow in
Cylinder 356 Jets 415
Ex. 11.5-2 Free Convection in a Horizontal Fluid §13.6• Fourier Analysis of Energy Transport in Tube Flow
Layer; Formation of Bénard Cells 358 at Large Prandtl Numbers 416
Ex. 11.5-3 Surface Temperature of an Electrical Questions for Discussion 421
Heating Coil 360 Problems 421
Questions for Discussion 361
Problems 361
Chapter 14 Interphase Transport in
Chapter 12 Temperature Distributions with More Nonisothermal Systems 422
than One Independent Variable 374 §14.1 Definitions of Heat Transfer Coefficients 423
Ex. 14.1-1 Calculation of Heat Transfer Coefficients
§12.1 Unsteady Heat Conduction in Solids 374
from Experimental Data 426
Ex. 12.1-1 Heating of a Semi-Infinite Slab 375
§14.2 Analytical Calculations of Heat Transfer
Ex. 12.1-2 Heating of a Finite Slab 376
Coefficients for Forced Convection through Tubes
Ex. 12.1-3 Unsteady Heat Conduction near a Wall
and Slits 428
with Sinusoidal Heat Flux 379
§14.3 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convection
Ex. 12.1-4 Cooling of a Sphere in Contact with a
in Tubes 433
Well-Stirred Fluid 379
Ex. 14.3-1 Design of a Tubular Heater 437
§12.2O Steady Heat Conduction in Laminar,
§14.4 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convection
Incompressible Flow 381
around Submerged Objects 438
Ex. 12.2-1 Laminar Tube Flow with Constant Heat
§14.5 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convection
Flux at the Wall 383
through Packed Beds 441
Ex. 12.2-2 Laminar Tube Flow with Constant Heat
§14.6O Heat Transfer Coefficients for Free and Mixed
Flux at the Wall: Asymptotic Solution for the
Convection 442
Entrance Region 384
Ex. 14.6-1 Heat Loss by Free Convection from a
§12.3O Steady Potential Flow of Heat in Solids 385
Horizontal Pipe 445
Ex. 12.3-1 Temperature Distribution in a
§14.7O Heat Transfer Coefficients for Condensation of
Wall 386
Pure Vapors on Solid Surfaces 446
§12.4O Boundary Layer Theory for Nonisothermal
Ex. 14.7-1 Condensation of Steam on a Vertical
Flow 387
Surface 449
Ex. 12.4-1 Heat Transfer in Laminar Forced
Questions for Discussion 449
Convection along a Heated Flat Plate (the von
Problems 450
Kármán Integral Method) 388
Ex. 12.4-2 Heat Transfer in Laminar Forced
Convection along a Heated Flat Plate (Asymptotic Chapter 15 Macroscopic Balances for
Solution for Large Prandtl Numbers) 391 Nonisothermal Systems 454
Ex. 12.4-3 Forced Convection in Steady Three-
Dimensional Flow at High Prandtl §15.1 The Macroscopic Energy Balance 455
Numbers 392 §15.2 The Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Questions for Discussion 394 Balance 456
Problems 395 §15.3 Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve Steady-
State Problems with Flat Velocity Profiles 458
Chapter 13 Temperature Distributions in Ex. 15.3-1 The Cooling of an Ideal Gas 459
Turbulent Flow 407 Ex. 15.3-2 Mixing of Two Ideal Gas
Streams 460
§13.1 Time-Smoothed Equations of Change for §15.4 The d-Forms of the Macroscopic Balances 461
Incompressible Nonisothermal Flow 407 Ex. 15.4-1 Parallel- or Counter-Flow Heat
§13.2 The Time-Smoothed Temperature Profile near a Exchangers 462
Wall 409 Ex. 15.4-2 Power Requirement for Pumping a
§13.3 Empirical Expressions for the Turbulent Heat Compressible Fluid through a Long Pipe 464
Flux 410 §15.5O Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve
Ex. 13.3-1 An Approximate Relation for the Wall Unsteady-State Problems and Problems with
Heat Flux for Turbulent Flow in a Tube 411 Nonflat Velocity Profiles 465
 Contents ix

Ex. 15.5-1 Heating of a Liquid in an Agitated Ex. 17.2-3 Estimation of Binary Diffusivity at High
Tank 466 Density 524
Ex. 15.5-2 Operation of a Simple Temperature §17.3O Theory of Diffusion in Gases at Low Density 525
Controller 468 Ex. 17.3-1 Computation of Mass Diffusivity for
Ex. 15.5-3 Flow of Compressible Fluids through Low-Density Monatomic Gases 528
Head Meters 471 §17.4O Theory of Diffusion in Binary Liquids 528
Ex. 15.5-4 Free Batch Expansion of a Compressible Ex. 17.4-1 Estimation of Liquid Diffusivity 530
Fluid 472 §17.5O Theory of Diffusion in Colloidal
Questions for Discussion 474 Suspensions 531
Problems 474 §17.6O Theory of Diffusion in Polymers 532
§17.7 Mass and Molar Transport by Convection 533
Chapter 16 Energy Transport by Radiation 487 §17.8 Summary of Mass and Molar Fluxes 536
§17.9O The Maxwell–Stefan Equations for Multicomponent
§16.1 The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation 488 Diffusion in Gases at Low Density 538
§16.2 Absorption and Emission at Solid Surfaces 490 Questions for Discussion 538
§16.3 Planck’s Distribution Law, Wien’s Displacement Problems 539
Law, and the Stefan–Boltzmann Law 493
Ex. 16.3-1 Temperature and Radiation-Energy
Emission of the Sun 496 Chapter 18 Concentration Distributions in
§16.4 Direct Radiation between Black Bodies in Vacuo at Solids and Laminar Flow 543
Different Temperatures 497 §18.1 Shell Mass Balances; Boundary Conditions 545
Ex. 16.4-1 Estimation of the Solar Constant 501 §18.2 Diffusion through a Stagnant Gas Film 545
Ex. 16.4-2 Radiant Heat Transfer between Ex. 18.2-1 Diffusion with a Moving
Disks 501 Interface 549
§16.5O Radiation between Nonblack Bodies at Different Ex. 18.2-2 Determination of Diffusivity 549
Temperatures 502 Ex. 18.2-3 Diffusion through a Nonisothermal
Ex. 16.5-1 Radiation Shields 503 Spherical Film 550
Ex. 16.5-2 Radiation and Free-Convection Heat §18.3 Diffusion with a Heterogeneous Chemical
Losses from a Horizontal Pipe 504 Reaction 551
Ex. 16.5-3 Combined Radiation and Ex. 18.3-1 Diffusion with a Slow Heterogeneous
Convection 505 Reaction 553
§16.6O Radiant Energy Transport in Absorbing §18.4 Diffusion with a Homogeneous Chemical
Media 506 Reaction 554
Ex. 16.6-1 Absorption of a Monochromatic Radiant Ex. 18.4-1 Gas Absorption with Chemical Reaction
Beam 507 in an Agitated Tank 555
Questions for Discussion 508 §18.5 Diffusion into a Falling Liquid Film (Gas
Problems 508 Absorption) 558
Ex. 18.5-1 Gas Absorption from Rising
Bubbles 560
Part III Mass Transport §18.6 Diffusion into a Falling Liquid Film (Solid
Dissolution) 562
§18.7 Diffusion and Chemical Reaction inside a Porous
Chapter 17 Diffusivity and the Mechanisms of
Catalyst 563
Mass Transport 513
§18.8O Diffusion in a Three-Component Gas
§17.1 Fick’s Law of Binary Diffusion (Molecular Mass System 567
Transport) 514 Questions for Discussion 568
Ex. 17.1-1. Diffusion of Helium through Pyrex Problems 568
Glass 519
Ex. 17.1-2 The Equivalence of
AB and
BA 520 Chapter 19 Equations of Change for
§17.2 Temperature and Pressure Dependence of Multicomponent Systems 582
Diffusivities 521
Ex. 17.2-1 Estimation of Diffusivity at Low §19.1 The Equations of Continuity for a Multicomponent
Density 523 Mixture 582
Ex. 17.2-2 Estimation of Self-Diffusivity at High Ex. 19.1-1 Diffusion, Convection, and Chemical
Density 523 Reaction 585
x Contents

§19.2 Summary of the Multicomponent Equations of §20.5• “Taylor Dispersion” in Laminar Tube Flow 643
Change 586 Questions for Discussion 647
§19.3 Summary of the Multicomponent Fluxes 590 Problems 648
Ex. 19.3-1 The Partial Molar Enthalpy 591
§19.4 Use of the Equations of Change for Mixtures 592
Chapter 21 Concentration Distributions in
Ex. 19.4-1 Simultaneous Heat and Mass
Transport 592 Turbulent Flow 657
Ex. 19.4-2 Concentration Profile in a Tubular §21.1 Concentration Fluctuations and the Time-
Reactor 595 Smoothed Concentration 657
Ex. 19.4-3 Catalytic Oxidation of Carbon §21.2 Time-Smoothing of the Equation of Continuity
Monoxide 596 of A 658
Ex. 19.4-4 Thermal Conductivity of a Polyatomic §21.3 Semi-Empirical Expressions for the Turbulent Mass
Gas 598 Flux 659
§19.5 Dimensional Analysis of the Equations of Change §21.4O Enhancement of Mass Transfer by a First-Order
for Nonreacting Binary Mixtures 599 Reaction in Turbulent Flow 659
Ex. 19.5-1 Concentration Distribution about a Long §21.5• Turbulent Mixing and Turbulent Flow with
Cylinder 601 Second-Order Reaction 663
Ex. 19.5-2 Fog Formation during Questions for Discussion 667
Dehumidification 602 Problems 668
Ex. 19.5-3 Blending of Miscible Fluids 604
Questions for Discussion 605
Problems 606 Chapter 22 Interphase Transport in
Nonisothermal Mixtures 671

Chapter 20 Concentration Distributions with §22.1 Definition of Transfer Coefficients in One

More than One Independent Phase 672
Variable 612 §22.2 Analytical Expressions for Mass Transfer
Coefficients 676
§20.1 Time-Dependent Diffusion 613 §22.3 Correlation of Binary Transfer Coefficients in One
Ex. 20.1-1 Unsteady-State Evaporation of a Liquid Phase 679
(the “Arnold Problem”) 613 Ex. 22.3-1 Evaporation from a Freely Falling
Ex. 20.1-2 Gas Absorption with Rapid Drop 682
Reaction 617 Ex. 22.3-2 The Wet and Dry Bulb
Ex. 20.1-3 Unsteady Diffusion with First-Order Psychrometer 683
Homogeneous Reaction 619 Ex. 22.3-3 Mass Transfer in Creeping Flow through
Ex. 20.1-4 Influence of Changing Interfacial Area Packed Beds 685
on Mass Transfer at an Interface 621 Ex. 22.3-4 Mass Transfer to Drops and
§20.2O Steady-State Transport in Binary Boundary Bubbles 687
Layers 623 §22.4 Definition of Transfer Coefficients in Two
Ex. 20.2-1 Diffusion and Chemical Reaction in Phases 687
Isothermal Laminar Flow along a Soluble Flat Ex. 22.4-1 Determination of the Controlling
Plate 625 Resistance 690
Ex. 20.2-2 Forced Convection from a Flat Plate at Ex. 22.4-2 Interaction of Phase Resistances 691
High Mass-Transfer Rates 627 Ex. 22.4-3 Area Averaging 693
Ex. 20.2-3 Approximate Analogies for the Flat Plate §22.5O Mass Transfer and Chemical Reactions 694
at Low Mass-Transfer Rates 632 Ex. 22.5-1 Estimation of the Interfacial Area in a
§20.3• Steady-State Boundary-Layer Theory for Flow Packed Column 694
around Objects 633 Ex. 22.5-2 Estimation of Volumetric Mass Transfer
Ex. 20.3-1 Mass Transfer for Creeping Flow around Coefficients 695
a Gas Bubble 636 Ex. 22.5-3 Model-Insensitive Correlations for
§20.4• Boundary Layer Mass Transport with Complex Absorption with Rapid Reaction 696
Interfacial Motion 637 §22.6O Combined Heat and Mass Transfer by Free
Ex. 20.4-1 Mass Transfer with Nonuniform Convection 698
Interfacial Deformation 641 Ex. 22.6-1 Additivity of Grashof Numbers 698
Ex. 20.4-2 Gas Absorption with Rapid Reaction and Ex. 22.6-2 Free-Convection Heat Transfer as a Source
Interfacial Deformation 642 of Forced-Convection Mass Transfer 698
 Contents xi

§22.7O Effects of Interfacial Forces on Heat and Mass Ex. 23.6-2 Unsteady Operation of a Packed
Transfer 699 Column 753
Ex. 22.7-1 Elimination of Circulation in a Rising Ex. 23.6-3 The Utility of Low-Order
Gas Bubble 701 Moments 756
Ex. 22.7-2 Marangoni Instability in a Falling Questions for Discussion 758
Film 702 Problems 759
§22.8O Transfer Coefficients at High Net Mass Transfer
Rates 703 Chapter 24 Other Mechanisms for
Ex. 22.8-1 Rapid Evaporation of a Liquid from a Mass Transport 764
Plane Surface 710
Ex. 22.8-2 Correction Factors in Droplet §24.1• The Equation of Change for Entropy 765
Evaporation 711 §24.2• The Flux Expressions for Heat and Mass 767
Ex. 22.8-3 Wet-Bulb Performance Corrected for Ex. 24.2-1 Thermal Diffusion and the
Mass-Transfer Rate 711 Clusius–Dickel Column 770
Ex. 22.8-4 Comparison of Film and Penetration Ex. 24.2-2 Pressure Diffusion and the Ultra-
Models for Unsteady Evaporation in a Long centrifuge 772
Tube 712 §24.3O Concentration Diffusion and Driving Forces 774
Ex. 22.8-5 Concentration Polarization in §24.4O Applications of the Generalized Maxwell–Stefan
Ultrafiltration 713 Equations 775
§22.9• Matrix Approximations for Multicomponent Mass Ex. 24.4-1 Centrifugation of Proteins 776
Transport 716 Ex. 24.4-2 Proteins as Hydrodynamic
Questions for Discussion 721 Particles 779
Problems 722 Ex. 24.4-3 Diffusion of Salts in an Aqueous
Solution 780
Ex. 24.4-4 Departures from Local Electroneutrality:
Chapter 23 Macroscopic Balances for Electro-Osmosis 782
Multicomponent Systems 726 Ex. 24.4-5 Additional Mass-Transfer Driving
Forces 784
§23.1 The Macroscopic Mass Balances 727
§24.5O Mass Transport across Selectively Permeable
Ex. 23.1-1 Disposal of an Unstable Waste
Membranes 785
Product 728
Ex. 24.5-1 Concentration Diffusion between
Ex. 23.1-2 Binary Splitters 730
Preexisting Bulk Phases 788
Ex. 23.1-3 The Macroscopic Balances and Dirac’s
Ex. 24.5-2 Ultrafiltration and Reverse
“Separative Capacity” and “Value
Osmosis 789
Function” 731
Ex. 24.5-3 Charged Membranes and Donnan
Ex. 23.1-4 Compartmental Analysis 733
Exclusion 791
Ex. 23.1-5 Time Constants and Model
§24.6O Mass Transport in Porous Media 793
Insensitivity 736
Ex. 24.6-1 Knudsen Diffusion 795
§23.2O The Macroscopic Momentum and Angular
Ex. 24.6-2 Transport from a Binary External
Momentum Balances 738
Solution 797
§23.3 The Macroscopic Energy Balance 738
Questions for Discussion 798
§23.4 The Macroscopic Mechanical Energy
Problems 799
Balance 739
§23.5 Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve Steady-
State Problems 739 Postface 805
Ex. 23.5-1 Energy Balances for a Sulfur Dioxide
Converter 739
Ex. 23.5-2 Height of a Packed-Tower Appendices
Absorber 742
Ex. 23.5-3 Linear Cascades 746 Appendix A Vector and Tensor Notation 807
Ex. 23.5-4 Expansion of a Reactive Gas Mixture
through a Frictionless Adiabatic Nozzle 749 §A.1 Vector Operations from a Geometrical
§23.6O Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve Viewpoint 808
Unsteady-State Problems 752 §A.2 Vector Operations in Terms of
Ex. 23.6-1 Start-Up of a Chemical Components 810
Reactor 752 Ex. A.2-1 Proof of a Vector Identity 814
xii Contents

§A.3 Tensor Operations in Terms of §C.3 Differentiation of Integrals (the Leibniz

Components 815 Formula) 854
§A.4 Vector and Tensor Differential Operations 819 §C.4 The Gamma Function 855
Ex. A.4-1 Proof of a Tensor Identity 822 §C.5 The Hyperbolic Functions 856
§A.5 Vector and Tensor Integral Theorems 824 §C.6 The Error Function 857
§A.6 Vector and Tensor Algebra in Curvilinear
Coordinates 825
§A.7 Differential Operations in Curvilinear Appendix D The Kinetic Theory of Gases 858
Coordinates 829
Ex. A.7-1 Differential Operations in Cylindrical §D.1 The Boltzmann Equation 858
Coordinates 831 §D.2 The Equations of Change 859
Ex. A.7-2 Differential Operations in Spherical §D.3 The Molecular Expressions for the
Coordinates 838 Fluxes 859
§A.8 Integral Operations in Curvilinear §D.4 The Solution to the Boltzmann Equation 860
Coordinates 839 §D.5 The Fluxes in Terms of the Transport
§A.9 Further Comments on Vector–Tensor Properties 860
Notation 841 §D.6 The Transport Properties in Terms of the
Intermolecular Forces 861
§D.7 Concluding Comments 861
Appendix B Fluxes and the Equations of
Change 843

§B.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity 843 Appendix E Tables for Prediction of

§B.2 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction 845 Transport Properties 863
§B.3 Fick’s (First) Law of Binary Diffusion 846
§E.1 Intermolecular Force Parameters and Critical
§B.4 The Equation of Continuity 846
Properties 864
§B.5 The Equation of Motion in Terms of ␶ 847
§E.2 Functions for Prediction of Transport Properties
§B.6 The Equation of Motion for a Newtonian Fluid
of Gases at Low Densities 866
with Constant
and  848
§B.7 The Dissipation Function v for Newtonian
Fluids 849
Appendix F Constants and Conversion
§B.8 The Equation of Energy in Terms of q 849
§B.9 The Equation of Energy for Pure Newtonian
Factors 867
Fluids with Constant
and k 850 §F.1 Mathematical Constants 867
§B.10 The Equation of Continuity for Species  in Terms §F.2 Physical Constants 867
of j 850 §F.3 Conversion Factors 868
§B.11 The Equation of Continuity for Species A in
Terms of A for Constant

AB 851 Notation 872

Appendix C Mathematical Topics 852 Author Index 877

§C.1 Some Ordinary Differential Equations and Their
Solutions 852 Subject Index 885
§C.2 Expansions of Functions in Taylor
Series 853 About the Authors 897
Chapter 0

The Subject of Transport

Phenomena
§0.1 What are the transport phenomena?
§0.2 Three levels at which transport phenomena can be studied
§0.3 The conservation laws: an example
§0.4 Concluding comments

The purpose of this introductory chapter is to describe the scope, aims, and methods of
the subject of transport phenomena. It is important to have some idea about the struc-
ture of the field before plunging into the details; without this perspective it is not possi-
ble to appreciate the unifying principles of the subject and the interrelation of the
various individual topics. A good grasp of transport phenomena is essential for under-
standing many processes in engineering, agriculture, meteorology, physiology, biology,
analytical chemistry, materials science, pharmacy, and other areas. Transport phenom-
ena is a well-developed and eminently useful branch of physics that pervades many
areas of applied science.

§0.1 WHAT ARE THE TRANSPORT PHENOMENA?

The subject of transport phenomena includes three closely related topics: fluid dynam-
ics, heat transfer, and mass transfer. Fluid dynamics involves the transport of momentum,
heat transfer deals with the transport of energy, and mass transfer is concerned with the
transport of mass of various chemical species. These three transport phenomena should,
at the introductory level, be studied together for the following reasons:
• They frequently occur simultaneously in industrial, biological, agricultural, and
meteorological problems; in fact, the occurrence of any one transport process by it-
self is the exception rather than the rule.
• The basic equations that describe the three transport phenomena are closely re-
lated. The similarity of the equations under simple conditions is the basis for solv-
ing problems “by analogy.”
• The mathematical tools needed for describing these phenomena are very similar.
Although it is not the aim of this book to teach mathematics, the student will be re-
quired to review various mathematical topics as the development unfolds. Learn-
ing how to use mathematics may be a very valuable by-product of studying
transport phenomena.
• The molecular mechanisms underlying the various transport phenomena are very
closely related. All materials are made up of molecules, and the same molecular

1
2 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena

motions and interactions are responsible for viscosity, thermal conductivity, and
diffusion.
The main aim of this book is to give a balanced overview of the field of transport phe-
nomena, present the fundamental equations of the subject, and illustrate how to use
them to solve problems.
There are many excellent treatises on fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and mass trans-
fer. In addition, there are many research and review journals devoted to these individual
subjects and even to specialized subfields. The reader who has mastered the contents of
this book should find it possible to consult the treatises and journals and go more deeply
into other aspects of the theory, experimental techniques, empirical correlations, design
methods, and applications. That is, this book should not be regarded as the complete
presentation of the subject, but rather as a stepping stone to a wealth of knowledge that
lies beyond.

§0.2 THREE LEVELS AT WHICH TRANSPORT

PHENOMENA CAN BE STUDIED
In Fig. 0.2-1 we show a schematic diagram of a large system—for example, a large piece
of equipment through which a fluid mixture is flowing. We can describe the transport of
mass, momentum, energy, and angular momentum at three different levels.
At the macroscopic level (Fig. 0.2-1a) we write down a set of equations called the
“macroscopic balances,” which describe how the mass, momentum, energy, and angular
momentum in the system change because of the introduction and removal of these enti-
ties via the entering and leaving streams, and because of various other inputs to the sys-
tem from the surroundings. No attempt is made to understand all the details of the
system. In studying an engineering or biological system it is a good idea to start with
this macroscopic description in order to make a global assessment of the problem; in
some instances it is only this overall view that is needed.
At the microscopic level (Fig. 0.2-1b) we examine what is happening to the fluid mix-
ture in a small region within the equipment. We write down a set of equations called the
“equations of change,” which describe how the mass, momentum, energy, and angular
momentum change within this small region. The aim here is to get information about ve-
locity, temperature, pressure, and concentration profiles within the system. This more
detailed information may be required for the understanding of some processes.
At the molecular level (Fig. 0.2-1c) we seek a fundamental understanding of the mech-
anisms of mass, momentum, energy, and angular momentum transport in terms of mol-

Q = heat added to system

"2"

"1" Fig. 0.2-1 (a) A macro-

scopic flow system contain-
Wm = Work done on the system by
ing N2 and O2; (b) a
the surroundings by means
of moving parts microscopic region within
the macroscopic system
containing N2 and O2,
(a) which are in a state of flow;
(c) a collision between a
molecule of N2 and a mole-
(b)
(c) cule of O2.
 §0.2 Three Levels At Which Transport Phenomena Can Be Studied 3

ecular structure and intermolecular forces. Generally this is the realm of the theoretical
physicist or physical chemist, but occasionally engineers and applied scientists have to
get involved at this level. This is particularly true if the processes being studied involve
complex molecules, extreme ranges of temperature and pressure, or chemically reacting
systems.
It should be evident that these three levels of description involve different “length
scales”: for example, in a typical industrial problem, at the macroscopic level the dimen-
sions of the flow systems may be of the order of centimeters or meters; the microscopic
level involves what is happening in the micron to the centimeter range; and molecular-
level problems involve ranges of about 1 to 1000 nanometers.
This book is divided into three parts dealing with
• Flow of pure fluids at constant temperature (with emphasis on viscous and con-
vective momentum transport)—Chapters 1–8
• Flow of pure fluids with varying temperature (with emphasis on conductive, con-
vective, and radiative energy transport)—Chapters 9–16
• Flow of fluid mixtures with varying composition (with emphasis on diffusive and
convective mass transport)—Chapters 17–24
That is, we build from the simpler to the more difficult problems. Within each of these
parts, we start with an initial chapter dealing with some results of the molecular theory
of the transport properties (viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusivity). Then we
proceed to the microscopic level and learn how to determine the velocity, temperature,
and concentration profiles in various kinds of systems. The discussion concludes with
the macroscopic level and the description of large systems.
As the discussion unfolds, the reader will appreciate that there are many connec-
tions between the levels of description. The transport properties that are described by
molecular theory are used at the microscopic level. Furthermore, the equations devel-
oped at the microscopic level are needed in order to provide some input into problem
solving at the macroscopic level.
There are also many connections between the three areas of momentum, energy,
and mass transport. By learning how to solve problems in one area, one also learns the
techniques for solving problems in another area. The similarities of the equations in the
three areas mean that in many instances one can solve a problem “by analogy”—that is,
by taking over a solution directly from one area and, by changing the symbols in the
equations, immediately writing down the solution to a problem in another area.
The student will find that these connections—among levels, and among the various
transport phenomena—reinforce the learning process. As one goes from the first part of
the book (momentum transport) to the second part (energy transport) and then on to the
third part (mass transport) the story will be very similar but the “names of the players”
will change.
Table 0.2-1 shows the arrangement of the chapters in the form of a 3  8 “matrix.”
Just a brief glance at the matrix will make it abundantly clear what kinds of interconnec-
tions can be expected in the course of the study of the book. We recommend that the
book be studied by columns, particularly in undergraduate courses. For graduate stu-
dents, on the other hand, studying the topics by rows may provide a chance to reinforce
the connections between the three areas of transport phenomena.
At all three levels of description—molecular, microscopic, and macroscopic—the
conservation laws play a key role. The derivation of the conservation laws for molecu-
lar systems is straightforward and instructive. With elementary physics and a mini-
mum of mathematics we can illustrate the main concepts and review key physical
quantities that will be encountered throughout this book. That is the topic of the next
section.
4 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena

Table 0.2-1 Organization of the Topics in This Book

Type of transport Momentum Energy Mass

Transport by 1 Viscosity 9 Thermal 17 Diffusivity

molecular motion and the stress conductivity and the
(momentum flux) and the heat-flux mass-flux
tensor vector vectors

Transport in one 2 Shell momentum 10 Shell energy 18 Shell mass

dimension (shell- balances and balances and balances and
balance methods) velocity temperature concentration
distributions distributions distributions

Transport in 3 Equations of 11 Equations of 19 Equations of

arbitrary continua change and their change and change and
(use of general use their use their use
transport equations) [isothermal] [nonisothermal] [mixtures]

Transport with two 4 Momentum 12 Energy transport 20 Mass transport

independent transport with with two with two
variables (special two independent independent independent
methods) variables variables variables

Transport in 5 Turbulent 13 Turbulent 21 Turbulent

turbulent flow, and momentum energy transport; mass transport;
eddy transport transport; eddy eddy thermal eddy
properties viscosity conductivity diffusivity

Transport across 6 Friction factors; 14 Heat-transfer 22 Mass-transfer

phase boundaries use of empirical coefficients; use coefficients; use
correlations of empirical of empirical
correlations correlations

Transport in large 7 Macroscopic 15 Macroscopic 23 Macroscopic

systems, such as balances balances balances
pieces of equipment [isothermal] [nonisothermal] [mixtures]
or parts thereof

Transport by other 8 Momentum 16 Energy 24 Mass transport

mechanisms transport in transport by in multi-
polymeric radiation component
liquids systems; cross
effects

§0.3 THE CONSERVATION LAWS: AN EXAMPLE

The system we consider is that of two colliding diatomic molecules. For simplicity we as-
sume that the molecules do not interact chemically and that each molecule is homonu-
clear—that is, that its atomic nuclei are identical. The molecules are in a low-density gas,
so that we need not consider interactions with other molecules in the neighborhood. In
Fig. 0.3-1 we show the collision between the two homonuclear diatomic molecules, A
and B, and in Fig. 0.3-2 we show the notation for specifying the locations of the two
atoms of one molecule by means of position vectors drawn from an arbitrary origin.
Actually the description of events at the atomic and molecular level should be made
by using quantum mechanics. However, except for the lightest molecules (H2 and He) at
 §0.3 The Conservation Laws: An Example 5

2 Fig. 0.3-1 A collision

between homonuclear
1
diatomic molecules,
2 such as N2 and O2.
1 Molecule A is made up
Molecule A before collision
Molecule B before collision of two atoms A1 and
A2. Molecule B is made
up of two atoms B1
and B2.
1 2
1

2 Molecule B after collision

Molecule A after collision

temperatures lower than 50 K, the kinetic theory of gases can be developed quite satis-
factorily by use of classical mechanics.
Several relations must hold between quantities before and after a collision. Both be-
fore and after the collision the molecules are presumed to be sufficiently far apart that
the two molecules cannot “feel” the intermolecular force between them; beyond a dis-
tance of about 5 molecular diameters the intermolecular force is known to be negligible.
Quantities after the collision are indicated with primes.
(a) According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of the molecules enter-
ing and leaving the collision must be equal:
mA
mB  m
A
m
B (0.3-1)
Here mA and mB are the masses of molecules A and B. Since there are no chemical reac-
tions, the masses of the individual species will also be conserved, so that
mA  m
A
and
mB  m
B (0.3-2)
(b) According to the law of conservation of momentum the sum of the momenta of all
the atoms before the collision must equal that after the collision, so that
mA1ṙ A1
mA2ṙ A2
mB1ṙ B1
mB2ṙ B2  m
A1ṙ
A1
m
A2ṙ
A2
m
B1ṙ
B1
m
B2ṙ
B2 (0.3-3)
in which rA1 is the position vector for atom 1 of molecule A, and ṙ A1 is its velocity. We
now write rA1  rA
RA1 so that rA1 is written as the sum of the position vector for the

R A2
R A1
Atom A2

Atom A1
rA Center of mass
rA1 of molecule A
rA2

O
Arbitrary origin Fig. 0.3-2 Position vectors for the atoms
fixed in space A1 and A2 in molecule A.
6 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena

center of mass and the position vector of the atom with respect to the center of mass, and
we recognize that RA2  RA1; we also write the same relations for the velocity vectors.
Then we can rewrite Eq. 0.3-3 as

mAṙ A
mBṙ B  mAṙ
A
mBṙ
B (0.3-4)

That is, the conservation statement can be written in terms of the molecular masses and
velocities, and the corresponding atomic quantities have been eliminated. In getting
Eq. 0.3-4 we have used Eq. 0.3-2 and the fact that for homonuclear diatomic molecules
mA1  mA2  2 mA.
1

(c) According to the law of conservation of energy, the energy of the colliding pair of
molecules must be the same before and after the collision. The energy of an isolated mol-
ecule is the sum of the kinetic energies of the two atoms and the interatomic potential en-
ergy, A, which describes the force of the chemical bond joining the two atoms 1 and 2 of
molecule A, and is a function of the interatomic distance 兩rA2  rA1兩. Therefore, energy
conservation leads to

(12mA1r˙ 2A1
12mA2r˙ 2A2
A)
(12mB1r˙ 2B1
12mB2r˙ 2B2
B) 
(12m
A1ṙA1

2
12m
A2ṙ
A22

A)
(12m
B1ṙ
B12
12m
B2ṙB2

2

B) (0.3-5)

Note that we use the standard abbreviated notation that ṙ2A1  (ṙ A1  ṙ A1). We now write
the velocity of atom 1 of molecule A as the sum of the velocity of the center of mass of A
and the velocity of 1 with respect to the center of mass; that is, ṙ A1  ṙ A
ṘA1. Then Eq.
0.3-5 becomes

(12mAr˙ 2A
uA)
(12mBr˙ 2B
uB)  (12m
Aṙ
A2
u
A)
(12m
Bṙ
B2
u
B) (0.3-6)

in which uA  2mA1Ṙ2A1
2mA2Ṙ2A2
A is the sum of the kinetic energies of the atoms, re-
1 1

ferred to the center of mass of molecule A, and the interatomic potential of molecule A.
That is, we split up the energy of each molecule into its kinetic energy with respect to
fixed coordinates, and the internal energy of the molecule (which includes its vibra-
tional, rotational, and potential energies). Equation 0.3-6 makes it clear that the kinetic
energies of the colliding molecules can be converted into internal energy or vice versa.
This idea of an interchange between kinetic and internal energy will arise again when
we discuss the energy relations at the microscopic and macroscopic levels.
(d) Finally, the law of conservation of angular momentum can be applied to a collision
to give

([rA1  mA1ṙ A1]
[rA2  mA2ṙ A2])
([rB1  mB1ṙ B1]
[rB2  mB2ṙ B2]) 
([r
A1  m
A1ṙ
A1]
[r
A2  m
A2ṙ
A2])
([r
B1  m
B1ṙ
B1]
[rB2  m
B2ṙ
B2]) (0.3-7)

in which  is used to indicate the cross product of two vectors. Next we introduce the
center-of-mass and relative position vectors and velocity vectors as before and obtain

([rA  mAṙ A]
lA)
([rB  mBṙ B]
lB) 

([r
A  mAṙ
A]
l
A)
([r
B  mBṙ
B]
l
B) (0.3-8)

in which lA  [RA1  mA1ṘA1]
[RA2  mA2ṘA2] is the sum of the angular momenta of the
atoms referred to an origin of coordinates at the center of mass of the molecule—that is,
the “internal angular momentum.” The important point is that there is the possibility for
interchange between the angular momentum of the molecules (with respect to the origin
of coordinates) and their internal angular momentum (with respect to the center of mass
of the molecule). This will be referred to later in connection with the equation of change
for angular momentum.
 §0.4 Concluding Comments 7

The conservation laws as applied to collisions of monatomic molecules can be ob-

tained from the results above as follows: Eqs. 0.3-1, 0.3-2, and 0.3-4 are directly applica-
ble; Eq. 0.3-6 is applicable if the internal energy contributions are omitted; and Eq. 0.3-8
may be used if the internal angular momentum terms are discarded.
Much of this book will be concerned with setting up the conservation laws at the mi-
croscopic and macroscopic levels and applying them to problems of interest in engineer-
ing and science. The above discussion should provide a good background for this
adventure. For a glimpse of the conservation laws for species mass, momentum, and en-
ergy at the microscopic and macroscopic levels, see Tables 19.2-1 and 23.5-1.

§0.4 CONCLUDING COMMENTS

To use the macroscopic balances intelligently, it is necessary to use information about in-
terphase transport that comes from the equations of change. To use the equations of
change, we need the transport properties, which are described by various molecular the-
ories. Therefore, from a teaching point of view, it seems best to start at the molecular
level and work upward toward the larger systems.
All the discussions of theory are accompanied by examples to illustrate how the the-
ory is applied to problem solving. Then at the end of each chapter there are problems to
provide extra experience in using the ideas given in the chapter. The problems are
grouped into four classes:
Class A: Numerical problems, which are designed to highlight important equa-
tions in the text and to give a feeling for the orders of magnitude.
Class B: Analytical problems that require doing elementary derivations using
ideas mainly from the chapter.
Class C: More advanced analytical problems that may bring ideas from other chap-
ters or from other books.
Class D: Problems in which intermediate mathematical skills are required.
Many of the problems and illustrative examples are rather elementary in that they in-
volve oversimplified systems or very idealized models. It is, however, necessary to start
with these elementary problems in order to understand how the theory works and to de-
velop confidence in using it. In addition, some of these elementary examples can be very
useful in making order-of-magnitude estimates in complex problems.
Here are a few suggestions for studying the subject of transport phenomena:
• Always read the text with pencil and paper in hand; work through the details of
the mathematical developments and supply any missing steps.
• Whenever necessary, go back to the mathematics textbooks to brush up on calculus,
differential equations, vectors, etc. This is an excellent time to review the mathemat-
ics that was learned earlier (but possibly not as carefully as it should have been).
• Make it a point to give a physical interpretation of key results; that is, get in the
habit of relating the physical ideas to the equations.
• Always ask whether the results seem reasonable. If the results do not agree with
intuition, it is important to find out which is incorrect.
• Make it a habit to check the dimensions of all results. This is one very good way of
locating errors in derivations.
We hope that the reader will share our enthusiasm for the subject of transport phe-
nomena. It will take some effort to learn the material, but the rewards will be worth the
time and energy required.
8 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What are the definitions of momentum, angular momentum, and kinetic energy for a single
particle? What are the dimensions of these quantities?
2. What are the dimensions of velocity, angular velocity, pressure, density, force, work, and
torque? What are some common units used for these quantities?
3. Verify that it is possible to go from Eq. 0.3-3 to Eq. 0.3-4.
4. Go through all the details needed to get Eq. 0.3-6 from Eq. 0.3-5.
5. Suppose that the origin of coordinates is shifted to a new position. What effect would that
have on Eq. 0.3-7? Is the equation changed?
6. Compare and contrast angular velocity and angular momentum.
7. What is meant by internal energy? Potential energy?
8. Is the law of conservation of mass always valid? What are the limitations?
Part One

Momentum
Transport

9
Chapter 1

Viscosity and the Mechanisms

of Momentum Transport
§1.1 Newton’s law of viscosity (molecular momentum transport)
§1.2 Generalization of Newton’s law of viscosity
§1.3 Pressure and temperature dependence of viscosity
§1.4O Molecular theory of the viscosity of gases at low density
O
§1.5 Molecular theory of the viscosity of liquids
O
§1.6 Viscosity of suspensions and emulsions
§1.7 Convective momentum transport

The first part of this book deals with the flow of viscous fluids. For fluids of low molecu-
lar weight, the physical property that characterizes the resistance to flow is the viscosity.
Anyone who has bought motor oil is aware of the fact that some oils are more “viscous”
than others and that viscosity is a function of the temperature.
We begin in §1.1 with the simple shear flow between parallel plates and discuss how
momentum is transferred through the fluid by viscous action. This is an elementary ex-
ample of molecular momentum transport and it serves to introduce “Newton’s law of vis-
cosity” along with the definition of viscosity . Next in §1.2 we show how Newton’s law
can be generalized for arbitrary flow patterns. The effects of temperature and pressure
on the viscosities of gases and liquids are summarized in §1.3 by means of a dimension-
less plot. Then §1.4 tells how the viscosities of gases can be calculated from the kinetic
theory of gases, and in §1.5 a similar discussion is given for liquids. In §1.6 we make a
few comments about the viscosity of suspensions and emulsions.
Finally, we show in §1.7 that momentum can also be transferred by the bulk fluid
motion and that such convective momentum transport is proportional to the fluid density
.

§1.1 NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY (MOLECULAR

TRANSPORT OF MOMENTUM)
In Fig. 1.1-1 we show a pair of large parallel plates, each one with area A, separated by a
distance Y. In the space between them is a fluid—either a gas or a liquid. This system is
initially at rest, but at time t  0 the lower plate is set in motion in the positive x direc-
tion at a constant velocity V. As time proceeds, the fluid gains momentum, and ulti-
mately the linear steady-state velocity profile shown in the figure is established. We
require that the flow be laminar (“laminar” flow is the orderly type of flow that one usu-
ally observes when syrup is poured, in contrast to “turbulent” flow, which is the irregu-
lar, chaotic flow one sees in a high-speed mixer). When the final state of steady motion

11
12 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum Transport

Fig. 1.1-1 The buildup to

Fluid initially the steady, laminar velocity
Y t<0 profile for a fluid contained
at rest
between two plates. The
flow is called “laminar” be-
cause the adjacent layers of
fluid (“laminae”) slide past
Lower plate
t=0 one another in an orderly
set in motion
fashion.
V

Velocity buildup
vx(y, t) Small t
in unsteady flow

V
vx(y)
Final velocity
Large t distribution in
y steady flow

x V

has been attained, a constant force F is required to maintain the motion of the lower
plate. Common sense suggests that this force may be expressed as follows:
F V
 (1.1-1)
A Y
That is, the force should be proportional to the area and to the velocity, and inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. The constant of proportionality  is a
property of the fluid, defined to be the viscosity.
We now switch to the notation that will be used throughout the book. First we re-
place F/A by the symbol yx, which is the force in the x direction on a unit area perpen-
dicular to the y direction. It is understood that this is the force exerted by the fluid of
lesser y on the fluid of greater y. Furthermore, we replace V/Y by dvx/dy. Then, in
terms of these symbols, Eq. 1.1-1 becomes
dvx
yx   (1.1-2)1
dy
This equation, which states that the shearing force per unit area is proportional to the
negative of the velocity gradient, is often called Newton’s law of viscosity.2 Actually we

1
Some authors write Eq. 1.1-2 in the form
dvx
gcyx   (1.1-2a)
dy

in which yx [] lbf/ft2, vx [] ft/s, y [] ft, and  [] lbm/ft  s; the quantity gc is the “gravitational
conversion factor” with the value of 32.174 poundals/lbf. In this book we will always use Eq. 1.1-2 rather
than Eq. 1.1-2a.
2
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), a professor at Cambridge University and later Master of the Mint,
was the founder of classical mechanics and contributed to other fields of physics as well. Actually Eq.
1.1-2 does not appear in Sir Isaac Newton’s Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), but the
germ of the idea is there. For illuminating comments, see D. J. Acheson, Elementary Fluid Dynamics,
Oxford University Press, 1990, §6.1.
 §1.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity (Molecular Transport of Momentum) 13

should not refer to Eq. 1.1-2 as a “law,” since Newton suggested it as an empiricism3—
the simplest proposal that could be made for relating the stress and the velocity gradi-
ent. However, it has been found that the resistance to flow of all gases and all liquids
with molecular weight of less than about 5000 is described by Eq. 1.1-2, and such fluids
are referred to as Newtonian fluids. Polymeric liquids, suspensions, pastes, slurries, and
other complex fluids are not described by Eq. 1.1-2 and are referred to as non-Newtonian
fluids. Polymeric liquids are discussed in Chapter 8.
Equation 1.1-2 may be interpreted in another fashion. In the neighborhood of the
moving solid surface at y  0 the fluid acquires a certain amount of x-momentum. This
fluid, in turn, imparts momentum to the adjacent layer of liquid, causing it to remain in
motion in the x direction. Hence x-momentum is being transmitted through the fluid in
the positive y direction. Therefore yx may also be interpreted as the flux of x-momentum
in the positive y direction, where the term “flux” means “flow per unit area.” This interpre-
tation is consistent with the molecular picture of momentum transport and the kinetic
theories of gases and liquids. It also is in harmony with the analogous treatment given
later for heat and mass transport.
The idea in the preceding paragraph may be paraphrased by saying that momentum
goes “downhill” from a region of high velocity to a region of low velocity—just as a sled
goes downhill from a region of high elevation to a region of low elevation, or the way
heat flows from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature. The veloc-
ity gradient can therefore be thought of as a “driving force” for momentum transport.
In what follows we shall sometimes refer to Newton’s law in Eq. 1.1-2 in terms of
forces (which emphasizes the mechanical nature of the subject) and sometimes in terms
of momentum transport (which emphasizes the analogies with heat and mass transport).
This dual viewpoint should prove helpful in physical interpretations.
Often fluid dynamicists use the symbol  to represent the viscosity divided by the
density (mass per unit volume) of the fluid, thus:
  /
(1.1-3)
This quantity is called the kinematic viscosity.
Next we make a few comments about the units of the quantities we have defined. If
we use the symbol [] to mean “has units of,” then in the SI system yx [] N/m2  Pa,
vx [] m/s, and y [] m, so that

冢dvdy 冣
1
[] (Pa)[(m/s)(m1)]1  Pa  s
x
  yx (1.1-4)

since the units on both sides of Eq. 1.1-2 must agree. We summarize the above and also
give the units for the c.g.s. system and the British system in Table 1.1-1. The conversion
tables in Appendix F will prove to be very useful for solving numerical problems involv-
ing diverse systems of units.
The viscosities of fluids vary over many orders of magnitude, with the viscosity of
air at 20C being 1.8  105 Pa  s and that of glycerol being about 1 Pa  s, with some sili-
cone oils being even more viscous. In Tables 1.1-2, 1.1-3, and 1.1-4 experimental data4 are

3
A relation of the form of Eq. 1.1-2 does come out of the simple kinetic theory of gases (Eq. 1.4-7).
However, a rigorous theory for gases sketched in Appendix D makes it clear that Eq. 1.1-2 arises as the
first term in an expansion, and that additional (higher-order) terms are to be expected. Also, even an
elementary kinetic theory of liquids predicts non-Newtonian behavior (Eq. 1.5-6).
4
A comprehensive presentation of experimental techniques for measuring transport properties can be
found in W. A. Wakeham, A. Nagashima, and J. V. Sengers, Measurement of the Transport Properties of Fluids,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. (1991). Sources for experimental data are: Landolt-Börnstein, Zahlenwerte und
Funktionen, Vol. II, 5, Springer (1968–1969); International Critical Tables, McGraw-Hill, New York (1926);
Y. S. Touloukian, P. E. Liley, and S. C. Saxena, Thermophysical Properties of Matter, Plenum Press, New York
(1970); and also numerous handbooks of chemistry, physics, fluid dynamics, and heat transfer.
14 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum Transport

Table 1.1-1 Summary of Units for Quantities

Related to Eq. 1.1-2

SI c.g.s. British

yx Pa dyn/cm2 poundals/ft2

vx m/s cm/s ft/s
y m cm ft
 Pa  s g/cm  s  poise lbm/ft  s
 m2/s cm2/s ft2/s

Note: The pascal, Pa, is the same as N/m2, and the newton,
N, is the same as kg  m/s2. The abbreviation for “centipoise”
is “cp.”

Table 1.1-2 Viscosity of Water and Air at 1 atm Pressure

Water (liq.)a Airb

Temperature Viscosity Kinematic viscosity Viscosity Kinematic viscosity
T (C)  (mPa  s)  (cm2/s)  (mPa  s)  (cm2/s)

0 1.787 0.01787 0.01716 0.1327

20 1.0019 0.010037 0.01813 0.1505
40 0.6530 0.006581 0.01908 0.1692
60 0.4665 0.004744 0.01999 0.1886
80 0.3548 0.003651 0.02087 0.2088
100 0.2821 0.002944 0.02173 0.2298
a
Calculated from the results of R. C. Hardy and R. L. Cottington, J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards, 42,
573–578 (1949); and J. F. Swidells, J. R. Coe, Jr., and T. B. Godfrey, J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards, 48, 1–31
(1952).
b
Calculated from “Tables of Thermal Properties of Gases,” National Bureau of Standards Circular 464
(1955), Chapter 2.

Table 1.1-3 Viscosities of Some Gases and Liquids at Atmospheric Pressurea

Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity

Gases T (C)  (mPa  s) Liquids T (C)  (mPa  s)

i-C4H10 23 0.0076c (C2H5)2O 0 0.283

SF6 23 0.0153 25 0.224
CH4 20 0.0109b C6H6 20 0.649
H 2O 100 0.01211d Br2 25 0.744
CO2 20 0.0146b Hg 20 1.552
N2 20 0.0175b C2H5OH 0 1.786
O2 20 0.0204 25 1.074
Hg 380 0.0654d 50 0.694
H2SO4 25 25.54
Glycerol 25 934.
a
Values taken from N. A. Lange, Handbook of Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, New York, 15th edition
(1999), Tables 5.16 and 5.18.
b
H. L. Johnston and K. E. McKloskey, J. Phys. Chem., 44, 1038–1058 (1940).
c
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. (1999).
d
Landolt-Börnstein Zahlenwerte und Funktionen, Springer (1969).
 §1.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity (Molecular Transport of Momentum) 15

Table 1.1-4 Viscosities of Some Liquid Metals

Temperature Viscosity
Metal T (C)  (mPa  s)

Li 183.4 0.5918
216.0 0.5406
285.5 0.4548
Na 103.7 0.686
250 0.381
700 0.182
K 69.6 0.515
250 0.258
700 0.136
Hg 20 1.85
20 1.55
100 1.21
200 1.01
Pb 441 2.116
551 1.700
844 1.185

Data taken from The Reactor Handbook, Vol. 2, Atomic

Energy Commission AECD-3646, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (May 1955), pp. 258
et seq.

given for pure fluids at 1 atm pressure. Note that for gases at low density, the viscosity
increases with increasing temperature, whereas for liquids the viscosity usually decreases
with increasing temperature. In gases the momentum is transported by the molecules in
free flight between collisions, but in liquids the transport takes place predominantly by
virtue of the intermolecular forces that pairs of molecules experience as they wind their
way around among their neighbors. In §§1.4 and 1.5 we give some elementary kinetic
theory arguments to explain the temperature dependence of viscosity.

EXAMPLE 1.1-1 Compute the steady-state momentum flux yx in lbf/ft2 when the lower plate velocity V in Fig.
1.1-1 is 1 ft/s in the positive x direction, the plate separation Y is 0.001 ft, and the fluid viscos-
Calculation of ity  is 0.7 cp.
Momentum Flux
SOLUTION
Since yx is desired in British units, we should convert the viscosity into that system of units.
Thus, making use of Appendix F, we find   (0.7 cp)(2.0886  105)  1.46  105 lbf s/ft2.
The velocity profile is linear so that
dvx vx 1.0 ft/s
   1000s1 (1.1-5)
dy y 0.001 ft
Substitution into Eq. 1.1-2 gives
dvx
yx    (1.46  105)(1000)  1.46  102 lbf/ft2 (1.1-6)
dy
16 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum Transport

§1.2 GENERALIZATION OF NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

In the previous section the viscosity was defined by Eq. 1.1-2, in terms of a simple
steady-state shearing flow in which vx is a function of y alone, and vy and vz are zero.
Usually we are interested in more complicated flows in which the three velocity compo-
nents may depend on all three coordinates and possibly on time. Therefore we must
have an expression more general than Eq. 1.1-2, but it must simplify to Eq. 1.1-2 for
steady-state shearing flow.
This generalization is not simple; in fact, it took mathematicians about a century and a
half to do this. It is not appropriate for us to give all the details of this development here,
since they can be found in many fluid dynamics books.1 Instead we explain briefly the main
ideas that led to the discovery of the required generalization of Newton’s law of viscosity.
To do this we consider a very general flow pattern, in which the fluid velocity may
be in various directions at various places and may depend on the time t. The velocity
components are then given by
vx  vx(x, y, z, t); vy  vy(x, y, z, t); vz  vz(x, y, z, t) (1.2-1)
In such a situation, there will be nine stress components ij (where i and j may take on
the designations x, y, and z), instead of the component yx that appears in Eq. 1.1-2. We
therefore must begin by defining these stress components.
In Fig. 1.2-1 is shown a small cube-shaped volume element within the flow field,
each face having unit area. The center of the volume element is at the position x, y, z. At

x, y, z

␶x z z z
␶y
p␦x

y y p␦y y ␶z p␦z

x x x
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.2-1 Pressure and viscous forces acting on planes in the fluid perpendicular to the three
coordinate directions. The shaded planes have unit area.

1
W. Prager, Introduction to Mechanics of Continua, Ginn, Boston (1961), pp. 89–91; R. Aris, Vectors,
Tensors, and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (1962), pp. 30–34,
99–112; L. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Fluid Mechanics, Pergamon, London, 2nd edition (1987), pp. 44–45.
Lev Davydovich Landau (1908–1968) received the Nobel prize in 1962 for his work on liquid helium and
superfluid dynamics.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
vestiges. " We must distinguish," he remarks with his usual
penetration, " between the date at which a malady ii first described,
owing to the fact that it has made great ravages in a short space of
time, and the date at which it made iti firit appearance." — Essai
Politique, tom. iv. p. 161 et leq., and 179. Page 177 ('). — His name
suited his nature ; Montezuma, according to Las Cam, signifying in
the Mexican, " sad or severe man." — Hist, de las Indias, MS., lib. 3,
cap. 120. — IxtlilxochitI, Hist. Chich., MS., cap. 70. — Acosta, lib. 7,
cap. 20 — Col. de Mendoza, pp. 13-16. — Codex Tel.Rem., p. 143,
ap. Antiq. of Mexico, vol. vi. Page 178 ('). — The addresi is fully
reported by Torquemada (Monarch. Ind., lib. 3, cap. 68), who came
into the country little more than half a century after iti delivery. It
has been recently republished by Bustamente.^Tezcuco en los
Ultimos Tiempos (Mexico, 1826), pp. 256-258. Page 182 (').—
Camargo, Hist, de TIascala, MS.— The Interpreter of the Codex Tel.-
Rera. intimates that this scintillating phenomenon was probably
nothing more than an eruption of one of the great volcanoes of
Mexico. — Antiq. of Mexico, vol. vi. p. 144. 455 ,
 Conquest of Mexico Page 182 ('). — I omit (he most
extraordinary miracle of all, — though legal attestation! of itt truth
were furnithcd the Court of Rome (See Clavigero, Stor. del Mestico,
torn. i. p. 289),— namely, the reiurrection of Montczuma't tliter,
Papantzin, four days after her burial, to warn the moiurch of the
approaching ruin of his empire. It finds credit with one writer, at
least, in (he nineteenth century!— See the note of Sahagun's
Mexican editor, Bustamcntc, Ilis(. dc Nueva EipaAa, torn. ii. p. 270.
Page 183 ('). — Lucan gives a fine enumeration of such prodigies
witnessed in the Roman capital in a similar excitement. (Pharsalia,
lib. i. v. 523 et seq.) Poor human nature is much the tame
everywhere. Machiavelli has thought the subject worthy of a
separate chapter in hi> Discourses. The philosopher intimates a
belief even in the existence of beneficent intelligence!! who send
these portents as a sort of premonitoriei, to warn mankind of the
coming tempcit.— Ditcorsi loprj Tito Livio, lib. 1, cap. 56. Page 186
('). — From the chequered figure of some of these coloured cottons,
Peter Martyr infers, the Indians were acquainted with chess I He
notices a curious fabric made of the hair of animals, feathers, and
cotton thread, interwoven together. " These feathers they
interweave with the fur of rabbits, and, further, introduce cotton-
fibre, producing a textile of so elaborate a technique that the
process is very difficult to understand.' — De Orbe Novo (Parisiis,
1587), dec. ;, cap. 10. Page 186 (•). — Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la
Conquista, cap. 39. — Oviedo, Hist, dc las Ind., MS., lib. 33, cap. I.
— Las Casas, Hist, de las Indias, MS., lib. 3, cap. 120. — Gomara,
Crdnica, cap. 2~, ap. Barcia, tom. ii.— Carta de Vera Cruz, MS. —
Hcrrera, Hist. General, dec. 2, lib. 5, cap. 5. Robertson cites Bernal
Diaz as reckoning the value of the silver plate at 20,000 pesos or
about jf 5000. (History of America, vol. ii. note 75.) But Bernal Diaz
speaks only of the value of the gold plate, which he estimates at
20,000 pesos de oro, a different affair from the pesos, dollars, or
ounces of silver, with which the historian confounds them. As the
mention of the pes') He oro will often recur in these pages, it will be
well to make the reader acquainted with its probable value. Nothing
is more difficult than to ascertain the actual value of the currency of
a distant age ; so many circumstances occur to embarrass the
calculation, besides the genera! depreciation of the precious metals,
such as the adulteration of specific coins and the like. Seiior
Clemcncin, the secretary of the Royal Academy of History, in the
sixth volume of its Memorias, has computed with great accuracy the
value of the different denominations of the Spanish currency at the
close of the fifteenth century, the period just preceding that of the
conquest of Mexico. He makes no mention of the peso de oro in his
tables. But he ascertains the precise value of the gold ducat, which
will answer our purpose as well. (Memorias de la Real Academia de
Historia [Madrid, 1 821], tom. vi. Ilust. 20.) Oviedo, a contemporary
of the Conquerors, informs us that the peso de oro and the
castellano were of the same value, and that was precisely one-third
greater than the value of the ducat. (Hist, del Ind., lib. 6, cap. 8, ap.
Ramusio, Navigationi et ViaggI (Vcnetia, 1 565], tom. iii.) Now the
ducat, as appears from Clemencin, reduced to our own currency,
would be equal to eight dollars and seventy-five cents. Tbe peso de
oro, therefore, teas equal to eleven dollars and sixty-seven cents, or
turn pounds, twelve shillings, and sixpence sterling. Keeping this in
mind, it will be easy for the reader to determine the actual value in
pesos de oro, of any sum that may be hereafter mentioned. Page
187 ('). — " In truth a sight to be seen," exclaims Lat Casas, who
saw them with the Emperor Charles V., in Seville, in ■ 520. " All who
saw those things, so rich, exhibiting so much craftsmanship and
beauty that their like was never seen were (amazed)," etc. (Hist, de
las Indiai, MS., lib. 3, cap. 1 20.) " All this was well worth seeing,"
says Oviedo, who saw them in Valladolid, and describes the great
wheels more minutely. (Hist, de las Indias, MS., loc cit.) The
inquisitive Martyr, who examined them carefully, remarks yet more
emphatically, " If human ingenuity hat ever won honour in such arts,
these will rightly bear off the palm. I am not indeed so much
astonished by the gold and gems ; I am amazed by the industry and
application whereby craftimanship has mastered itt material. I have
inspected a thousand forms and designs which I cannot 456
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.69%
accurate

Notes Jeicribe. I state with conviction lliat 1 have never

teen worki of art which could riral them in Irawing mcn't eyci by
their beauty." — De Orbc Novo, dec. 4, cap. 9. Page 188 (>).—
Bernal Diaz, Hiit. de la Conquiita, cap. 40. Father Sahagun thua
dr*cribet hese (tones, so precious in Mexico that the use of them
was interdicted to .1: ' Vr nobles. The cbaUhuilei are green, but
opaque, and clouded with white ; the nobl' 4S oriunents, wearing
them on their wrists strung on thread ; such ornaments are an
luunjuuii that the Vearer is a person of standing." — Hist, de Nueva
EspaAa, lib. 1 1, cap. 8. Page 194 (').— Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la
Conquista, cap. 41.— Lai Caiai, Hist de Us Indias, fS., lib. 3, cap.
121. — Gomara, CrAnica, cap. 28. Page 195 ('). — The letter from
the cabilio of Vera Cruz layi nothing of these midnight conrencet.
Bernal Diaz, who was privy to them, is a sufficient authority. — See
Hilt, de la Conquista, «p. 4». Page 195 (•). — Sometimes we find
the Spanish writers referring to " the sovereigns," some'imes to " the
emperor " ; in the former case, intending Queen Joanna, the crazy
mother of rh.irlea V., as well as himself. Indeed, all public acts and
ordinances ran in the name of both. I'hc title of " Highness," which,
until the reign of Charles V., had usually — not uniformly, aa
Robertson imagines (History of Charles V., vol. ii. p. 59), — been
applied to the sovereign, now gradually gave way to that of "
Majesty," which Charles aflfectcd after his election to the imperial 1
hrone. The same title is occasionally found in the correspondence of
the Great Captain, and Dtlicr courtiers of the reign of Ferdinand and
Isabella. Page 196 (■). — According to Robertson, Cortes told his
men that he had proposed to establish .1 colony on the coast before
marching into the country ; but he abandoned his design, at their
ttitrcaties to set out at once on the expedition. In the very next
page, we find him organising this same colony. (History of America,
vol. ii. pp. 241, 242.) The historian would have been saved this
inconsistency, if he had followed either of the authorities whom he
cites, Bernal Diaz and Hcrrera, or the letter from Vera Cruz, of which
he had a copy. They all concur in the sutement in the text. Page 196
CJ. — Las Casas, Hist, dc las Indias, MS., lib. 3, cap. 122. — Carta de
Vera Cruz, MS. — Dccl.iracion de Montejo, MS. — Declaracion de
Puertocarrero, MS. " Our general, after «ome urging, acquiesced,"
says the blunt old soldier, Bernal Diaz ; " for, as the proverb says, '
You ask mc to do what I have already made up my mind to.' " Tu mt
lo rogas, e yo mi la quirro. — Hist, dc la Conquista, cap. 42. Page
196 P). — According to Bernal Diaz, the title of " Vera Cruz" was
intended to commemorate their landing on Good Friday. — Hist, de
la Conquista, cap. 42. Page 196 (♦). — Solis, whose taste for
speech-making might have satisfied even the Ahhi .Mably (see his
Treatise, Dc la Maniere d'ecrire I'Histoire), has put a very flourishing
harangue on this occasion into the mouth of his hero, of which there
is not a vestige in any contemporary account. (Conquista, lib. 2, cap.
7.) Dr. Robertson has transferred it to his own eloquent pages,
without citing his author, indeed, who, considering he came a
century and a half after the Conquest, must be allowed to be not the
best, especially when the only, voucher for a fact. Page 197 (•). —
Carta de Vera Cruz, MS. — Gomara, Cr6nica, cap. 30, 31.— Las
Casas, Hist, de Jas Indias, MS., lib. 3, cap. 122. — Ixtlilxochitl, Hist.
Chich., MS., cap. So.— Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la Conquista, cap. 42. —
Declaraciones de Montcjoy Puertocarrero, MSS. In the process of
Narvaez against Cortes, the latter is accused of being possessed with
the devil, as only Lucifer could have gained him thus the afJections
of the soldiery. (Demanda de Narvaez, MS.) Solis, on the other hand,
sees nothing but good faith and loyalty in the conduct of the
general, who 457
 Conquest of Mexico acted from a tente of duty I (Conquiita.
lib. 2, cap. 6, 7.) Solii i< even a more tteady apologist for hit hero,
than hii own chaplain, Gomara, or the worthy magistrate! of Vera
Cruz. A more impartial testimony than either, probably, may be
gathered from honest Bernal Diaz, so often quoted. A hearty
champion of the cause, he was by no means blind to the defects nor
the merit* of his leader. Page 198 ('). — This may appear rather
indifferent logic to those who consider that Cort
 Notes Page 20I (').— Thii ii La* Caui' Mtimate. (Hiit. dc In
Ind., MS., lib. 3, c*p. i»i.) Torquemada hoitatet between twenty, fifty,
and one hundred and fifty thouund, each of which he name* It
dtfterent timet I (Clavigero, Stor. del Metiico, torn. ii. p. 27, nota.)
The place wat gradual!/ ibandoned, after the Conqueit, for otheri, in
a more favourable poiition, probably, for trade. Iti ruint were viiible it
the cloie of the lait century. — See Lorenzana, Hiit. de Nuera EipaAa,
p. 39, nota. Page 202 (■). — The courteoui title of do^a it uiually
given by the Spaniih chroniclen Co thit accompliihed Indian. Page
203 ('). — The historian, with the aid of Clavigero, hinuelf a Mexican,
may rr,---'- ' irnt blundert of former writers in the orthography of
Aztec names. Both Robertson ani 'he name of this pl.icc Quxabislan.
Blunders in luch a barbarous nomenclature must In. .j; ^J tobe very
pardonable. Page 207 ('). — Carta de Vera Cruz, MS. — Bernal Diaz,
Conquitta, cap. 48. — Oviedo, Hist. de las Ind., MS., lib. 33, cap. 1.
— Declaracion de Montejo, MS. Notwithstanding the advantage! of
its situation, La Villa Rica was abandoned in a few years for a
neighbouring position to the south, not far from the mouth of the
Antigua. The second settlement was known by the name of Vera
Cruz Vieja, " Old Vera Cruz." Early in the seventeenth century thit
place alto was abandoned for the present city, Nueva Vera Cruz, or "
New Vera Cruz," at it it called. Of the truecause of these successive
migrations we arc ignorant. If, at is pretended, it was on account of
the vomiio, the inhabitants, one would suppose, can have gained
little by the exchange. (See Humboldt, Essai Politique, torn. ii. p.
210.) A want of attention to these changes has led to much
confusion and inaccuracy in the ancient maps. Lorenzana has not
escaped them in his chart and topographical account of the route of
Cortis. Page 210 ('). — Herrera, dec. 2, lib. 5, cap. 13. — Las Casas,
Hist, de las Indias, MS., lib. 3, cap. 122. Herrera has put a very
edifying harangue, on thit occasion, into the mouth of Cortes, which
savours much more of the priest than the soldier. Doet he not
confound him with Father Olmedo ? Page 21 1 C). — " Thit," iay«
the Letter of Vera Cruz, " tome of ui have witnetied, and thotewho
have say that it is truly the most terrible and shocking sight they
have ever seen." Stilb more strongly speaks Bernal Diaz (Hist, de la
Conquista, cap. 5 1 ). The Letter computes that there were fifty or
sixty persons thus butchered in each of the mcallii every year, giving
an annual consumption, in the countries which the Spaniards had
then visited, of three or four thousand victims ! (Carta de Vera Cruz,
MS.) However loose this arithmetic may be, the general fact is
appalling. Page 21; Q-). — Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la Conquista, cap.
53. — IxtlilxochitI, Hist. Chich., MS.^ cap. 82. — Carta dc Vera Cruz,
MS. A complete inventory of the articles received from Montezuma is
contained in the Carta de Vera Cr«a.— The following are a few of the
items : Two collars made of gold and precious stones. A hundred
ounces of gold ore, that their Highnesses might tee in what itate the
gold came from the mines. Two birds made of green feathers, with
feet, beaki, and eyet of gold, — and, in the tame piecewith them,
animals of gold, resembling snails. A large alligator's head of gold A
bird of green feathers, with feet, beak, and eyet of gold. Two birds
made of thread and featherwork, having the quills of their wingt and
tails, their feet, eyes, and the ends of their beaks, of gold, —
standing upon two reeds covered with gold, which are raised on
balls of featherwork and gold embroidery, one white and the other
yellow, witi> seven tassels of featherwork hanging from each of
them. 459
 Conquest of Mexico A large wheel of >ilver weighing forty
markt, and several smaller ones of the same metal. A box of
feathcrwork embroidered on leather, with a large plate of gold,
weighing seventy ounces, in the midst. Two pieces of cloth woven
with feathers ; another with variegated colours ; and another
worked with black and white figures. A large wheel of gold, with
figures of strange animals on it, and worked with tufts of leaves ;
'Weighing three thousand eight hundred ounces. .\ fan of variegated
featherwork, with thirty-seven rods plated with gold. Five fans of
variegated feathers, — four of which have ten, and the other
thirteen rods, embossed with gold. Sixteen shields of precious
stones, with feathers of various colours hanging from their rims. Two
pieces of cotton very richly wrought with black and white
embroidery. Six shields, each covered with a plate of gold, with
something resembling a golden mitre in the centre. Page Z15 ('). —
" Uiu muy larga Carta," says Gomara, in hit loose analysis of it. —
Cr6nica, -cap. 40. Page 115 ('). — Dr. Robertson states that the
Imperial Library at Vienna was examined for this document, at his
instance, but without success. (History of America, vol. ii. note 70.) I
have not been more fortunate in the researches made for me in the
British Museum, the Royal Library of Paris, and that of the Academy
of History at Madrid. The last is a great depository for the colonial
historical documents ; but a very thorough inspection of its papers
makes it certain that this is wanting to the collection. As the emperor
received it on the eve of his embarkation for Germany, and the
Letter of Vera Cruz, forwarded at the same time, is in the library of
Vienna, this would seem, after all, to be the most probable place of
its retreat. Page 215 (•). — " In a ship," says Cortes, in the very first
sentence of his Second Letter to the emperor, " which I despatched
from this, your Majesty's New Spain, on the i6th July of the year
1519, I sent to your Highness a very long and detailed account up to
date of the events which had occurred from the time that I first
landed." (Rel. Beg. de Cortes, ap. Lorenzana, p. 38.) " Cortis wrote,"
says Bernal Diaz, " an exact account, so he told us, but we never
saw the letter." (Hist, de la Conquista, cap. 53.) (Also Oviedo, Hist,
de las Ind., MS., lib. 33, cap. t, and Gomara, ut lupra.) Were it not
for these positive testimonies, one might suppose that the Carta de
Vera Cruz had suggested an imaginary letter of Cortis. Indeed, the
copy of the former document, belonging to the Spanish Academy of
History — and perhaps the original at Vienna — bears the erroneous
title of Primera Relacion de Cortes. Page 215 ('). — This is the
imputation of Bernal Diaz, reported on hearsay, as he admits he
never saw the letter himself. — Ibid., cap. 54. Page 215 (•). — This
document is of the greatest value and interest, coming as it does
from the best instructed persons in the camp. It presents an
elaborate record of all then known of the countries they had visited,
and of the principal movements of the army, to the time of the
foundation of the Villa Rica. The writers conciliate our confidence by
the circumspect tone of their narration. " Querer dar," they say, " a
Vuestra Magestad todas las particularidades de esta tierra y gente de
eila, podria ser que en algo se errase la relacion, porque muchas de
cllas no se ban visto mas de por informaciones de los naturales de
ella, y por esto no nos entrcm^temos i dar mas de aquello que por
muy cicrto y vcrdadcro Vras. Rcalcs Altezas podran mandar tcner."
The account given of Velasquez, however, must be considered as an
ex parte testimony, and, as such, admitted with great reserve. It was
essential to their own vindication, to vindicate Cortfs. The letter has
never been printed. The original exists, as above stated, in the
Imperial Library at Vienna. The copy in my possession, covering
more than sixty pages folio, is taken from that of the Academy of
History at Madrid. 460
 Notes Page 216 ('). — Peter Martyr, pre-eminent above hit
com- - -• ' - ■' ' -'- ' view*. he took of the new ditcoverici, devotei
liaU a chapter to - 1 he recogniied the evidence of a civilitation
analogout to the Egyj.. .;. u.„. ...^.v,, ..>^. 4, ^^p. 8. Page 217 (').
— Bernal Diaz, Hiit. de la Conquiita, cap. 54-57. — Oomam, CfAri-- '-
" j->. — Herrara, liitt. General, dec. 2, lib. 5, cap. 14.— Carta de
Vera Crui, M.S. M loua information wai chiefly derived from hit
converuiion> with Alaminot and the i... ., on their arrival at court. —
Ue Orbe Novo, dec. 4, cap. 6, et alibi ; alio Idem, Opui Epiatolarum
(Amatelodami, 1670), ep. 650. Page 220 (■). — Perhapt the moit
remarkable of thetc example* ii that of Julian, who, ia hii
unfortunate Asiyrian invasion, burnt the fleet which had carried him
up the Tigrii. The itory is told by Cibbon, who shows very
satisfactorily that the fleet would have proved a hindrance rather
than a help to the emperor in his further progrei*. — See History of
the Decline and Fall (vol. ix. p. 177), of Milman's excellent edition.
Page 220 ('). — The account given in the text of the destruction of
the fleet ii not that of Bvrnal Diaz, who states it to have been
accomplished, not only with the knowledge, but entire approbation
of the army, though at the suggestion of Cortes. (Hist, de la
Conquiita, cap. 58.) This version is sanctioned by Dr. Robertson
(History of America, vol. ii. pp. 253, 254). One should be very slow
to depart from the honest record of the old soldier, especially when
confirmed by the discriminating judgment of the historian of
America. But Cortes expressly declares in his letter to the emperor
that he ordered the vessels to be sunk, without the knowledge of his
men, from the apprehension, that, if the means of escape were
open, the timid and disaffected might, at some future time, avail
themselves of them. (Rel. Scg. de Cortes, ap. Lorenzana, p. 41.) The
cavaliers Montejo y Puertocarrero, on their visit to Spain, stated, in
their depositions, that the general destroyed the fleet on information
received from the pilots. (Declaraciones, MSS.) Narvaez, in his
accusation of Cortes, and Las Casas, speak of the act in terms of
unqualified reprobation, charging him, moreover, with bribing ihc
pilots to bore holes in the bottoms of the ships, in order to disable
them. (Demanda de Narvaez, MS. — Hist, de las Indias, MS., lib. 3,
cap. 122.) The same account of the transaction, though with a very
diflerent commentary as to its merits, is repeated by Oviedo (Hist,
de las Ind., MS., lib. 33, cap. 2), Gomara (Cr6nica, cap. 42), and
Peter Martyr (De Orbe Novo, dec. 5, cap. i), all of whom had acccH
to the best lourccf of information. The aflair, so remarkable as the
act of one individual, becomes absolutely incredible, when
considered as the result of so many independent wills. It is not
improbable, that Bernal Diaz, from his known devotion to the cause,
may have been one of the few to whom Cortes confided his purpose.
The veteran, in writing his narrative, many years after, may have
mistaken a part for the whole, and in his zeal to secure to the army
a full share of the glory of the expedition, too exclusively
appropriated by the general (a great object, as he tells us, of his
history), may have distributed among his comrades the credit of an
exploit, which, in this instance, at least, properly belonged to their
commander. — Whatever be the cause of the discrepancy, his
solitary testimony can hardly be sustained against the weight of
contemporary evidence from such competent sources. Page 229 (').
— " Cabra coja no tenga siesta." Page 230 (').— Oviedo, Hist, de las
Ind., MS., lib. 33, cap. i.— Rel. Seg. de Cortis, ap. Lorenzana, pp. 42-
45. — Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la Conquista, cap. 59, 60. Page 231 (•).
— Gomara, Cr6nica, cap. 44.— Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., MS., cap. 33.
— Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la Conquista, cap. 61. The number of the
Indian auxiliaries stated in the text is much larger than that allowed
by cither Cortes or Diaz. But both these actors in the dranu show too
obvious a desire to magnify their own prowess, by exaggerating the
numbers of their foes, and diminishing their own, to be entitled to
much confidence in their estimate*. 461
 Conquest of Mexico Page ijj ('). — Jalapt Comolvuius jalaps.
The x and j are convertible contonanti in the Caitilun. Page 233 (*).
— The heights of XaUpa are crowned with a convent dedicated to
St. Francii, erected in later dayi by Cort^t, showing, in its solidity,
like others of the period built under the -ume auspices, says an
agreeable traveller, a military as well as religious design. — Tudor's
Travels in North America (London, 1834), vol. ii. p. 1S6. Page 134
(•). — Oviedo, Hist, de las Ind., MS., lib. 33, cap. i. — Rcl. Scg. de
Cortis, ap. Lorenzana, p. 43.— Goraara, Cr6nica, cap. 44. —
Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., MS., cap. 83. " Every hundred yards of our
route," says the traveller last quoted, speaking of this very region, "
was marked by the melancholy erection of a wooden cross,
denoting, according to the custom of the country, the commission of
some horrible murder on the spot where it was planted." — Travels
in North America, vol. ii. p. 188. Page J34 (•). — El Pau dd Okispo.
Cortii named it Puerto del Nombre de Dios. — Viaje, ap. Lorenzana,
p. 2. Page 234 (•). — The Aitec name is Naubcampatepetl, from
naubcampa, " anything square," and lepetl, " a mountain." —
Humboldt, who waded through forests and snows to its summit,
ascertained its height to be 4089 metres = 1 3,4 1 4 feet, above the
sea. — See bis Vues des Cordillcres, p. 134, and Essai Politique, vol.
i. p. 266. Page 235 (•)• — The ume mentioned in Cort
The text on this page is estimated to be only 27.99%
accurate

Notes V^%K 2^8 (•). — It ii the lamc tauc wtiich hat nude
the C'.i .|j, [to naked of wood. Prudential reatoni, at well at tatte,
ho^^ New [Spain. A friend of mine on a viiit to a noble biicicnda,
but wiiiuiiniKinn [.irrm n\ trrn, w*« informed by the proprietor, that
they were cut down to prevent the lazy Itidiant on the pUnUlion I
from waiting their time by loitering in their ihade I Page z?8 (*). —
The correct Indian name of the town, Txia'.im.innl.in V-r,.,. ^.,,t,i.,n
o( I Cort^t, will hardly be recognised in the Xalncinio of Diaz. 'I! sot,
from the top of the hill to the plain. On the origmal lite are iiill . onet
of large dimcnnoni, atteiting the elegance of the ancient fortrew or
palace of (he cacique. — Viaje, ap. Lorenzana, p. 14. Page 239 (').
— For an account of the diplomatic utagei of the people of Anahuac,
tec ante, p. 28. Page 240 ('). — According to Bernal Diaz, the itonei
were held by a cement lo hard that the men could scarcely break it
with their pikei. (Hitt. de la Conquitta, cap. 62.) But the contrary
statement, in the general'i letter, is confirmed by the present
appearance of the wall. — Viaje, ap. Lorenzana, p. vii. Page 240 (').
— Viaje, ap. Lorenzana, p. vii. The attempts of the archbishop to
identify the route of Cortes have been very successful. It is a pity
that his map illustrating the itinerary should be so worthless. Page
240 ('). — Camargo, Hist, de Tlascala, MS. — Gomara, Cr6nica, cap.
44, 45.— Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., MS., cap. 83. — Herrcra, Hist.
General, dec. 2, lib. 6, cap. 3. — Oviedo, Hitt. de las Ind., MS., lib.
33, cap. 2. — Peter Martyr, De Orbe Novo, dec. 5, cap. 1. Page 241
(•). — The Indian chronicler, Camargo, considers his nation a branch
of the Chichemec. (Hist, de Tlascala, MS.) So also Torquemada.
(Monarch. Ind., lib. 3, cap. 9.) Clavigero, who has carefully
investigated the antiquities of Anahuac, calls it one of the seven
Nahuatlac tribes. (Stor. del Messico, torn. i. p. 153, nota.) The fact is
not of great moment, since they were all cognate races, speaking
the same tongue, and, probably, migrated from their country in the
far North at nearly the same time. Page 242 ('). — The descendants
of these petty nobles attached as great value to their pedigreca, as
any Biscayan or Asturian in Old Spain. Long after the Conquest, they
refused, however needy, to dishonour their birth by resorting to
mechanical or other plebeian occupations, oficiot vilts y bajos. " The
descendants of these are esteemed as men of standing, who,
although they may be very poor, will not engage in manual labour,
nor in mean or low occupations. They will not carry nor wield spades
and picks, since they say that they are men of family, who may not
undertake squalid or menial tasks, but claim service in the field and
in camp, and the warrior's death, as their birthright." — Hist, de
Tlascala, MS. Page 243 (■). — A full account of the manners,
customs, and domestic policy of Tlascala is given by the national
historian, throwing much light on the other states of AJiahuac,
whose social institutions seem to have been all cast in the same
mould. Page 244 ('). — Camargo, Hist, de Tlascala, MS. —
Torquemada, Monarch. Ind., lib. 2, cap. 70. Page 245 (»). —
Camargo (Hist, de Tlascala, MS.) notices the extent of Montezuma's
conqueatt, — a debatable ground for the historian. Page 245 ('). —
Torquemada, Monarch. Ind., lib. 3, cap. 16. Solis says, "The Tlascabn
territory was fiftv leagues in circumference, ten long, from east to
west, and four broad, from north 463
 Conquest of Mexico to MUth." (Conquiita de Mijico, lib. 3,
cap. 3.) It must have made a curioui figure in geometry I Page 145
C). — The TIatcalan chronicler discerm in this deep-rooted hatred of
Mexico the hand of Providence, who wrought out of it an important
means for lubverting the Aztec empire. — Hist, de TUtcaU, MS. Page
246 ('). — To the ripe age of one hundred and forty ! if we may
credit Camargo. Solis, who confoundi thii veteran with his ion, has
put a flourishing harangue in the mouth of the Utter, which would be
a rare gem of Indian eloquence, were it not Castilian. — Conquitta,
lib. 2, cap. 16. Page 146 (•). — Camargo, Hist, de TIascala, MS. —
Herrera, Hist. General, dec. 2, lib. 6, cap. 3. — Torquemada,
Monarch. Ind., lib. 4, cap. 27. There is suflicient contradiction as well
a> obKurity in the proceedings reported of the council, which it ii not
easy to reconcile altogether with tubiequent event*. Page 246 C). —
" Dolui an virtui, quit in hoite requirat ? " Page 249 ('). — Rel. Seg.
de Cortis, ap. Lorcnzana, p. 51. According to Gomara (Cr6nica, cap.
46) the enemy mustered 80,000. So, alto, Ixtlilxochitl. (Hist. Chich.,
MS., cap. 83.) Bemal Diaz says, more than 40,000. (Hist, de la
Conquista, cap. 63.) But Herrera (Hist. General, dec. 2, lib. 6, cap. 5)
and Torquemada (Monarch. Ind., lib. 4, cap. 20) reduce them to
30,000. One might as easily reckon the leaves in a forest, as the
numbers of a confused throng of barbarians. As this was only one of
several armies kept on foot by the Tlascalans, the smallest amount
it, probably, too large. The whole population of the state, according
to Clavigero, who would not be likely to underrate it, did not exceed
half a million at the time of the invasion. — Stor. del Messico, torn. i.
p. 1 56. Page 250 ('). — " The device and arms of the ruling house
of Titcala is a white heron on a rock." (Camargo, Hist, de TIascala,
MS.) " The Commander-in-chief," tays Bernal Diaz, " named
Xicotenga, bore coat-armour of red and white, because that was the
device and cognisance of that same Xicotenga." — Hist, de la
Conquista, cap. 63. Page 250 (') — " They call it Teponaztle ; it is a
length of wood In the form of a hoUow cylinder, and, as we say
bueco (hollow) internally. The sound of it can be heard sometimes at
the distance of half a league, blending with the notes of the drum in
strange and soft harmony." (Camargo, Hist, de TIascala, MS.)
Clavigero, who gives a drawing of this same drum, says it is still
used by the Indians, and may be heard two or three miles. — Stor.
del Messico, tom. ii. p. 179. Page 254 ('). — According to Cortes not
a Spaniard fell — though many were wounded — in thi» action so
fatal to the infidel I Diaz allows one. In the famous battle of Navas
de Tolosa, between the Spaniards and Arabs, in 121 2, equally
matched in military science at that time, there were left 200,000 of
the latter on the field ; and, to balance this bloody roll, only five-
and-twenty Christians I See the estimate in Alfonso IX.'s veracious
letter, ap. Mariana (Hist, de Espaiia, lib. 2, cap. 24.) The official
returns of the old Castilian crusaders, whether in the Old World or
the New, are scarcely more trustworthy than a French imperial
bulletin in our day. Page 255 ('). — Rel. Seg. de Cortes, ap.
Lorcnzana, p. 52. Oviedo, who made free use of the manuscripts of
Cortit, writes thirty-nine houses. (Hist, de las Ind., MS., lib. 33, cap.
3.) This may, perhaps, be explained by the sign for a thousand, in
Spanish notation, bearing great resemblance to the figure 9. Martyr,
who had access also to the Conqueror's manuscript, confirms the
larger, and, a priori, less probable number. 464
 Notes Page 256 (|). — More than one writer repeatt a ttorv
of ilir Tt.i.c.il.in irmml'i »rti.l!nir 1 iraed supply of proviiiont, at thii
time, to the famiihed armv ich, it may be, for the fight. (Gomara,
CrAnica, cap. 46. 1 .**}•) Thii ultra-chivalrout ditplay from the
barbarian ii not very proi > iccouot of hii lucceHfuI foray may much
better explain the abundance will p. Page 257 (').— Through the
magnifying leni of Cort^i, they appeared to be 150,000 men (Rel.
Seg., ap. Lorenzana, p. 52) ; a number uiually preferred by
lucceediog writert. Page 257 (•).— " Not half so gorgeous, for their
May-day mirth All wreath'd and ribandcd, our youths and maids, As
these stern TIaicalans in war attire I The golden glitt'rance, and the
feather-mail More gay than glitt'ring gold ; and round the helm A
coronal of high upstanding plumes, Green as the spring grass in a
sunny shower ; Or scarlet bright, as in the wintry wood The cluiter'd
holly ; or of purple tint ; Whereto shall that be likcn'd ? to what gem
Indiadem'd, what flower } what insect's wing f With war songs and
wild music they came on ; We, the while kneeling, raised with one
accord The hymn of supplication." Soin'Hiy's Madoc, Part I. canto 7.
Page 257 C). — The standards of the Mexicans were carried in the
centre, those of the TIaicalans in the rear of the army. (Clavigero,
Stor. del Messico, vol. ii. p. 145.) According to the Anonymous
Conqueror, the banner stall was attached to the back of the ensign,
so that it was impossible to be torn away. " Each company had its
Ensign, with the colours on a staff, bound in such manner to his
shoulders that it did not interfere in the least with his lighting power,
nor prevent him from doing whatever he wished. And the support
was so well secured to his body that unless he were torn in pieces, it
could never be wrested nor snatched from him." — Rel. d'un gent.,
ap. Ramusio, tom. iii. fol 305. Page 257 (•).— Camargo, Hist, de
TIascala, MS.— Herrera, Hist. General, dec. 2, lib. 6, cap. 6. —
Gomara, Cr6nica, cap. 46. — Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la Conquista, cap.
64. — Oviedo, Hist, de las Ind., MS., lib. 33, cap. 45. The last two
authors speak of the device of " a white bird like an ostrich," as that
of the Republic. They have evidently confounded it with that of the
Indian general. Camargo, who has given the heraldic emblems of the
four great families of TIascala, notices the white heron, at that of
Xicotencatl. Page 257 ('). — The accounts of the TIascalan chronicler
arc confirmed by the Anonymous Conqueror and by Bernal Diaz,
both eye-witnesses ; though the latter frankly declares, that, had he
not seen them with his own eyes, he should never have credited the
existence of orders and badges among the barbarians, like those
found among the civilised nations of Europe. — Hist, de la
Conquista, cap. 64, et alibi. — Camargo, Hist, de TIascala, MS. —
Rel. d'un gent., ap. Ramusio, tom. iii. fol. 305. Page 259 (I). —
Particular notices of the military dress and appointments of the
American tribe* on the plateau may be found in Camargo, Hist, de
TIascala, MS.^CIavigero, Stor. del Meuico, tom. ii. p. loi et
seq.^Acosta, lib. 6, cap. 26. — Rel. d'un gent., ap. Ramusio, tom. iii.
fol. 305, et auct. al. VOL. I. — 2 G 465
 Conquest of Mexico Page 261 (*). — So *xft Bernal Diaz ;
who at the same time, by the epithets, lot muertos, lot eutrpot,
plainly contradicts his previous boast that only one Christian fell in
the fight. (Hist, de U Cooquista, cap 65.) Cortes has not the grace to
acknowledge that one. Page 161 (*). — Oriedo, Hiit. de Us Ind., MS.,
lib. 33, cap. 3. — Rel. Se^. de Cortes, ap Lorentana, p. 52. —
Herrera, Hist. General, dec. 2, lib. 6, cap. 6. — Ixtlilxochitl, Hist.
Chich., MS., cap 83. — Gomara, Crdnica, cap. 46. — Torqucraada,
Monarch. Ind., lib. 4, cap. 32. — Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la Conquista,
cap. 65, 6'>. The warm and chivalrous glow of feeling, which colours
the rude composition of the last chronicler, makes him a better
painter than his more correct and classical rivals. And, if there is
somewhat too much of the self-complacent tone of the quorum pan
magna fui in his writing, it may be pardoned in the hero of more
than a hundred battles, and almost as many wounds. Page 261 (•).
— The Anonymous Conqueror bears emphatic testimony to the
valour of the Indians, specifying instances in which he had seen a
single warrior defend himself for a long time against two, three, and
even four Spaniards. " There are among them men of great valour,
who in their daring seek a death of glory. I have seen one of these
making a valiant defence against two light horsemen, and another
against three, and even four." — Rel. d'un gent., ap. Ramusio, tom.
iii. fol. 305. Page 262 ('). — The appalling effect of the' cavalry on
the natives reminds one of the confusion into which the Roman
legions were thrown by the strange appearance of the elephants in
their first engagements with Pyrrhus, as told by Plutarch in his life of
that prince. Page 267 ('). — The effect of the medicine— though
rather a severe dose, according to the precise Diaz — was
suspended during the general's active exertions. Gomara, however,
does not consider this a miracle. (Cr6nica, cap. 49.) Father Sandoval
does. (Hi«t. de Carlos Quinto, tom. i. p. 127.) Solis, after a
conscientious inquiry into this perplexing matter, decides — strange
as it may seem — against the father ! — ^Conquista, lib. 2, cap. 20.
Page 267 (*). — " Dios es sombre natura." — Rel. Seg. de Cortis, ap.
Lorenzana, p. 54. Page 267 (*). — Hilt, de la Conquista, cap. 64. Not
so Cortes, who tays boldly, " I burnt more than ten towns." (Ibid., p.
;2.) His reverend commentator specifies the localities of the Indian
towns destroyed by him, in his forays. — Viaje, ap. Lorenzana, pp.
ix.-xi. Page 267 (*). — The famous banner of the Conqueror, with
the Croii emblazoned on it, has been preaervcd in Mexico to our day.
Page 270 ('). — This conference is reported, with some variety,
indeed, by nearly every historian. (Rel. Seg. de Cortis, ap.
Lorenzana, p. 55. — Oviedo, Hist, de las Ind., MS., lib. 33, cap. 3. —
Gomara, Crdnica, cap. 51, 52. — Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., MS., cap.
80. — Herrera, Hist. General, dec. 2, lib. 6, cap. g.^P. .Martyr, De
Orbe Novo, dec. 5, cap. 2.) I have abridged the account given by
Bernal Diaz, one of the audience, though not one of the parties to
the dialogue, — for that reason, the better authority. Page 277 ('). —
He dwells on it in his letter to the Emperor. " Seeing their mutual
discord and misunderstanding, I was no little pleased, since it
appeared to me to work greatly to my advantage, and to provide me
with the means of subjugating them. Moreover, I recalled a passage
in Scripture which says, ' A kingdom divided against itself cannot
stand." So I played one against the other, sending each in secret my
thanks for their information, and pretending to each a greater
friendship than towards the others." — Rel. Seg. de Cortis, ap.
Lorenzana, p. 61. Page 277 (•). — Herrera, Hist. General, dec. 2, lib.
6, cap. 10. — Oviedo, Hist, dc las Ind.. MS., lib. 33, cap. 4. —
Gomara, Cr6nica, cap. 54. — Martyr, De Orbe Novo, dec. 5, cap. 2.
— Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la Conquista, cap. 72-74. — Ixtlilxochitl, Hilt.
Chich., MS., cap. 83. 466
The text on this page is estimated to be only 29.64%
accurate

Notes Page 278 ('). — " Following the road a quarter of a

Irague beyond tl to I ravine croMcd by a bridge of cement and
vaulted itone ; and in the report! that it wa« conitructed during the
lew da'. ' ■ _ (Viaje, ap. Lorcnzana, p. xi.) If the antiquity 1. ,|^ il
would tettica point much mooted in rctpect to luui^n .iiiiiiK^mri. hm
uir ci : ..f to lolid a work in 10 ihort a time it a fact requiring a better
voucher than the villagers <> lor. Page 278 (').— Clavigcro, Stor. del
Metiico, torn. iii. p. 53, " The moit tolemn and memorable reception
that the world hat ever seen," ezclaimt the enthutiaitic hiitnrian >.f
r>.r Tri..i),lic. He addi, that " more than a hundred ihouund men
flocked out to > a thing that appear* impossible," qui partce cota
impoubU t It dc lltit. de TIaicala, MS. Page 280 (•). — "There is no
pottery vessel made by ui which is artistically superior to the pots
moulded by them." — Martyr, De Orbe Novo, dec. 5, cap. 2. Page
280 (•). — Camargo, Hist, de TIascala, MS.— Rel. Seg. de Cort*s,
ap. Lorenzana, p. 59.— Oviedo, Hist, dc las Ind., MS., lib. 33, cap. 4.
— Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., MS., cap. 8j. The last histori.in
enumerates such a number of contemporary Indian authoritiet for hu
oarrative, as of itself argues no inconsiderable degree of civilisation
in the people. Page 280 (•). — Herrera, Hist. General, dec. 2, lib. 6,
cap. 12.— The population of a place, which Cortes could compare
with Granada, had dwindled by the beginning of the present century
to 3400 inhabitants, of which less than a thousand were of the
Indian stock. — See Humboldt, Essai Politique, tom. ii. p. 158. Page
283 (').— Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., MS., cap. 84.— Gomara, Cr6nica,
cap. 56.— Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la Conquista, cap. 76, 77. — This is
not the account of Camargo. According to him, Cortes gained his
point ; the nobles led the way by embracing Christianity and the
idols were broken. (Hist, dc TIascala, MS.) But Camargo was himself
a Christianised Indian, who lived in the next generation after the
Conquest ; and may very likely have felt as much desire to relieve
his nation from the reproach of infidelity, of a modern Spaniard
would to Kour out the stain — mala razay mancba — as Jewish or
Moorish lineage from his escutcheon. Page 284 (*). — The miracle is
reported by Herrera (Hist. General, dec. 2, lib. 6, cap. 1 5), and
believed by Solis. — Conquista de Mijico, lib. 3, cap. 5. P.igc 284 (').
— To avoid the perplexity of selection, it was common for the
miuionary to give the same names to all the Indians baptised on the
s.ime day. Thus, one day was set apart for the Johns, another for
the Peters, and so on ; an ingenious arrangement, much more for
the convenience of the clergy, than of the converts. — See Camargo,
Hist, de TIascala, MS. Page 284 ('). — Camargo, Hist, de TIascala,
MS. — Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la Conquista, cap. 74, 77. According to
Camargo, the TIascalans gave the Spanish commander three
hundred damsels to wait on Marina ; and the kind treatment and
instruction they received led some of the chiefs to surrender their
own daughters, " In the hope that perchance some of them might
beget a generation of men as valiant and fearless as a heritage for
their race." Page 284 ('). — Bernal Diaz, Hist, de la Conquista, cap.
80. — Rel. Seg. de Cortes, ap. Lorenzana, p. 60. — Martyr, De Orbc
Novo, dec. j, cap. 2. Cortis notices only one Aztec mission, while
Diaz speaks of three. The former, from brevity, falls so much short of
the whole truth, and the latter, from forgetfulness perhaps, goes so
much beyond it, that it is not always easy to decide between them.
Diaz did not compile his narrative till some fifty years after the
Conquest ; a lapse of time which may excuse many errors, but must
considerably impair our confidence in the minute accuracy of his
details. A more intimate acquaintance with his chronicle does not
strengthen this confidence. 467
 Conquest of Mexico P«ge 185 (•).— Ante, p. 165. Page 286
('). — " If they would not come to me, I would come to them, and
would destroy them, proceeding againit them a> againit rebeli ;
saying to them that all these regions, as well as other greater lands
and lordships, were the property of your Highness." (Rel. Seg. de
Cortes, ap. Lorcnzana, p. 63.) " Rebellion " was a very convenient
term, fastened in like manner by the countrymen of Cortes on the
Moors, for defending the possessions which they had held for eight
centuries in the Peninsula. It justified very rigorous reprisals. — See
the History of Ferdinand and Isabella, Part I. chap 13 ct aUbi. Page
287 ('). — Rel. Seg., ap. Lorenzana, p. 67. — According to Lai Casai,
the place contained 30,000 vecinos, or about 150,000 inhabitants.
(Brevissima Relatione della Distruttione dell' Indie Occidentale.)
[Venetia, 1643.] This latter, being the smaller estimate, is a priori the
most credible ; especially — a rare occurrence — ^when in the
pages of the good bishop of Cbiapa. Page 287 (*). — Humboldt,
Essai Politique, torn. iii. p. 159. Page 287 C). — Veytia carries back
the foundation of the city to the Ulmecs, a people who f)receded the
Toltecs. (Hist. Antig., tom. i. cap. 13, 20.) As the latter, after
occupying the and several centuries, have left not a single written
record, probably, of their existence, it will be bard to disprove the
licentiate's assertion, — still harder to prove it. Page 287 (*). —
Herrera, Hist. General, dec. 2, lib. 7, cap. 2 Page 288 ('). —
Camargo, Hist, de TIascala, MS. — Gomara Cr6nica, cap. 58. —
Torquemada, Monarch. Ind., lib. 3, cap. 19. Page 288 (•). — Veytia,
Hist. Antig., tom. i. cap. 15, et seq. — Sahagun, Hist, de Nueva
Espai^a, lib. I, cap. 5 ; lib. 3. Page 288 (•). — Later divines have
found in these teachings of the Toltec god, or high priest, the germs
of some of the great mysteries of the Christian faith, as those of the
Incarnation, and the Trinity, for example. In the teacher himself they
recognise no less a person than St. Thomas the Apostle I — See the
Dissertation of the irrefragable Dr. Mier, with an edifying commentary
by Senor Bustamente, ap. Sahagun. (Hist, de Nueva Espana, tom. i.
Suplemento.) The reader will find further particulars of this matter in
Appendix, Part i, of this History. Page 288 (*). — Such, on the
whole, seems to be the judgment of M. de Humboldt, who hat <
xamined this interesting monument with hit usual care. (Vues des
Cordillcres, p. 27, et seq. — Essai Politique, tom. ii. p. i ;o, et seq.)
The opinion derives strong confirmation from the fact, that a road,
cut some years since across the tumulus, laid open a large section of
it, in which the alternate layers of brick and clay are distinctly visible.
(Ibid., loc. cit.) The present appearance of this monument, covered
over with the verdure and vegetable mould of centuries, excuses the
scepticism of the more superficial traveller. Page 289 (•). — Several
of the pyramids of Egypt, and the ruins of Babylon, are, as is well
known, of brick. An inscription on one of the former, indeed,
celebrates this material as superior to stone. (Herodotus, Euterpe,
sec. 136.) — Humboldt furnishes an apt illustration of the size of the
Mexican teocalti, by comparing it to a mass of bricks covering a
square four times as large as the place V'enddme, and of twice the
height of the Louvre. — Essai Politique, tom. ii. p. i $2. Page 289 (').
— A minute account of the costume and insignia of Quetzalcoatl is
given by Father Sahagun, who saw the Aztec gods before the arm of
the Christian convert had tumbled them from " their pride of place."
— See Hist, de Nueva Espaita, lib. I, cap. 3. 468
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