BCPC 112: INTRODUCTION TO

BUSINESS STATISTICS
LECTURE TWO

Organizing and Visualizing Data

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 1
 Learning Objectives

In this lecture, you learn:

 To develop tables and charts for numerical
data
 To develop tables and charts for categorical
data
 The principles of properly presenting graphs

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 2

 Organizing Data

 Data collected in original form is called raw data

 Raw data must be organized and visually represented
to make the information meaningful and easier to
understand.
 Frequency distributions and visual displays help reveal
trends, patterns, and key characteristics in the data.
 Organizing data allows for better comparison across
time, by different researchers, or from various sources.

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 3

Organizing Qualitative Data
Qualitative Data

Tallying Data

One Two or More

Categorical Categorical
Variable Variables

Summary Contingency
Table Table

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 4

 Summary Table

 A summary table indicates the frequency, amount, or percentage of items

in a set of categories so that you can see differences between categories.
Summary Table From A Survey of 1000 Twenty-five soldiers were given a
Banking Customers blood test to determine their blood
type

Banking Preference Percent Blood Type Frequency Percent

ATM 16% A 5 20%
Automated or live telephone 2% B 7 35%
Drive-through service at branch 17% O 9 45%
In person at branch 41% AB 4 16%
Internet 24% Total 25 100%

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 5

 Contingency Table

 Used to examine relationships between two or more

categorical variables.
 Displays a joint tally or cross-tabulation of responses for
the categorical variables.
 For two variables, one is represented by the rows and
the other by the columns of the table.

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 6

 Contingency Table
(Service Calls Example)
 A random sample of 400 Contingency Table Showing the
Frequency of Customer Service Calls
customer service calls is by Duration and Issue Resolution
selected. Status
 Each call is classified as short, Issue Issue
Resolved Unresolved Total
moderate, or long in duration.
Short 170 20 190
 Each call is also reviewed to Calls
determine whether the issue Moderate 100 40 140
was resolved or unresolved. Calls

 The results are then Long Calls 65 5 70

summarized in the
contingency table shown to Total 335 65 400
the right.
Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 7
 Contingency Table Based on
Percentage of Overall Total
Issue Issue 42.50% = 170 / 400
Resolved Unresolved Total 25.00% = 100 / 400
16.25% = 65 / 400
Short 170 20 190
Calls
Moderate 100 40 140
Calls Issue Issue
Resolved Unresolved Total
Long Calls 65 5 70
Short 42.50% 5.00% 47.5%
Calls
Total 335 65 400 Moderate 25.00% 10.00% 35.0%
Calls
83.75% of sampled calls have issues
resolved and 47.50% of sampled calls are Long Calls 16.25% 1.25% 17.5%
short in duration.

Total 83.75% 16.25% 100.0%

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 8

 Contingency Table Based on
Percentage of Row Totals
Issue Issue 89.47% = 170 / 190
Resolved Unresolved Total 71.43% = 100 / 140
Short 170 20 190 92.86% = 65 / 70
Calls
Moderate 100 40 140
Calls Issue Issue
Resolved Unresolved Total
Long Calls 65 5 70
Short 89.47% 10.53% 100.0
Calls %
Total 335 65 400
Moderate 71.43% 28.57% 100.0
Moderate calls have a greater chance Calls %
(28.57%) of having issues unresolved than Long Calls 92.86% 7.14% 100.0
small (10.53%) or long (7.14%) calls. %

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 9

 Contingency Table Based on
Percentage of Column Total
Issue Issue
Resolved Unresolved Total 50.75% = 170 / 335
30.77% = 20 / 65
Short 170 20 190
Calls
Moderate 100 40 140
Calls Issue Issue
Long Calls 65 5 70 Resolved Unresolved

Short 50.75% 30.77%

Calls
Total 335 65 400
Moderate 29.85% 61.54%
There is a 61.54% chance that invoices Calls
with errors are of medium size.
Long Calls 19.40% 7.69%

Total 100.0% 100.0%

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 10
 Contingency Table
Pension Plan Example
Pension Plan
1 2 3 Total
classification

Salaried workers 182 213 203 598

Job

Hourly workers 154 138 110 402

Total 336 351 313 1 000

A company has to choose among three pension plans. Management, therefore,

decided to seek the opinions of a random sample of 1000 employees. The result is
shown in the table above. Pension Plan
classification 1 2 3 Total

Salaried workers 18.2% 21.3% 20.3% 59.8%

Job

Hourly workers 15.4% 13.8% 11.0% 40.2%

Total 33.6% 35.1% 31.3% 100.0%

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 11

Organizing Quantitative Data

Ordered Array

Frequency
Quantitative Data
Distribution

Cumulative
Distribution

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 Ordered Array

 An ordered array is a sequence of data, in rank order, from the

smallest value to the largest value.
 Shows range (minimum value to maximum value)
 May help identify outliers (unusual observations)
Day Students
16 17 17 18 18 18
Age of
Surveyed
19 19 20 20 21 22
College 22 25 27 32 38 42
Students Night Students
18 18 19 19 20 21
23 28 32 33 41 45
Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 13
 Frequency Distribution
 Class: Each category of the frequency distribution.
 Frequency: The number of data values falling within each
class.
 Class limits: The smallest and largest values that can actually
belong to a class.
 Class boundaries: These are the actual limits used to avoid
gaps between adjacent classes, especially when dealing with
continuous data..
 Class interval: The width of each class. This is the difference
between the lower limit of the class and the lower limit of
the next higher class.
 Class mark: The midpoint of each class. This is midway
between the upper and lower class limits.
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 Frequency Distribution

 The frequency distribution (grouped or ungrouped) is a summary table

in which the data are arranged into numerically ordered classes.

 Regarding grouped frequency distribution, you must give attention to

selecting the appropriate number of class groupings for the table,
determining a suitable width of a class grouping, and establishing the
boundaries of each class grouping to avoid overlapping.

 The number of classes depends on the number of values in the data. With
a larger number of values, typically there are more classes. In general, a
frequency distribution should have at least 5 but no more than 15 classes.

 To determine the width of a class interval, you divide the range (Highest
value–Lowest value) of the data by the number of class groupings desired.

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 15

 Example_ Ungrouped Frequency
Distribution
• Number of children per family
0 1 4 4 3 2 2 3 1 2 4 3 0 2 1 1 2 2
1 1 3 2 2 4 0 0 4 2 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 2
2 0 3 4 2 1 3 2 2 3 4 4 1 0 3 2 1 1

• Frequency distribution of the data in Table

Number of children Tally Frequency
0 //// / 6
1 //// //// // 12
2 //// //// //// /// 18
3 //// //// 10
4 //// /// 8
Total = 54

• This table is called a frequency table or a frequency distribution. It is so called

because it gives the frequency or number of times each observation occurs.

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 16

 Example 1_ Grouped Frequency
Distribution
A company that produces insulation products randomly selects 20
winter days to record the daily high temperatures, aiming to
analyze how their products perform under varying cold weather
conditions.
24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30, 32, 13, 12, 38, 41, 43, 44, 27, 53, 27

 Sort raw data in ascending order:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

 Find range: 58 - 12 = 46
 Select the number of desired classes: 5 (usually between 5
and 15)

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 17

 Example 1_ Grouped Frequency
Distribution
 Compute class interval (width): 10 (46/5 then round up)
 Determine class boundaries (limits):
 Class 1: 10 to less than 20
 Class 2: 20 to less than 30
 Class 3: 30 to less than 40
 Class 4: 40 to less than 50
 Class 5: 50 to less than 60
 Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55
 Count observations & assign to classes

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 18

 Example 1_ Grouped Frequency
Distribution
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Class Midpoints Frequency

10 but less than 20 15 3

20 but less than 30 25 6
30 but less than 40 35 5
40 but less than 50 45 4
50 but less than 60 55 2
Total 20

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 19

 Example 1_ Grouped Frequency
Distribution
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Relative Percentage
Class Frequency
Frequency
10 but less than 20 3 0.15 15%
20 but less than 30 6 0.30 30%
30 but less than 40 5 0.25 25%
40 but less than 50 4 0.20 20%
50 but less than 60 2 0.10 10%
Total 20 1.00 100%

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 20

 Example 1_ Grouped Frequency
Distribution
NB
1. Relative frequency distribution describes the proportion or percentage of data values that fall within each category.
2. Cumulative frequency is used to determine the number of observations that lie above (or below) a particular value in a data set.
3. Cumulative % finds the % of the number of observations that lie above (or below) a particular value in a data set.

Cumulative Cumulative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency Percentage

10 but less than 20 3 15% 3 15%

20 but less than 30 6 30% 9 45%
30 but less than 40 5 25% 14 70%
40 but less than 50 4 20% 18 90%
50 but less than 60 2 10% 20 100%
Total 20 100% 20

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 21

 Example 2_ Grouped Frequency
Distribution
The following data represent the record high temperatures for each of the 50
states. Construct a grouped frequency distribution for the data using 7 classes.

112 100 127 120 134 118 105 110 109 112
110 118 117 116 118 122 114 114 105 109
107 112 114 115 118 117 118 122 106 110
116 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111
120 113 120 117 105 110 118 112 114 114

 Find range: 134 - 100 = 34

 Compute class interval (width): 5 (34/7 then round up)
 For convenience’s sake, we will choose the lowest data value,
100, for the first lower class limit.

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 22

 Example 2_ Grouped Frequency
Distribution

The subsequent lower class limits are found by adding

the width to the previous lower class limits.

Class Limits
100 - 104
 The first upper class limit is one
105 - 109 less than the next lower class
110 - 114 limit.
115 - 119
120 - 124  The subsequent upper class
125 - 129 limits are found by adding the
130 - 134 width to the previous upper class
limits.
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 Example 2_ Grouped Frequency
Distribution
The class boundary is midway between an upper class
limit and a subsequent lower class limit.
104,104.5,105
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5
Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 24
 Example 2_ Grouped Frequency
Distribution
Tally the data.
Find the frequencies.
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1
Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 25
 Example 2_ Grouped Frequency
Distribution
Find the cumulative frequencies by keeping a
running total of the frequencies.
Class Class Cumulative
Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8 10
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18 28
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13 41
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7 48
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1 49
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1 50
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 Exercise 2.1

In a certain study, blood glucose levels (in mg/dl) of a sample of students of St.
Andrew High School were measured.
103 125 120 118 117 109 114 118 131 118
116 119 117 119 110 117 124 117 124 113
127 127 114 129 120 105 121 112 115 126
101 114 128 125 109 122 123 130 115 123

(a) State the population and the variable in the study.

(b) Make a frequency table of the data using the class intervals 100 – 104, 105 – 109,
110 – 114, …, 130 – 134.
(c) Obtain the class boundaries, class mid-points and class widths of the frequency
distribution in part (a).
(d) Find the relative frequencies and the cumulative frequencies of the frequency
distribution in part (a).

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 27

Why Use a Frequency Distribution?

 It condenses the raw data into a more

useful form
 It allows for a quick visual interpretation of
the data
 It enables the determination of the major
characteristics of the data set, including
where the data are concentrated/clustered

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 28

 Frequency Distributions
Some Tips

 Different class boundaries may provide different pictures for

the same data (especially for smaller data sets)

 Shifts in data concentration may show up when different

class boundaries are chosen

 As the size of the data set increases, the impact of

alterations in the selection of class boundaries is greatly
reduced

 When comparing two or more groups with different sample

sizes, you must use either a relative frequency or a
percentage distribution

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 29

Visualizing Qualitative Data
Qualitative Data

Visualizing Data

Summary Table Contingency

For One Variable Table For Two
Variables

Bar Pareto Side By Side Bar

Chart Pie Chart Chart Chart

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 The Bar Chart
 In a bar chart, a bar shows each category, the length of which
represents the amount, frequency or percentage of values falling
into a category which come from the summary table of the variable.

Banking Preference

Banking Preference? % Internet

ATM 16%
In person at branch
Automated or live 2%
telephone
Drive-through service at branch
Drive-through service at 17%
branch
In person at branch 41% Automated or live telephone

Internet 24%
ATM

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 31

 Practical Illustration Using MS Excel
(Bar Chart)

• Select both variables (together with their

heading)
• Insert, bar, 3-D column, ok
• Then label

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 32

 The Pie Chart
 The pie chart is a circle broken up into slices that represent categories.
The size of each slice of the pie varies according to the percentage in
each category.
Banking Preference

Banking Preference? %
16% ATM
ATM 16% 24%
Automated or live 2% 2% Automated or live
telephone telephone
Drive-through service at
Drive-through service at 17%
17% branch
branch
In person at branch
In person at branch 41%
Internet 24% Internet
41%

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 33

 The Pareto Chart

 Used to portray categorical data (nominal scale)

 A vertical bar chart, where categories are
shown in descending order of frequency
 A cumulative polygon is shown in the same
graph
 Used to separate the “vital few” from the “trivial
many”

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 34

 The Pareto Chart (con’t)

Pareto Chart For Banking Preference

100% 100%
% in each category

80% 80%

Cumulative %
(line graph)
(bar graph)

60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20%

0% 0%
In person Internet Drive- ATM Automated
at branch through or live
service at telephone
branch

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 35

 Practical Illustration Using MS Excel
(The Pareto Chart)

• Place cursor on one of the data series

• Click on filter series and select largest to smallest
• Calculate total
• Generate cumulative frequency
• Create and generate percentage column
• Highlight all percent data click on percent sign
• Highlight all data except cum freq
• Insert, recommended chart, ok

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 36

 The Component Bar Chart
The table shows the distribution of sales of agricultural produce from Asiedu Farm in
1995, 1996 and 1997. Illustrate the information with a component bar chart.

Palm oil

Sales (million dollars)

Cocoa

Coffee

1995 1996 1997

Year
A component bar chart of the data in Table 2.24

The sales of agricultural produce consist of three components: the sales of coffee,
cocoa, and palm oil. The component bar chart shows the changes of each component
over the years as well as the comparison of the total sales between different years.

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 37

 Side by Side Bar Charts
 The side by side bar chart represents the data from a contingency table.

No
Errors Errors Total
Invoice Size Split Out By Errors
Small 50.75% 30.77% 47.50%
& No Errors
Amount
Medium 29.85% 61.54% 35.00% Errors

Amount
Large 19.40% 7.69% 17.50% No Errors

Amount
0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 70.0%
100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Large Medium Small
Total

Invoices with errors are much more likely to be of

medium size (61.54% vs 30.77% and 7.69%)
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 Visualizing Quantitative Data

Quantitative Data

Frequency Distributions and

Ordered Array Cumulative Distributions

Stem-and-Leaf
Display Histogram Polygon Ogive

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 Stem-and-Leaf Display

 A simple way to see how the data are distributed

and where concentrations of data exist

METHOD: Separate the sorted data series

into leading digits (the stems) and
the trailing digits (the leaves)

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 40

 Stem and Leaf Display
 A stem-and-leaf display organizes data into groups (called
stems) so that the values within each group (the leaves)
branch out to the right on each row.
Age of College Students

Day Students Day Students Night Students

16 17 17 18 18 18 Stem Leaf
Age of Stem Leaf
19 19 20 20 21 22
Surveyed 1 67788899
22 25 27 32 38 42 1 8899
College
Students Night Students 2 0012257 2 0138
18 18 19 19 20 21
3 28 3 23
23 28 32 33 41 45
4 2
4 15

• All the measurements are two-digit numbers leading to one-digit stems

and one-digit leaves.
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 Double Stem-and-Leaf Display

 Double stem and leaf plots are used to compare

two distributions side-by-side

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 The Histogram

 A vertical bar chart of the data in a frequency distribution is

called a histogram.

 In a histogram there are no gaps between adjacent bars.

 The class boundaries (or class midpoints) are shown on the

horizontal axis.

 The vertical axis is either frequency, relative frequency, or

percentage.

 The height of the bars represent the frequency, relative

frequency, or percentage.
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 The Histogram

Relative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency

10 but less than 20 3 .15 15

20 but less than 30 6 .30 30
30 but less than 40 5 .25 25
40 but less than 50 4 .20 20 8
50 but less than 60 2 .10 10 Histogram: Age Of Students
Total 20 1.00 100
6

Frequency
4
(In a relative/percentage
histogram the vertical axis
would be defined to show 2
the relative
frequency/percentage of
observations per class) 0
5 15 25 35 45 55 More

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 44

 How to do histogram in excel

• Highlight/select data with names

• Insert
• Histogram
Or
• Highlight/select data with names
• Insert
• Choose Chart-bar chart
• Click on series option (bar icon)
• Reduce series width to 0%
Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 45
 The Polygon

 A percentage polygon is formed by having the midpoint of

each class represent the data in that class and then connecting
the sequence of midpoints at their respective class
percentages.

 The cumulative percentage polygon, or ogive, displays the

variable of interest along the X axis, and the cumulative
percentages along the Y axis.

 Useful when there are two or more groups to compare.

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 46

 The Frequency Polygon
Class
Class Midpoint Frequency

10 but less than 20 15 3

20 but less than 30 25 6
30 but less than 40 35 5 Frequency Polygon: Age Of Students
40 but less than 50 45 4
50 but less than 60 55 2
7
Frequency 6
5
4
3
2
(In a percentage polygon 1
the vertical axis would be 0
defined to show the 5 15 25 35 45 55 65
percentage of
Class Midpoints
observations per class)

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 47

 How to do Polygon on Excel

• Generate class midpoints

• Generate frequencies of classes
• Insert horizontal row at top and bottom of frequency and
place zero (0) in those two places
• Highlight both classes and frequencies
• Insert, line graph, ok
• Then label graph
• To label classes, right click horizontal axis, select data, edit,
copy names/class names from table (including empty space
for zeros rows created)

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 48

 The Ogive (Cumulative % Polygon)
Lower % less
class than lower
Class boundary boundary
10 but less than 20 10 15
20 but less than 30 20 45
30 but less than 40 30 70
40 but less than 50 40 90
50 but less than 60 50 100 Ogive: Age Of Students

Cumulative Percentage
100
80
60
40
(In an ogive the percentage of 20
the observations less than 0
each lower class boundary are
plotted versus the lower class 10 20 30 40 50 60
boundaries.

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 How to do Ogive on Excel

Generate class midpoints and cumulative frequency

Insert a new row and place zero (0), to become first cum freq.
value
Then based on the existing midpoints, generate a new class for
the new zero frequency
Highlight both classes/midpoints and cum. Freq.
Insert, Line graph, ok
OR
Highlight cumulative frequency alone, insert, line graph, ok
And then edit class names and label

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 50

 The Scatter Plot

 Scatter plots are used for numerical data consisting of paired

observations taken from two numerical variables

 One variable is measured on the vertical axis and the other

variable is measured on the horizontal axis

 Scatter plots are used to examine possible relationships

between two numerical variables

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 Example_Scatter Plot

Volume Cost per

per day day Cost per Day vs. Production Volume
23 125
250
26 140
200
Cost per Day

29 146
150
33 160
100
38 167
50
42 170
0
50 188
20 30 40 50 60 70
55 195
Volume per Day
60 200

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 The Time Series Plot

 A Time Series Plot is used to study

patterns in the values of a numeric
variable over time

 The Time Series Plot:

 Numeric variable is measured on the

vertical axis and the time period is

measured on the horizontal axis

Emmanuel Kpeglo (Ph.D.) 22/05/2025 53

 Example_Time Series Plot

Number of
Year Franchises Number of Franchises, 1996-2004
120
1996 43
100
1997 54

Franchises
Number of
80
1998 60 60
1999 73 40

2000 82 20
0
2001 95
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
2002 107 Year
2003 99
2004 95

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