RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Definition x=
( )
A function f is rational if f(x) = ( )
, where g(x) Domain = {x is real except x = }
and h(x) are polynomials. In other words, a
rational function is a ratio of two polynomials
2. f(x) =
in which the denominator is not zero.
Let 2x + 1 = 0
Rational Functions and their Domain 2x = - 1
The domain of f(x) consists of all real numbers x=
except the zeros of the denominator h(x). In
other words, the domain is the set of all real 3. f(x) =
numbers that can be used in place of the
Let 9x + 1 = 0
variable.
9x = -1

Steps; x=
1. Equate the denominator, h(x) to zero and Domain = {x is real except x ≠ }
solve for the value of x.
2. The value of x (or the involving variable)
4. f(x) =
obtained is not part of the domain if it makes
the denominator zero. Let x2 – 4 = 0
x2 – 22 = (x + 2) (x – 2) = 0
In a rational function, the denominator cannot ⇒x = 2 or x = -2
be equal to zero because that would be Domain = {x is real except x = 2 or x = -2)
undefined. Find which numbers that make the
fraction undefined by creating an equation The Range
The range of a rational function is the same as
whose denominator is not equal to zero.
the domain of the inverse function. Hence to
find the range:
Worked Examples
1. Find the inverse of the function.
Determine the domain of the following:
2. Find the domain of the inverse function.
1. f(x) = 3. f(x) =
2. f(x) = 4. f(x) = Worked Examples
Determine the range of the following:
Solution 1. f(x) = 2. f(x) =
1.
Let 3x – 8 = 0 Solutions
3x = 8 f(x) =
f(x) = y 3. f(x) = 6. f(x) =
y=
y (3x – 8) = 4x + 5 (change subject to x) Evaluating Rational Functions
3xy – 8y = 4x + 5 A rational function involving a variable has no
3xy – 4x = 8y + 5 value unless a value is assigned to the variable.
x(3y – 4) = 8y + 5 Once the variable is given a value, the rational
x= function can be evaluated.
–

Worked Examples
Now, let 3y – 4 = 0
3y = 4 1. Find the value of f(x) = for x = -3

y=
Solution
Range = { y : y R, y ≠ }
f(x) =
When x = -3
4. f(x) = ( )
f(x) = ( )
= = 13
Let y = (Solve for x)

y=( )( ) 2. If R(x) = , find R(4).

y= (Change subject to y)

y (x – 2 ) = 1 Solution
x y – 2y = 1 R(x) =
x y = 2y + 1 ( )
R(4) = ( )
=2
y=
Range = {y : y R, y ≠ 0} Exercises 6.2
A. Evaluate each of the following.
Exercises 6.1
1. f(x) = for x = -2
A. Find the domain of the following rational
functions. 2. f(x) = for x = 5
1. f(x) = ( )(
4. f(x) = +5
)
3. R(x) = , find R(3)
2. f(x) = 5. f(x) =
4. f(x) = , find R(-1)
3. f(x) = 6. f(x) = √
B. Find the range.
B. 1. If R(x) = , find R(3), R(5), R(2.05)
1. f(x) = 4. f(x) = +5
and R(1.999)
2. f(x) = 5. f(x) =
2. Given that f(x) = , find f(2), f(- 4), 2. Simplify f(mn) =
f(-3.02), f(-2.96)
Solution
Reducing Rational Functions ( )( )
f(mn) = = ( )
The steps involved in reducing rational
functions are;
1. Factor the numerator and denominator But = -1
completely. f(x) = (m + n) (-1)
2. Divide the numerator and denominator by f(x) = - m – n
the greatest common factor.
Exercises 6.3
Worked Examples Reduce each of the following.
1. Simplify f(x) = 1. f(x) = 4. f(x) =

Solution 2. f(x) = 5. f(x) =

( )( )
f(x) = = ( )
= = 3. f(x) = 6. f(xy) =
( )

2. Simplify f(w) = Identity

If two rational functions are equivalent, then
Solution they have the same numerical value for any
( ) replacement of the variable, conditioned not to
f(w) = =( =
)( ) give a zero denominator. For example, given
that f(x) = and g(x) = . Since f(x) =
Involving Rational Functions of Two
g(x), it implies that = . This is
Variables
Worked Examples satisfied by all real numbers except -3. The
1. Simplify f(xy) = equation is therefore an identity.

Multiplication of Rational Functions

Solution Rational functions are multiplied the same way
( )
f(xy) = = as rational numbers and rational expressions.
( )
With rational functions, we can factor, reduce
But =-1 and then multiply.
Worked Examples
f(xy) = (-1)
1. If f(x) = and g(x) = , find the
f(xy) = product of f(x) and g(x).
 5. f(x) = and g(x) =
Solution
f(x) = and g(x) = ,
Division of Rational Functions
f(x) . g(x) = . , Division of rational functions is similar to that
of rational numbers. Invert the divisor and
( )( )
= . , multiply, not forgetting to factor and reduce
( )
where possible.
( )( )
= .( )(
,
)
( )
Worked Examples
= . ,
Given that f(x) = and g(x) =
= ( )
Find f(x) ÷ g(x).

= Solution
f(x) = and g(x) =
2. Given that f(xy) = and g(xy) = ,
find f(xy) . g(xy) f(x) ÷ g(x) = ÷

= ×
Solution
f(xy) = and g(xy) = , = ×
( )
f(xy) . g(xy) = . , ( )( ) ( )( )
= ( )
×
( )
= .( )(
,
) ( )( ) ( – )
= ×
= . ,
( )( )
= =
( )
=
Exercises 6.4
In each of the following, find the product of =
f(x) and g(x)
1. f(x) = x2 – 6x + 9 and g(x) =
Exercise 6.5
2 ( )
2. f(x) = and g(x) = 4x + 20x + 25 In each of the following, find ( )
( )
3. f(x) = and g(x) = 1. f(x) = and g(x) =

4. f(x) = and g(x) = 2. f(x) = and g(x) =

3. f(x) = and g(x) = x2 – 9 =

4. f(x) = 2x2 – 3x – 5 and g(x) =

Type 2 (Different Denominators)
5. f(x) = 6x2 – x – 2 and g(x) = Add or subtract numerators whilst the lowest
common denominator is maintained. Simplify
Addition and Subtraction of Rational where possible.
Function
Type 1 (Identical Denominators) Worked Examples
Add or subtract numerators whilst a common 1. Given that f(x) = and g(x) = , find
denominator is maintained. Simplify where f(x) + g(x)
possible.
Solution
Worked Examples f(x) = and g(x) = ,
1. Given that f(x) = and g(x) = , find :
f(x) + g(x) = + ,
f(x) + g(x)
= + (
,
)
Solution
f(x) = and g(x) = , = ( )( )
+ (
,
)
( )
f(x) + g(x) = + = = =2 =
( )
( )( )

2. If f(x) = and g(x) = , = ( )( )

( )( ) ( )( )
find f(x) – g(x) = ( )( )

Solution
2. Given that f(x) = and g(x) = , find:
f(x) = and g(x) =
( )( ) ( )( )
f(x) – g(x)

f(x) – g(x) = – Solution

( )( ) ( )( )
( ) f(x) = and g(x) = ,
= ( )( )
f(x) – g(x) = – ,
= ( )
( )( )
= – ,
( )
=( )( ) = – ,
( )( )
= ( )( ) =
= 1. =
2. = +
( )
Exercise 6.6
3. ( )(
= + +
)
A. Given that f(x) = ,
4. ( )( )( )
= + + + ,
g(x) = ,
5. ( )( )( )
= + +
h(x) = .
where the numerators at the R.H.S. are
Simplify the following, leaving your answer in constants to be found.
factors;
1. f(x) + g(x) 4. g(x) – f(x) Worked Examples
2. f(x) + h(x) 5. h(x) – f(x) Find the partial fraction decomposition of the
3. g(x) + h(x) 6. h(x) – g(x) following:

B. Find the domain and zeros of the functions 1. 2.

( )( )
defined in questions 1 to 6 of A 3. 4.
( )( )( )

Partial Fractions
Consider the identity below: Solutions
= + 1. = +
( )( )

By adding the fractions and , we obtain

Multiply through by the least common
. The expression on the R.H.S. of the denominator, (x – 2) (x + 3).
equation is called the partial fraction . (x – 2) (x + 3) = . (x – 2) (x + 3)
( )( )
decomposition of .
+ . (x – 2) (x + 3)
( ) ⇒8x – 1 = A(x + 3) + B(x – 2)
For partial fraction decomposition of ( )
to be
found, it is essential that f(x) have lower degree When x = -3
than g(x). If this is not the case, use long 8(-3) – 1 = A(-3 + 3) + B(-3 – 2)
division to obtain such expression. For -24 – 1 = 0 + (-5B)
example, given , we obtain -25 = -5 B
B=5
=x–6+
Type I: A Partial fraction decomposition in When x = 2
which each denominator is linear 8(2) – 1 = A(2 + 3) + B(2 – 2)
A rational expression with a linear denominator 16 – 1 = 5A + 0
is decomposed on the R.H.S. as shown below. 15 = 5A
A=3 B = -2

Now Put A = 3 and B = 5 in When x = 3,

= + 11(3) + 12 = C[2(3) + 3](3 + 2)
( )( )
33 + 12 = C(6 + 3) (5)
⇒( = +
)( ) 45 = C(9) (5)
45 = 45C
2. C=1

⇒ = + (Multiply through by lcd) When x = ,

( ) ( )
2
3x – 16 = A(x – 4) + Bx
11. / + 12 = A. /. /
When x = 4, =A. /. /
3(4)2 – 16 = A(4 – 4) + 4B
=A. /
48 – 16 = 4B
32 = 4B =
B=8 18A = 36
A=2
Now, when x = 0 and B = 8 Substitute A = 2, B = -2 and C = 1
3(0)2 – 16 = A(0 – 4) + 8(0)
in ( )( )( )
= + +
-16 = - 4A
A=4 = + +
( )( )( )

Substitute A = 4 and B = 8 in
= +( The partial fraction decomposition is;
( ) )

⇒ = + = – –
( )( )( )
( ) ( )

3. = + + 4.
( )( )( )
( )( )( )
11x + 12 = +
Factorize the denominator to obtain a quadratic
( )( )( ) ( )( )( ) expression;
+
x3 – 2x2 – 3x = x (x2 – 2x – 3)
11x + 12 = A(x + 2)(x – 3) + B(2x + 3)(x – 3) +
C(2x + 3)(x + 2) By factorization,
When x = -2, x2 – 2x – 3 = (x + 1) (x – 3)
11(-2) + 12 = B[2(-2) + 3](-2 – 3) x3 – 2x2 – 3x = x (x + 1) (x – 3)
- 22 + 12 = B(- 4 + 3)(- 5) = + +
( )
-10 = 5B
 ( )( ) ( )( ) Solution
4x2 + 13x – 9 = + +
( )( )
= +
( )( )
Multiplying throughout by (2x + 3)(x − 1),
7x + 8 = A(x − 1) + B(2x + 3).
4x2 + 13x – 9 = A(x + 1)(x – 3) + Bx(x – 3) +
Cx(x + 1) Substituting x = 1
7 + 8 = B(2 + 3).
15 = 5B
When x = 3, B = 3.
4(3)2 + 13(3) – 9 = 0 + 0 + C[3(3 + 1)]
36 + 39 – 9 = 12C Substituting x =
66 = 12C
7. / + 8 = A . /
C=
= A
A=1
When x = -1,
4(-1)2 + 13(-1) – 9 = 0 + B[-1(-1 – 3)] + 0 = +
( )( )
4 – 13 – 9 = 4B
- 18 = 4B
.Exercises 6.7
B=
A. Express in partial fractions:
1. ( )( )
2. ( )( )
When x = 0,
4(0)2 + 13(0) – 9 = A (0 + 1) (0 – 3) + 0 + 0 3. 4. ( )( )
- 9 = A (1) (-3)
-9 = - 3 A
A=3 B. Resolve into partial fractions:
1. 4.
Substitute A = 3, B = and C = in
2. 5.
= + + ( )( )
( )
3. ( )( )( )
6. ( )( )
⁄ ⁄
⇒ = + +
( )
The partial fraction decomposition is; Challenge Problems
Resolve into partial fractions :
= – +
( ) ( ) ( )
1. 3. ( )( )( )

5. Express the rational function ( in

)( ) 2. 4. ( )( )( )
partial fractions.
Type II: A Partial fraction decomposition
containing a repeated linear factor Alternatively;
A rational expression whose denominator From 2x + 3 = A(x – 1) + B
contains a repeated linear factor is decomposed 2x + 3 = Ax – A + B
on the R.H.S. as shown below. when x = 0, and B = 5
1. = + +( 2(0) + 3 = A(0) – A + 5
( ) )
3=-A+5
2. = + + + , A= 5 – 3
( ) ( ) ( )
A=2
3. ( )
= +( )
+( )
, The partial fraction is: ( = +(
) )
where the numerators at the R.H.S. are
constants to be found. 2. = + +(
( ) )
Multiply through by lcd;
Worked Examples
Find the partial fraction decomposition of the x(x – 3)2 = x(x – 3)2 + x(x – 3)2
( )
following:
+ x(x – 3)2
( )
1. ( 2.
) ( ) ⇒x2 + 10x – 36 = A(x – 3)2 + Bx(x – 3) + Cx
x2 + 10x – 36 = A(x2 – 6x+ 9) + B(x2 – 3x) + Cx
Solution x2 + 10x – 36 = Ax2 – 6Ax+9A + Bx2 – 3Bx + Cx
1. = +( x2 + 10x – 36 = Ax2 + Bx2 – 6Ax –3Bx + Cx+ 9A
( ) )
By regrouping;
x2 + 10x – 36 = (A + B)x2 + (–6A –3B + C)x+ 9A
(x – 1)2 = (x – 1)2 + (x – 1)2
( ) ( )
2x + 3 = A(x – 1) + B Equating coefficients, the following is obtained;
A + B = 1……………………(1)
When x = 1 - 6A – 3B + C = 10………….(2)
2(1) + 3 = A(1 – 1) + B 9A = - 36…………………….(3)
5=0+B
B=5 From equation 3,
9A = -36
Now, when x = 0, and B = 5 A=-4

Substitute in 2x + 3 = A(x – 1) + B Put A = - 4 in eqn (1);

2(0) + 3 = A(0 – 1) + 5 -4+B=1
3=-A+5 B=1+4
A=5–3 B=5
A=2 Put A = - 4, and B = 5 in eqn (2);
- 6(- 4) – 3(5) + C = 10
24 – 15 + C = 10
9 + C = 10 By expansion;
C = 10 – 9 = 1 3[x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1] + B(x – 2) (x2 + 2x + 1) +
C(x2 + x – 2x – 2 ) + (x – 2)
The partial fraction is:
3[x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1] + B (x3 + 2x2 + x –2x2 – 4x
= + +(
( ) ) – 2) + C(x2 + x – 2x – 2 ) + (x – 2)

3. Express ( in partial fractions 3[x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1] + B (x3 – 3x – 2) + C(x2 – x

)( ) – 2) + (x – 2)
3x3 + 9x2 + 9x + 3 + Bx3 – 3Bx – 2B + Cx2 –
Solution Cx – 2C + x – 2
( )( )
= + +( )
+( )
3x3 + Bx3 + 9x2 + Cx2 + 9x + x – 3Bx – Cx – 2B
– 2C + 3 – 2
( )(
= + +( +(
) ) )
3x + x + 1 = A(x + 1) + B (x – 2) (x + 1)2 + C
3 3
3x3 + Bx3 + 9x2 + Cx2 + 10x – 3Bx – Cx – 2B –
(x – 2) (x + 1) + D (x – 2) 2C + 1

When x = -1; (3 + B)x3 + (9 + C)x2 + (10 – 3B – C)x – 2(B +

3 (-1)3 + (-1) + 1 = A(-1 + 1)3 + B (-1 – 2) (-1 + C) + 1
1)2 + C (-1 – 2) (-1 + 1) + D (-1– 2)
-3 – 1 + 1 = -3 D Comparing L. H. S and R. H. S;
-3 = -3D That is comparing 3x3 + x + 1 to (3 + B)x3 + (9
D=1 + C)x2 + (10 – 3B – C)x – 2(B + C) + 1

When x = 2; Equating coefficients;

3(2)3 + (2) + 1 = A(2 + 1)3 + B (2 – 2) (2 + 1)2 3 + B = 3…………..…(1)
+ C (2 – 2) (2 + 1) + D (2 – 2) 9 + C = 0…………….(2)
24 + 2 + 1 = A (3)3 10 – 3B – C = 1……..(3)
27 = 9A
A=3 From eqn (1);
B = 0;
Considering the R.H.S.
A(x + 1)3 + B (x – 2) (x + 1)2 + C (x – 2) (x + 1) From eqn (2);
+ D (x – 2) C = -9

Substitute A = 3 and D = 1 When B = 0 and C = -9, eqn (3) is satisfied.

3(x + 1)3 + B (x – 2) (x + 1)2 + C (x – 2) (x + 1) = + + +
( )( ) ( ) ( )
+ 1 (x – 2)
 = – +( Exercises 6.8
( )( ) ( ) )
Resolve into partial fractions.
4. Express the rational function ( ) (
in
) 1. 4.
( ) ( ) ( )
partial fractions.
2. 5.
Solution

( ) ( )
= +( + 3. ( 6.
)
) ( )
2
9 = A(x + 1) (x – 2) + B(x – 2) + C(x + 1)
B. Express in partial fractions;
When x = -1
9 = A(-1 + 1) (-1 – 2) + B(-1 – 2) + C(-1 + 1)2 1. 2.
( ) ( )( )
9 = -3B 3. ( 4. (
)( ) )( )
B = -3

When x = -2 Challenge Problem

9 = A(2 + 1) (2 – 2) + B(2 – 2) + C(2 + 1)2 1. Find the values of A, B, C, D, if
9 = C (3)2 = + + +
( )( ) ( ) ( )
9 = 9C
C=1
Type III: A Partial fraction decomposition
containing an irreducible quadratic factor
When B = -3 and C = 1;
A rational expression whose denominator
9 = A(x + 1) (x – 2) + -3(x – 2) + 1(x + 1)2
contains an irreducible quadratic factor is
9 = A(x2 – 2x + x – 2) – 3x + 6 + (x2 + 2x + 2)
decomposed on the R.H.S. as shown below;
9 = A (x2 – x – 2) – 3x + 6 + x2 + 2x + 2
9 = Ax2 – Ax – 2A – 3x + 6 + x2 + 2x + 2 1. ( )
= +
9 = Ax2 + x2 – Ax – 3x + 2x – 2A + 6 + 2
2. ( =( +
9 = Ax2 + x2 – Ax – x – 2A + 8 )( ) )
9 = x2 (A + 1) – x (A + 1) – 2A + 8
Worked Examples
9 = -2A + 8 1. Find the partial fraction decomposition of
2A = 9 – 8
2A = 1
A=
Solution
The partial fraction decomposition is:
⁄
= +( +
( ) ( ) ) x3+ 2x = x(x2 + 2) (Factorize the denominator)
( ) ( )
= –( + = + ( Decompose the expression)
( ) )
Multiply through by lcd, x(x2 + 2) =2+
⇒9x2 – 3x + 8 = A(x2 + 2) + (Bx + C)x
= x2(2x – 1) + 4(2x – 1)
= Ax2 + 2A + Bx2 + Cx
= (x2 + 4) (2x – 1)
= Ax2 + Bx2 + Cx + 2A
= (A + B)x2 + Cx + 2A
By decomposition,

Now, equating coefficients; ⇒ = +

9x2 – 3x + 8 = (A + B)x2 + Cx + 2A
A + B = 9 ……………(1) Multiply both sides by (x2 + 4) (2x – 1)
C = -3 ………………..(2) x2 – x – 21 = (Ax + B) (2x – 1) + C(x2 + 4)
2A = 8………………..(3) = 2x(Ax + B) – 1 (Ax + B) + C(x2+ 4C)
= 2Ax2 + 2Bx – Ax - B + Cx2 + 4C
From eqn (3), = 2Ax2 + Cx2 – Ax + 2Bx – B + 4C
A=4
x2 – x – 21= (2A + C) x2+ (-A + 2B)x – B + 4C
Put A = 4 into eqn (1);
4+B=9 Now, equating coefficients in
B=9–4 x2 – x – 21 = (2A + C)x2 + (-A + 2B)x – B + 4C
B=5 2A + C = 1 ……………(1)
-A + 2B = -1……………(2)
Substitute A = 4, B = 5 and C = -3 into - B + 4C = -21………….(3)
= +
From eqn (1);
⇒ = + C = 1 – 2A…………….(4)

Put eqn (4) into eqn (3);

2. Resolve into partial fractions. -B + 4(1 – 2A) = -21
- B + 4 – 8A = - 21……(5)
Solution
In ; From eqn (2);
- A = - 1 – 2B
Degree of numerator is equal to degree of
A = 1 + 2B…………..…(6)
denominator.

Put eqn (6) into eqn (5);

Therefore, long division is required.
- B + 4 – 8(1 + 2B) = -21
2 - B + 4 – 8 – 16B = -21
3 2
2x – x + 15x – 29 4x3 – x2 + 15x - 29 -17B – 4 = - 21
4x3 – 2x2 + 16x - 8 -17B = -17
x2 – x – 21 B=1
Put B = 1 in eqn (2); Equating coefficients;
- A + 2B = -1 3x2 + 9 = A(x2 + 2x + 7) + (Bx + C)(x − 5).
- A + 2(1) = -1
-A+2=-1 3x2 + 9 = Ax2 + 2Ax + 7A + Bx2 + Cx – 5Bx – 5C
- A = -1 – 2 3x2 + 9 = Ax2 + Bx2 + 2Ax – 5Bx + Cx + 7A – 5C
-A=-3 3x2 + 9 = (A + B)x2 + (2A – 5B + C)x + 7A – 5C
A=3 A + B = 3…………………….(1)
2A – 5B + C = 0……………….(2)
Put A = 3 into eqn (1); 7A – 5C = 9……………………(3)
2(3) + C = 1
6+C=1 From eqn (1);
C=1–6 A+B=3
C = -5 2 + B = 3 (But A = 2)
B=3–2
Substitute A = 3, B = 1 and C = - 5 into B=1

⇒ = + From equation (2);

Substitute A = 2 and B = 1
= = +
2(2) – 5(1) + C = 0
4–5+C=0
The partial fraction of the expression is; -1 + C = 0
C=1
=2+ -

Substitute A = 2, B = 1 and C = 1
3. Express the rational function ( )( )
( )(
= +
)
in partial fractions.
Exercises 6.9
Solution
A. Resolve into partial fractions:
= +
( )( ) 1. ( )
5. ( )( )

Multiplying throughout by: 2. ( 6. .

)( ) ( )
(x − 5)(x2 + 2x + 7),
3x2 + 9 = A(x2 + 2x + 7) + (Bx + C)(x − 5). 3. 7. ( )( )

Substitute x = 5 4. ( )( )
8. ( )( )
3 × 52 + 9 = A(52 + 2 × 5 + 7).
84 = 42A B. Express in partial fractions;
A = 2.
1. ( )
2. ( )( )
3.( )( )
4. ( 5. 6. ( = Ax3 + Bx2 + (A + C)x + B + D
)( ) ( )( ) )( )
Comparing coefficients,
5x3 – 3x2 + 7x – 3 = Ax3 + Bx2 + (A + C)x + B + D
Type IV: A Partial fraction decomposition A=5
containing a repeated quadratic factor B = -3
A rational expression whose denominator A + C = 7 ……………(1)
contains a repeated quadratic factor is B + D = -3…………..(2)
decomposed on the R.H.S. as shown below;
1. ( )
= +( )
Put A = 5 in eqn (1);
5+C=7
Worked Examples C=7–5
Find the partial fraction decomposition of C=2

( ) Put B = -3 in eqn (2)

-3 + D = -3
Solution D = -3 + 3
The degree of the numerator is 3 and the degree D=0
Substitute A = 5, B = -3, C = 2 and D = 0 in
of the denominator is 4. Long division is not = +
( ) ( )
required.
= + = +( )
( ) ( ) ( )

Multiply both sides by lcd, (x2 + 1)2 Exercises 6.10

⇒ 5x3 – 3x2 + 7x – 3 Resolve into partial fractions.
= (Ax + B) (x2 + 1) + Cx + D 1. 2.
( ) ( )
= Ax(x2 + 1) + B(x2 + 1) + Cx + D
= Ax3 + Ax + Bx2 + B + Cx + D