Dept. of QS, BUK Engr. A.

A Maikano

BUILDING SERVICES I (PLUMBING SYSTEMS & SERVICES; GAS INSTALLATION)

This course deals with the first part of Building services i.e. Plumbing systems in
building. It treats specifically Cold-water installations – supply and distribution; Domestic
hot water generation and distribution; Disposal services; and Gas Installations.

INTRODUCTION
An Overview of Building Services (BS) and why it is essential and necessary.

OBJECTIVE 1: COLD WATER INSTALLATIONS – SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTIONS

The demand for cold water
Direct and indirect systems of cold water supplies
Cold water storage cisterns and calculations
Storage and distribution of water
Pipe sizing
Supplies to low and high-rise buildings

OBJECTIVE 2: DOMESTIC HOT WATER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION

Terms categorizing hot and cold-water systems
Direct and indirect system of hot water supply
Electric immersion heaters
Unvented hot water systems
Solar heating of water

OBJECTIVE 3: DISPOSAL SERVICES

Sanitary appliances
Drainage below and above ground
Solid waste storage
Refuse disposal

OBJECTIVE 4: GAS INSTALLATION

Gas control and safety considerations
Gas appliances, ignition devices; Burners and burner types
Gas connection and consumption
Flues to low rise and multi-storey building
Ventilation requirement
Failure protection

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REFERENCES

1. BUILDING SERVICES HANDBOOK 3rd edition by Fred Hal and Roger Greeno.

2. NEWNES BUILDING SERVICES POCKET HANDBOOK (2 nd Edition) by John Knight

and Peter Jones

3. AN INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING SERVICES by Christopher A. Howard

4. INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING SERVICES 2nd Edition E.F. Curd and C.A. Howard

5. BUILDING SERVICES by George Hassan

6. BUILDING SERVICES ENGINEERING by David V. Chadderton

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INTRODUCTION
Imagine yourself in the most fabulous building in the world. Now take away the lighting,
heating and ventilation, the lifts and escalators, acoustics, plumbing, power supply and
energy management systems, the security and safety systems...and you are left with a
cold, dark, uninhabitable shell.

Everything inside a building which makes it safe and comfortable to be in comes under
the title of 'Building Services'. A building must do what it was designed to do - not just
provide shelter but also be an environment where people can live, work and achieve
goals.

In Building Services, Mechanical and Electrical (M & E) is still the term most commonly
used to describe what has become an increasingly sophisticated and widening range of
building engineering services elements. They account for a growing proportion of
overall contract values. Given their system based characteristics of being constructed by
placing on, threading through, and fixing to the building structure and fabric, a bit here
and a bit there, they lack the apparent growth and order of the gridline dominated,
surface covering, building work. When completed, their ability to sustain a specified
internal environment and protect the occupants through guardian systems, must be
proven, documented and witnessed, to the satisfaction of the client, designers, authorities,
utilities providers and insurers, all within the contract period

AN OVERVIEW OF BUILDING SERVICES

Building services (BS) are engineering systems. They are placed on, threaded through,
and fixed to the structure and fabric of a building. The building’s form and function
affect the complexity of building services.

BSs are thus the utilities and services supplied and distributed within a building generally
related to the building environment, including: heating, air-conditioning, lighting, water
supply services, drainage services, electrical supply, gas supply, fire protection, and security
protection.

According to CIBSE (Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, established in

1976), building services engineering covers (i) energy supply (gas, electricity and
renewable sources), (ii) heating and air conditioning, (iii) water, drainage and plumbing,
(iv) natural and artificial lighting, and building façades, (v) escalators and lifts, (vi)
refrigeration, (vii) communication lines, telephones and IT networks, (viii) security and
alarm systems, and (iix) fire detection and protection.

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WHY BUILDING SERVICES ARE NECESSARY?

The capital and installation costs of building services in modern buildings can take up
50% of the total construction budget. For highly serviced buildings such as sports
centres, this figure can easily exceed 75%. Therefor building services cannot be ignored.

Building services (BS) are the dynamics in a static structure, providing movement,
communications, facilities and comfort. As they are unavoidable, it is imperative that
architects, quantity surveyors, builders, structural engineers, planners, estate managers
and all those concern with the construction of buildings have a knowledge and
appreciation of the subject.

Building services enable buildings to be used for their designated purpose. This they do
by:

by creating an internal environment—heating, ventilation, air conditioning, lighting and

acoustics;

by defending the building from the external environment—lightning, rain, wind, noise,
heat and cold;

by providing protection—against fire and for security;

by enabling communication—through voice, vision and data systems;

by disposal of waste—through plumbing, recycling and refuse collection systems and

services.

Through services systems, buildings are made to function safely and healthily. We can
understand why BSs are necessary by glancing at the table 1 below.

BSs are ‘what make a building come to life’. They include the following:

Table 1the generic family of Building Services

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In every place that you see these services, building services engineers design, install and
keep them all in working order.

WORKING IN DIVERSE ENVIRONMENT

Imagine the air filtration systems you’d need in a medical laboratory. The heating
controls in a special care baby unit? How to control bacteria and humidity in an
operating theatre? What about security systems at the headquarters of Nigeria (Villa) or
MI5? Lighting in a Stadium? Coping with a power cut in a 100 storey office block? This is
everyday work for a building services engineer.

MAKING A DIFFERENCE
At present there is a real shortage of building services engineers at all levels. This means
that pay and conditions are great, there are opportunities for rapid promotion and jobs
are available throughout Nigeria and beyond.

In the future, the sector will expand as new building projects get under way with major
public sector, commercial and housing developments.

Demand is increasing for more sustainable and energy efficient buildings and services to
combat climate change, and building services engineers are leading the way. You can
make a difference by choosing a career in building services.

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Objective 1: COLD WATER INSTALLATIONS: SUPPLY AND

DISTRIBUTION

INTRODUCTION
In today’s buildings, all occupancies must be provided with a supply of drinkable water
that has enough volume and pressure to make it easily available. This refers to all
plumbing components needed to supply the water safely, and all required to carry it
safely away.

Generally, plumbing systems are chiefly gravity-septic, well-septic, or meter-sewage.

In gravity-septic systems, the supply water arrives from a stream or other surface source
located at an elevation above the building and acquires its pressure from gravity, then
its waste discharges into a septic/leaching field at least 100 ft downstream from the
surface source.

In well-septic systems, the supply water arrives from a dug or drilled well and acquires
its pressure from a pump, then the waste discharges into the same kind of
septic/leaching network as does a gravity system.

In meter-sewage systems the supply water enters from a pressurized public main, then
the waste drains into a public sewer system.

A building’s plumbing system has three main parts: SUPPLY (the piping that brings the
water to its points of use), FIXTURES (point-of-use receptacles that receive the supply
water and discharge the waterborne wastes), and WASTE (the piping and venting that
convey the wastes and any associated gases from its points of use to outside the
building). The essential component is the fixtures: without them there is no need for the
others.

In building services applications, water is used in many ways which are, briefly, as
follows:

Cold water for drinking

Cold water supply to a domestic hot water cylinder or boiler for domestic washing or
industrial process purposes

Cold water supplied to refrigeration plant for chilling (this chilled water is then
distributed to the air conditioning system or cooling plant)

Cold water for sanitary appliances

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Cold water for filling the heating system

Cold water for fire-fighting services.

The cold water may be obtained directly from the water mains or from a tank. The
quality and nature of the water entering the building will vary. However, it is essential to
ensure certain standards of purity for each of the above applications.

WATER SUPPLY
Majorly, certain percentage of rainfall finds its way into distribution mains. The
remaining is either absorbed into the ground, evaporates, or runs off into rivers or
streams. Rainfall flows from upland sources to the regional reservoirs, where some
sedimentation of the larger particulate matter takes place.

The water from a reservoir is treated to remove the suspended organic and inorganic
materials. This process is necessary to destroy pathogenic bacteria, which can cause
typhoid, cholera or other disease. The process consists of:

Coarse straining of the water to remove large floating objects

Sedimentation to remove small, high-density impurities

Filtration through sand beds to remove the smaller suspended solids and attached
bacteria

Sterilization by injection with chlorine or treatment with Ozone before pumping into the
mains (as shown in figure below)

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Figure 1 Mains Water Supply

WATER TREATMENT AND PURIFICATION

Being able to turn on a tap and fill a glass of water to drink is something
we tend to take for granted but the quality of the drinking water at any
tap depends on many factors going all the way back to the original source
of the water, how it has been treated and how it has been distributed
to the tap.

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WATER STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION

The usual arrangement for cold water system is for a water system to be brought in to
the building from the Water Company mains and directly feed all drinking water taps
and storage tanks.

Distribution of drinking water should be planned to avoid long runs of pipework to

points with very little or infrequent usage. Ideally, drinking water systems is arranged so
that the entire contents are drawn off and replenished afresh every working day. Water
distribution can be in one of the forms:

Gravitational distribution - the water from upland gathering grounds is stored in a

reservoir. From this point the water is filtered and chlorinated before serving an
inhabited area at lower level. There are no pumping costs.

Pumped distribution - water extracted from a river is pumped into a settlement tank,
subsequently filtered and chlorinated. Pump maintenance and running costs make this
process more expensive than gravity systems.

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Ring main distribution - water mains supplying a town or village may be in the form of a
grid or network. This is preferable to radial distribution as sections can be isolated with
minimal disruption to the remaining system and there is no more opportunity for water
to maintain a flow.

Storage of coldwater has traditionally been provided to give a safeguard against of the
main water supply and to meet peak draw off demand.

Capacity of the water storage are decided upon

The risk and extent of any interruption to supply

The usage and occupation of the building

The size and pressure of the available water mains supply

The risk of overlong periods of storage that will temper with the quality of the water,
thus subject it to bacterial contamination

When calculating the total water storage requirements, the table below give guidance
for various types of buildings for a 24 hours period.

Table 2 Coldwater Storage

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Table 3 may be used to estimate the building occupancy where more specific data is not
available.

Table 3 Building occupancy

The contents of coldwater storage must be of potable quality and protected against
contamination and stagnation. Thus, all tanks must have close fitting covers and the
overflows, warning pipes and vents must be provided with screens. Inlet and outlet
connections should be at opposite ends of the tanks to prevent areas of stale water, as
shown in figure 2.

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Figure 2 Water storage tank Requirement

WATER SUPPLY TO LOW-RISE BUILDINGS

Domestic low-rise dwellings of single-, two- or three storey construction are connected
to the water main by a service branch pipe, as shown in Figure 2;
the main features of this arrangement are as follows.

The water authority can disconnect the supply by means of the stopcock located outside
the house boundary

The supply pipe is usually laid at a depth not less than 1m

A duct is provided is provided to carry the supply into the building through the wall and
floor

On entering the building near the floor level, the rising main has an isolating valve with
a draincock to allow drainage of the pipe above the point

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Figure 3 Cold water supply of a typical domestic service pipe

Figure 3 shows a typical cold water installation for a domestic two-storey building. Note
that the rising main, on entering the building is piped to a ball valve, which feeds the
water into the high-level storage tank. The sanitary appliances can be feed either
DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY.

WATER SUPPLY TO HIGH-RISE BUILDING

As the supply pressure of the Water Board main is unlikely to allow direct delivery to the
upper floors of tall buildings, assistance has to be given to the main to enable it to reach
these levels. Building in multiple occupancy may require significant volumes of water for
general-purpose use and, as this is usually supplied to the user at gravitational pressure,
thus, storage has to be above the point of delivery.

In high-rise buildings, the main can be allowed to serve drinking water to the floors
within its capacity and pumps will directly or indirectly assist in conveying the water to
the upper levels. To have pumps continually in operation would be inefficient and that
will present a considerable maintenance commitment. Therefore, the following
techniques are employed to prevent continual pump use

THE PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

The system, illustrated below, uses compressed air within a pressure vessel to assist the
mains water.

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Figure 4 The Pneumatic system of cold water delivery

The pump forces the water into the pressure vessel which contains a volume of air. On
reaching the desired air pressure level, the pumping ceases and the compressed air now
provides the driving force behind the mains water. As water is used by the occupants of
the building, the air in the pressure vessel expands and the pressure falls. At a
predetermined low level of pressure, the pump is brought into operation.

The system illustrated may be used for a block of around 15 storeys, with general-
purpose water stored at roof level to serve all units.

THE HEADER STORAGE SYSTEM

The name of this system arises from the enlargement of the rising main which occurs
just before connection to the roof-level cold water storage tanks. By enlarging the rising
main into a cylinder above the last user outlet, a storage vessel is formed which could

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supply the upper levels of the premises with gravity-pressure drinking water if the mains
supply were to be interrupted. The capacity of the header storage cylinder is generally
5-7litres per dwelling served.

In this system the pump is activated either by the operation of a float switch located in
the general-purpose cold water storage tank or by a similar switch inside the header
cylinder. The figure under illustrates the typical system.

Figure 5 The Header storage system

ENCLOSED TANK SYSTEMS

Due to possible contamination or loss of palatability, cold water for drinking purposes is
traditionally taken from the mains at mains pressure. But, if an enclosed, insulated and

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ventilated tank is used, storage of drinking water is permissible. There are two common
arrangements of system which provide for an enclosed storage of drinking water.

Figure below which employs hygienic tanks for drinking water storage either from:

ONE - large drinking water tank that will all other outlets from roof level; or

TWO – a smaller tank provided to serve a number of floors in a zoning arrangement; or

THREE – individual tanks to each user

In this system, the general-purpose water is stored in separate storage tanks following
the arrangement in one, two or three above.

Figure 6 An Enclosed tank system

Below is the alternative enclosed tank system where a large capacity tank located at
ground or basement level is used to supply both drinking water and general-purpose
water. From this, the water is pump-assisted to roof level, where it feeds a tank for
gravity-supply drinking water and another for gravity-supply general-purpose water.

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Figure 7 An Enclosed tank system

DIRECT SYSTEM OF COLD WATER SUPPLY

In the direct system, as the name implies, sanitary appliances are connected directly to
the rising main. It is usually employed where high pressure water supply is essential
particularly at periods of peak demand. Pipework is minimal and the storage cistern
supplying the hot water cylinder need only have 115 litres capacity. Drinking water is
available at every draw-off point with maintenance valve fitted to isolate each section of
the pipework.

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Figure 8 Direct Coldwater supply system

INDIRECT SYSTEM OF COLD WATER SUPPLY

The indirect system provides a gravity supply of cold water to the sanitary appliances
from the cold water storage tank and not directly from the rising main. It has only one
drinking water outlet, at the sink. The storage cistern has a minimum capacity of 230
litres, for location in the roof space. In addition to its normal supply function, it provides
an adequate emergency storage in the event of water main failure.

The system requires more pipe work than the direct system and therefore more
expensive to install but uniform pressure at all cistern-supplied outlets. The water
authority prefers this system as it imposes less demand on the main. Other advantages
are less noise and wear on fittings because of the lower pressure.

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Figure 9 Indirect Coldwater supply system

SUPPLY PLUMBING
Supply plumbing includes all piping and related components from the water source to
the fixtures. The water supply piping is often exposed to the following additional subsoil
conditions which could cause it to leak or rupture:

✓ Seasonal expansion/contraction due to temperature changes in the surrounding

earth. You have to go about 21 ft down before temperatures become uniform year-
round.
✓ Earth settling, either due to intermittent shifting caused by saturation by heavy rains
or to vibrations from heavy vehicular traffic, nearby railways, etc.
✓ Corrosion of metal piping in moist subsoils due to galvanic reaction.

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✓ Electrical discharges from nearby ground rods. These should be buried at least 10 ft
from any below-grade piping

Ideally, a supply water main typically requires just inside the building (1) a service valve,
(2) an accessible strainer that removes any grit or other particles from the inflowing
water, (3) an easily visible meter that measures the waterflow, (4) a backflow preventer
that keeps any water in the building from flowing backward and contaminating the
public water supply, (5) a shut-off valve with a drain port for emptying the plumbing
system if necessary, and (6) a protective air gap between the drain port and a nearby
floor drain.

PIPE TYPES AND SIZES

A pipe is a tube or hollow cylinder used to convey materials. The terms pipe and tube
are almost interchangeable. A pipe is generally specified by the internal
diameter (ID) whereas a tube is usually defined by the outside diameter (OD). Also, the
term tube is more widely used in the U.S whereas pipe is more common elsewhere
around the world. Both pipe and tube imply a level of rigidity and permanence, whereas
a hose is usually portable and flexible.

Pipes, which are the medium for transportation and distribution of water, are of various
types. Below is a brief description of the common kinds of supply piping:

PLASTIC – the most common kinds of plastic piping are:

1. ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene): a rigid black pipe that is fairly strong and

economical. Typical diameters are 11/4, 11/2, 2, 21/2, 3, 4, and 6 in; maximum
pressure = 40 psi at 100˚. The most common plastic piping for drains and vents.

2. PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride): a rigid (white) pipe that is strong and economical. It
resists most acids and alkalis but not chlorinated hydrocarbons and certain
solvents. Typical diameters are 11/4, 11/2, 2, 21/2, 3, 4, and 6 in; maximum pressure
= 40 psi at 100˚; maximum temperature for non-pressure use = 180˚. Used for
cold water supply, drain, waste, vent, and some process piping.

3. CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride): also called Ultra Polyvinyl Chloride Pipes, a
cream-colored rigid pipe that is very strong and has a chemical resistance similar
to PVC. Common diameters are ½ and ¾ in; maximum pressure = 100 psi at
180˚. Used for hot and cold-water supply as well as process piping.

4. PE (polyethylene): a flexible tubing that can be snaked or bent through walls and
around corners, can bend without breaking when buried in settling soil, and is
highly resistant to unusual soil conditions. Typical diameters are 3/4, 1, 11/2, and 2

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in; maximum pressure = 40 psi at 100˚; maximum temperature for nonpressure

use = 180˚. Used for low-pressure cold-water underground services.

5. PEX (crosslinked polyethylene): a recently developed flexible tubing that is strong,

light, nontoxic, and resistant to high temperatures, pressures, and corrosion. After
being heated, its molecular structure returns to its original size, shape, and
strength; typical diameters are ½, ¾ and 1 in. It is used for hot and cold-water
supply, radiant and baseboard heating, snow melting, irrigation.

STEEL PIPING – This is available in galvanized or black types in standard, extra heavy,
and double extra heavy weights. Galvanized pipe resists rust better, but black is the
finest piping if it is to be exposed to fire or high temperatures. Connections are
threaded. Advantages - Best for high temperatures, pressures, and velocities. Lowest
coefficient of expansion. The strongest piping; thus, its lengths require the least support.
Disadvantages – expensive, heavy, brittle in very cold temperatures.

CAST IRON - This piping is available in standard, ductile iron (stronger and more
corrosion-resistant), and high-silica (acid-resistant); it is used for sanitary waste, vent,
storm drain, and other non-pressure applications.

Cement Asbestos Pipes;

Galvanized Iron Pipes;

Others – Steel and Copper

PIPE SIZING

There are various methods which may be used for sizing domestic water services
pipework. The actual method used should allow the pipework to be sized systematically
from the source of the water distribution, be it from roof surface, mains water or a
pump, so that there is sufficient capacity within the pipework systems to meet the
probable maximum demand.

The size of the pipe used for the rising main is related to the required flow rate. This
required flow is not that which would occur if all the fittings (taps)
were open at the same time, but a statistical flow rate based on probability. If a flow
related to the maximum (all taps open) was used, the pipe size
would be excessive.

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The pressure of the water in a main entering a building depends on the height of the
reservoir (head) above this main. The basic equation used to determine this pressure is:

Pressure = Force/Area

Thus, the pressure due to gravity is

Mass X Gravitational constant (9.8 m/s 2 )

pressure =
Area

Where Mass = volume X density.

The density of water varies with temperature, and in calculations it is essential to use the
exact density. In this case, however, the density is assumed to be 1000 kg/m3, this being
the value at 4°C. Hence the pressure at this temperature produced by a column of water
8 m high is given by

Pressure = 8 X 1000 X 9.81

= 78 480 Pa or 78.48kPa

So, for water to reach a height of 8m, it is necessary to have a pressure of 78.5kPa.

PIPE SIZING BY FORMULA

Thomas Box formula:

q 2  25  L 105
d=5
H

Where d= diameter (bore) of pipe (mm)

q= flow rate (l/s)

H= head of pressure (m)

L= effective length of pipe (m)

=(actual length + allowance for bends, tees, e.t.c)

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Example

12  25  20 105
d= 5
3

d = 27.83mm

The nearest commercial size above this is 32 mm bore steel or 35 mm outside diameter
copper.

Note: Head in meter can be converted to pressure in kPa by multiplying by gravity. E.g.
3 m X 9.81 = 29.43 kPa (approx. 30 kPa)

NOTE: the size of cold water rising main is influenced by the following three features,
namely:

The number of connections made to it;

The frequency with which those connection draw water; and

The mains pressure available to the premises

In domestic installations, a 15 mm rising main will suffice in individual low rise buildings
but, where multi-storey buildings are served, significantly larger diameters will apply.

Gravity supplies of cold general-purpose water in domestic plumbing will be taken to

the hot water cylinder and bathroom sanitary appliances. It should be remembered that

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the diameter of the supply to the bath is generally 22 mm, while the washbasin and WC
take a 15 mm supply.

COMMON SIZES OF PIPES

Depending on the volume of water, the distance and the method of pumping the water,
the common types of water are:

12mm pipes

18mm pipes

25mm pipes

38mm pipes

50, 100, 150mm pipes

QUESTIONS

A building has a storage tank located at 70m above the supply main, in which the water
pressure is 500kPa. Will this pressure be sufficient to take water to the storage tank?

By means of a neat annotated sketch, show all the necessary pipework for direct/indirect
systems that is required in a low-risen dwelling.

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DOMESTIC HOT WATER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION

TERMS CATEGORIZING COLD AND HOT WATER SYSTEMS

DIRECT – a direct hot water system is one in which the water contained in the boiler or
other heater, may also be drawn from the taps

INDIRECT – an indirect hot water system is one in which the water contained in the
boiler or other heater is kept separate from the water drawn from the taps.

VENTED AND UNVENTED – the system is vented when is open to atmospheric pressure
while unvented when closed to the atmosphere and operate under pressure, usually
under atmospheric.

The term domestic hot water (DHW) relates to the water supplied for washing purposes.

If the washing process is required for some industrial process, the water may have to be
chemically treated in order to protect the process from any salts or metals present in the
water supply. In the domestic and commercial field, the supply of hot water is normally
for body, clothes and dish washing.

Care has to be taken in the control of the water temperature. If it is too hot, scalding will
result; if it is too cold, the risk of legionnaire’s disease is increased.

The three methods of hot water generation are:

By electric immersion heaters

By using boilers fired by gas, oil or solid fuel

By the use of solar heaters

Electric Immersion Heaters

The immersion heater is a hollow metal rod with an insulated resistance element inside
it. It includes a thermostat, which senses the water temperature: once the water has
reached the thermostat temperature setting, the electricity supply is cut off. In this way
the water temperature is held at some predetermined level.

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The immersion heaters in small domestic cylinders are normally fitted to the top of a
well-insulated cylinder.

Figure 10 A domestic electric immersion heater

DHW GENERATION BY BOILER SYSTEMS

Domestic hot water may be provided from heat generators in the form of boilers, which
may either direct or indirect.

The direct method is the one in which the boiler itself is used only to provide DHW and
is fired with either gas or oil. The DHW is generated from the cold water directly from
the main and fed to the boiler and then to the taps.

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DISPOSAL SERVICES: SANITARY APPIANCES, DRAINAGE ABOVE AND BELOW GROUND,

SOLID WASTE STORAGE

This chapter examines typical forms of sanitary appliances found in building and the
means by which the discharges from these appliances are handled both above and
below ground. It will also briefly discuss removal of refuse from residential property.

SANITARY APPLIANCES

The recommended minimum number of sanitary appliances installed in buildings will be

dictated by the building’s function.

In dwellings, for example, the basic appliances recommended generally by all Building
Regulations and Building Standard documents are: a WC, a bath or shower, a sink, and a
washbasin.

The total number of appliances installed and the frequency of their anticipated use will
later determine the capacity of the pipes needed to convey discharges from the
appliances to the below-ground drainage system. Although many appliances are easily
recognized, there are a number of variations within each type which require useful
examinations

WATER CLOSETS (WCs)

There are three main types of WC, depending on the location of the water tank or
cistern: high level, low level, and close coupled.

High-level WCs are the least acceptable visually for modem domestic use, because of
the long flush pipe connecting the cistern to the WC pan. They are, however, very
efficient at clearing the contents of the bowl because of the gravitational force created
by the lengthy vertical water movement. Both the high-level type and the low-level type
use simple wash-down pans, as shown in the figure.

The water retained by the WC pan creates a seal or trap, which prevent foul air from the
disposal pipe system to enter the building.

For simple wash-down pans, the style of the trap is similar only that the direction of the
discharge varies. In the 'P' trap pan, the outlet is fairly close to the horizontal, and this
gives an overall 'P' profile to the sectional view. By contrast, where the outlet from the
pan is vertical, an 'S' profile is produced.

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Figure 11 Types of WC

In the close-coupled arrangement, the gravitational force of the water falling from the
cistern is relatively small, and assistance to the expulsion of the bowl's contents may be
provided by the siphonic action of a siphonic WC pan. This is provided by the outlet
channels inside the WC base which, in comparison with those in wash-down pans, are
narrower and more twisting. This design encourages siphonic suction forces to develop,
and as discharge commences this will provides the additional forces to clear the bowl
contents.

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URINALS

The various forms of Urinals are: Stalls; Slab; and Bowl.

Figure 12 Types of Urinals

Stalls offer a degree of privacy in use, but they occupy more space than the slab type.
Bowl urinals however, are relatively small, and therefore provide the least attendant
cleaning commitment, and involve the least initial costs.

Whatever type is installed, there will be provision for washing of the urinal by water,
which is usually supplied under gravitational pressure from a water cistern mounted on
the wall above. With the stall and bowl urinals, the cleaning water is distributed by a
spreader on the end of the water supply pipe. With the slab urinal, coverage of the flat
face is ensured by the use of a holed sparge (sprinkle) pipe, as illustrated in the figure.

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WASHBASINS

Varieties of washbasins arise from the nature of the support given to the basin. The
figure below shows three typical forms: the pedestal; bracket and leg; cantilever.

In the pedestal basin, the ceramic pedestal that supports the basin is U-shaped in plan
and provides a route for the concealment of the hot and cold water pipes as they are
brought up to connect to the taps. Additional stability is provided by screwing this type
of basin to the wall.

Where a public facility requires the provision of a number of washbasins, an alternative

is to have basins fixed in close proximity, sometimes with a jointing cover strip of
ceramic material between them. Such arrangement is generally referred to as a RANGE
OF BASINS.

Figure 13 Sanitary appliances: Washbasins

SINKS

Sinks are used for a variety of purposes, including laundry, culinary (relating to
food/cooking), cleaning and laboratory, as well as normal domestic use. The material of
the unit normally reflects the nature of the application; glazed fireclay, stainless steel,
and Glass Reinforced Plastics (GRP) are commonly found.

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Fireclay tends to be associated with the older and now largely displaced domestic sinks,
such as the Belfast type. Cleaner's sinks and laboratory sinks also typically use fireclay,
which is very strong for these situations. The figure under, illustrates a Belfast sink and
its more modern steel counterpart.

Figure 14 Sanitary appliances: Sinks

Taps provided are typically the pillar variety, although the bib taps, which are attached
to the wall rather than the sink itself, are common with cleaner's sinks.

Figure 15 Bib, Pillar & Mixer taps

BATHS

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Baths were traditionally formed in cast iron with a porcelain enameled finish, but
nowadays acrylics are preferred, being light and cheaper. The former in its original form
was traditionally in Roll-top design, but in more recent years a flattop profile has been
adopted irrespective of the materials employed.

As the bath is a large-capacity appliance, the water supplies are carried in 22 mm

copper pipes, while other appliances only require a 15 mm connection. This is so
because the bath should fill in a reasonable time and have a good water supply. There is
the need to install an adequate overflow system, which is by a corrugated flexible hose
that connect to the waste trap below the water line.

A shortened version of a bath is available in the form of the sitz profile (called Sitz bath
or Therapeutic bath), and this may prove useful in certain circumstances, such as limited
space or where the user's mobility is restricted.

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Figure 16 Baths: a) Roll-top; b) Sitz/Therepeutic

DRAINAGE ABOVE GROUND

This section is concerned with the pipework systems that are used to convey the
charges of sanitary appliances down to the below-ground drainage system. These
systems are sometimes referred to as disposal installation pipework or waste and soil
pipework.

For the system of pipework to operate efficiently, a number of criteria need to be

considered in the design, like the discharge capacity of each appliance connected to the
system and the frequency with which each appliance is used.

The diameter of common pipes (such as vertical stacks) is of particular concern to the
designer, as allowance must be made for the cumulative effect of all the discharges to
be carried. To aid the selection of the correct pipe diameter, a theoretical weighting of
discharge unit values has been developed. The weighting system reflects the appliance
discharge capacity and the likely frequency of use. As an example, typical discharge unit
values for hotel premises are shown below:

By adding the discharge unit values for all the appliances connected to a stack, suitable
stack diameter can be taken from tabulated data.

WASTE AND SOIL PIPEWORK CONNECTIONS

Form the variety of different pipework arrangements possible for the collection of
discharges for sanitary appliances, there are three major classifications:

Single-stack systems

One-pipe system

Two-pipe system

Single-stack system, shown below, is a solution employed extensively in domestic

housing. The stack in this arrangement may be located inside or outside the external
wall of the property, and terminates above roof eaves level with a cage or perforated

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cover. At this point the stack acts as a means of ventilating the below-ground drainage
system, which commences at the base of the stack.

Figure 17 Single-stack disposal installation

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GAS INSTALLATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Gas is converted from its primary fuel state into useful energy at the point of use. It is
conveyed in a one-way pipe system and is not returned to the supplier as are electricity
and water.

NATURAL GAS

Natural gas supplies originate from decaying organic matter found beneath the sea
level. (E.g. in UK, it is found 3km below the North Sea). Extract is by drilling rigs and
pipelines to the shore. On shore it is pressurized to about 5 kPa throughout a national
pipe network.

PROPERTIES OF NATURAL GAS

The composition below will vary slightly according to source location. But all gases are
combustible except for nitrogen.

Methane 89.5%

Ethane 4.5%

Propane 1.0%

Pentane 0.5%

Butane 0.5%

Nitrogen 3.5%

Carbon dioxide 0.5%

GAS UTILIZATION

AIM: study current utilization of gas for domestic purpose

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Gas utilization in Nigeria is a subject that has come into limelight in recent times. It has
become an important subject in Nigeria due to the government’s desire to diversify the
economy which is mainly dependent on crude oil.

Gas utilization entails devising a strategy for converting natural gas from the production
field to several utilization options for economic and environmental benefits. The use of
gas is driven by a number of factors like:

Environmental pressures for the use of gas which is a relatively CLEAN fuel in
comparison to crude oil or coal

Growing energy demand from an expanding/diversifying domestic (Nigerian) economy

An abundant gas reserve (Nigeria’s natural gas reserve stands at 180.1 trillion cubic feet)

Improving technologies for the production, transportation and conversion of natural gas
to useful end products

GAS UTILIZATION OPTIONS

The options for natural gas utilization include the following:

Compressed natural gas (CNG) production

CNG produced by compressing natural gas (which is mainly composed of methane), to

less than 1% of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored and
distributed in hard containers at a pressure of 200- 248 bar, usually in cylindrical or
spherical containers and mainly used as vehicle fuel.

Gas to liquid (GTL) production

This process involves the chemical transformation of the Methane-rich natural gases
either into liquid synthetic fuels (like diesel, kerosene etc) or into chemicals (like
methanol etc)

Gas to Power or Wire (GTP or GTW)

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Gas-to-wire project involves the process by which gas is used to generate electricity by
turning turbines and then transmitting over long distances to consumers.

Gas to Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

This is mostly a combination of propane and butane obtained from natural gas during
gas processing. Also used as cooking gas

Others are:

Gas to Petrochemicals

Gas to natural gas liquids

GAS UTILIZATION IN NIGERIA

Gas utilization in Nigeria is divided into three (3) groups. They are:

For Domestic (Within Nigeria) uses in areas like steel plant; fertilizer plant; Aluminum
plant; cement production; LPG market(household usage); and many others

Export to other countries through NLNG trains; West African gas pipeline e.t.c

Power: that is Gas to power projects in Nigeria like Omotosho (335MW), Sapele
(500MW), and Calabar (561MW) e.t.c

GAS DISTRIBUTION FOR HOUSEHOLD USE

Gas distribution installation system basically involves conveying natural gas from main
trunk lines or city storage hubs to end users, within a locality. It is the final step of the
gas transmission and transportation process.

Depending on the level of gas transport infrastructural development in any region or

locality, a number of distribution options are available for distributing gas to the final
consumer. The available options include by;

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Pipelines

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

GAS DISTRIBUTION BY PIPELINES

This remains the most common means of distributing natural gas to end users in various
localities.

First, the gas is conveyed to long distances using TRUNK OR INTERSTATE gas pipelines;
however, for delivery to end consumers, gas pipelines of a smaller diameter called GAS
DISTRIBUTION NETWORK, with nominal diameter between 2 to 20 inches are used.

Again, depending on the consumer category, there is LOW-PRESSURE supply meant for
residential buildings; HIGH-PRESSURE, and MEDIUM-PRESSURE supply networks
designed for industrial plants.

The distribution networks (to homes and businesses) are usually installed underground
along streets and roadways. They have the least diameter among the various categories
of pipelines; they are also usually made from steel or modern plastic pipe.

Figure 18 Typical sizes of pipelines

GAS PIPELINE DISTRIBUTION IN US AND RUSSIA

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As at 2013, pipelines supplied more than 98 percent of the United States’ natural gas
needs from sources in North America, with more than two million miles of smaller low
pressure distribution pipelines to individual homes and businesses.

In 2016 in Russia, which has the largest gas transmission network in the world, the total
gas distribution networks is about 765, 000 kilometers.

Compare this with the distribution pipelines of the Nigerian Gas Company that cover a
total distance of 1,250 km within the major industrial areas of Western and Eastern parts
of Nigeria.

Figure 19 Example of Gas Pipeline installations

GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINES IN NIGERIA

Due to the low gas consumption, Nigeria gas distribution is still in its infancy stage

The whole of Africa account for ONLY 4% of global natural gas consumption, according
to the BP Statistical survey 2015. Out of that, Nigeria with the highest population,
accounts for a paltry 10.8%

Gas distribution in Nigeria is mainly operated by the Nigerian Gas Company (NGC), a
subsidiary of NNPC. Other local distribution companies are Gaslink Limited and Shell
Nigeria Gas
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COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS

In areas with inadequate pipeline distribution systems, compressed natural gas (CNG) is
one of the ways in which natural gas can be utilized and monetized.

CNG is usually stored and distributed in specialized cylinders mounted on trucks and
delivered to such locations

CGN is produced by compressing natural gas (which is mainly composed of methane),

to less than 1% of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It is mostly
used as vehicle fuel and for power generation

LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is the term applied to those hydrocarbons which are
vapors at room temperature and can be liquefied by compressing them slightly

When LPG is liquefied, its volume decreases considerably so that it requires much less
storage space

The liquid is transported in relatively light pressure cylinders and the customer converts
it to gas by opening the valve on the cylinder which causes the liquid to vaporise as a
result of a drop in cylinder pressure.

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LPG is composed of a mixture of mainly propane and butane (approximate ratio 60:40
by mass) but may contain some propylene and butylene as well as traces of ethane,
ethylene, pentane and butadiene.

LPG is odourless, colourless and non-toxic. However, to reduce the danger of an

explosion from undetected leaks, commercial LPG usually contains an odorizing agent
called ETHYL MERCAPTAN (such as ETHANETHIOL) which gives it a distinctive pungent
odour

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a means of distributing natural gas for use by end
users. In Nigeria, due to the absence of pipeline network systems for LPG distribution to
homes and other locations; LPG is distributed by trucks to retail hubs, where it is then
bottled in specialized cylinders for use by the end use

The LPG bottle is available in wide range of cylinder size to fit any appliance. E.g 3kg
cylinders; 12.5kg; 50kg cylinders

Figure 20 LPG Value chain

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