MODULE 2: MATERIALS FOR MEMORY and DISPLAY SYSTEMS

Introduction

Electronic memory: Electronic memory is a device or system that is used to store

information for immediate use in a computer. In other words,
it is the location where information is kept for ready access at any time.

Examples: Hard disk, RAM, ROM, memory card, CD/DVD etc.

There are technically two types of computer memory: primary and secondary.

Primary memory is also known as main memory or internal memory

Examples: RAM, ROM, Cache memory, PROM, EPROM, Registers, etc.

Secondary memory is also known as External memory or Auxiliary memory.

Examples: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, Magnetic Tapes, etc.

[Note: Until now, we used storage devices based on inorganic semiconductors; however,
these materials have some disadvantages in storage devices. For example, silicon, silicon
in combination with boron or phosphorus, vanadium dioxide, etc. were used as storage
materials. However, it is difficult to store a greater density of data and access the
information more quickly in these materials. Moreover, Silicon based semiconductor
devices are less stable below 22 nm. The power consumption and unwanted heat
generation are also of increasing concern, and the faithfulness of addressing the memory
units diminishes correspondingly.

Therefore, modern storage technologies cannot meet future information storage

needs. Now we have started using organic/polymer-based storage materials, which will
be discussed below]

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry 1

New data storage technologies with organic/polymer materials:

Organic/polymer memory devices, shown potential to be the new data storage

technologies.

• They can be processed easily

• Structure of the molecule used can be designed through chemical
synthesis
• Devices structure is very simple
• Dimension of the devices can be decreased (miniaturized)
• Cost of product is less
• Power consumption during operation is low
• They exhibit multiple state properties
• 3D stacking capability and data storage capacity can be increased to
very large value

Basic Concepts of Electronic Memory

The basic goal of a memory device is to provide a means for storing and
accessing binary digital data sequences of “1’s” and “0’s”, as one of the core
functions (primary storage) of modern computers.

Definition: An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor storage

which is fast in response and compact in size, and can be read and written when
coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor).
In conventional silicon-based electronic memory, data are stored based on
the amount of charge stored in the memory cells.

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry 2

 Organic/polymer electronic memory stores data in an entirely different
way, for instance, based on different electrical conductivity states (ON and OFF
states) in response to an applied electric field.

For a material to show memory effect the main essential requirements are:

1. The individual memory cells must have at least bistable states.

2. They should be shifted from one state (on) to another state (off) when an
external electric field is applied. This is also called as reading and writing
process.

3. These states must be stable for a period of time, appropriate for the data
storage

Classification Of Electronic Memory

According to the device structure, electronic memory devices can be divided

into four primary categories: transistor type, capacitor type, resistor type
and charge transfer type.

1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory

A transistor is a type of a semiconductor device that can be used to both

conduct and insulate electric current or voltage. A transistor basically acts as
a switch and an amplifier. In simple words, we can say that a transistor is a
miniature device that is used to control or regulate the flow of electronic
signals.

In order to store the data in memory devices, it must have a minimum

of two distinct electronic states. These states are assigned as “0” and “1” or

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry 3

“ON” and “OFF” respectively. A transistor-type semiconducting electronic
memory device contains a fine electronic circuit, including a complementary
metal oxide semiconductors (CMOS) transistor and capacitor. The switching
behavior of transistor can be understood from the following fig. below.

FET (Field effect transistor) transistor

2. Capacitor-type Electronic Memory

 Organic and polymer ferroelectric materials can be used in

capacitor-type electronic memory devices.

 Capacitors have two parallel plate electrodes and charges are stored in
these electrodes under an applied electric field as shown in below
diagram

Capacitor

 The bistable states of the capacitor are based on the amount of charge
stored in the cell. Data can be stored in these devices based on
different charge stored in the cell.

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 Charges stored in the cell maintain electric polarization that can be
switched between two stable states by an external electric field.

3. Resistor-type electronic memory devices

 This type of memory device uses switchable resistive materials to

store the data.

 It is based on the change of the electrical resistivity of materials in

response to an applied voltage (electric field). Resistor-type electronic
memory usually has a simple structure as shown below, having a metal-
insulator-metal structure generally referred to as MIM (metal-insulator-
metal) structure. The structure comprises of an insulating layer (I)
sandwiched between the two metal (M) electrodes and supported on a
substrate (glass, siliconwafer, plastic or metal foil).

Structure
of resistor
type

 Electrical bistability arises in these materials due to different

electrical resistivity which is assigned ON and OFF states.

4. Charge transfer-Type Electronic Memory Devices

 These types of electronic devices are based on the charge transfer

effect of a charge transfer complex.

 A charge transfer (CT) complex consists of two parts one electron

donor and the other an electron acceptor.

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 It is also called a donor-acceptor (D-A) complex. The conductivity of a
CT complex is dependent on the ionic binding between the D-A
Component
s.

Energy diagram for Donar

and acceptor charge
transfer

 In CT complex a partial transfer of charge occurs from the donor part

to the acceptor part this results in a difference in conductivity. CT
Complexes exhibit bistable states due to difference in the conductivity.

 This behavior is used to design molecular electronic devices, Many

organic CT systems including organometallic complexes carbon
allotrope (fullerene, carbon nanotubes and graphene) -based polymers
complexes, gold nanoparticles polymer complexes, and single polymers
with intra molecular D-A structures are used for memory applications.

Types of Organic-Based Electrical Memory Devices

There are three classes of materials that can exhibit bi-stable states and are
used in organic memory devices. They are:
1. Organic Molecules
2. Polymer Materials
3. Organic-inorganic hybrid materials

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Under each category, a lot of different types of molecules that exhibit
memory effects are available. A few of them are described below.

1. Organic molecules

There are two different categories of organic molecules that show bi-stable
or multi-stable states when an external field is applied. When the threshold
voltage is applied they undergo a transition from the “OFF” state to the
“ON” state or from the “ON” state to the “OFF” state. All these materials
can be used in organic electronic memory devices. A few of them are
mentioned below.

Acene derivatives: Acenes are polycyclic aromatic compounds

consisting of linearly fused benzene rings. They are the very first discovered
organic memory devices because of their high charge carrier mobility.
Examples of acenes derivatives are pentacene, perfluoropentacene,
naphthalene, anthracene, and tetracene.

(a) The p-type organic semiconducting material pentacene (important)

The most important member of the acene family is pentacene. It is a linearly

fused aromatic compound with five benzene rings. It can be obtained in
crystal and thin film form. Both forms exhibit a very good hole mobility and
hence it behaves as a p-type semiconductor.

Structure of pentacene:

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 To show that Pentacene is a p-Type semiconductor, consider optical thin
film transistor as model. Energy level diagram

Optical thin film

transistor

 In optical thin film transistor, Source and drain was made of gold and
semiconductor was Pentacene.
 When a Positive voltage is applied to the gate, negative charges are
induced at the source electrode( Au).
 Since, Fermi level of gold is away from LUMO of Pentacene, electron
flow cannot takes place.
 When a negative voltage is applied to the gate holes are injected from
source to semiconductor because Fermi level energy of gold is close to
energy of HOMO of Pentacene.
 A conducting channel is formed at the insulator and semiconductor
interface and allows the movement of charge carrier’s holes from
source to drain when secondary voltage is applied.
Therefore, Pentacene is considered as p-type semiconductor.

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(b) The n-type organic semiconducting material Perfluoropentacene
(important)

An Organic molecule with π conjugated system with electron donar groups

and possess electrons as major charge carrier is called n-type
semiconductor.

When all the hydrogen atoms of pentacene are replaced by fluorine

atoms the resulting molecules is perfluropentacene. Strongly electron
withdrawing nature of fluorine atoms converts this molecules in n-type
semiconductor.

Structure of perfluropentacene :

To show that Perfluropentacene is a n-Type semiconductor, consider optical

thin film transistor as model.
Energy level diagram
Optical thin film
transistor

 Source and drain was made of gold and semiconductor was

Perfluropentacene.

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  The HOMO-LUMO gaps are 2.07 eV for pentacene and 1.95eV for
perfluoropentacene.
 When a Positive voltage is applied to the gate negative charges are
induced at the source electrode( Au).
 The source and drain electrodes inject electrons in its LUMO level.
 This charge forms a conducting channel at the insulator and
semiconductor interface and allows the charge carriers electron from
source to drain.
Therefore, Perfluropentacene is considered as n-type semiconductor.

2. Polymer Molecules (important)

There are some polymers that exhibit memory effects and are used in
electronic memory devices.

(i) Functional polyamides (TP6F-PI)

Functional polyamides are one of the most commonly used polymeric

materials for organic electrical memory applications. They have high
thermal stability and mechanical strength and can be easily processed
from solution. In functional polyamides phthalimide act as the electron
acceptor and triphenylamine act as an electron donor to form a Donor-
Acceptor structure. They exhibit two stable charge states under an applied
electric field. These states arise due to the transfer of electrons from the
donor to the acceptor. This bistability is used to store data in the memory
device.

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 triphenylamine phthalimide

structure of TP6F-PI

TP6F-PI exhibited excellent thermal stability, with a 10% weight-loss

temperature of 524 °C and a glass transition temperature of 316 °C. This
type of PI used in DRAM devices.

Mechanism: An electric field-induced CT state can be formed, which is the

main mechanism responsible for the memory behavior.

 The donors and acceptors of PI contribute to the electronic transition

based on an induced charge transfer (CT) effect under an applied
electric field.

 When an electric field more than threshold energy is applied, the

electrons of the HOMO (TPA unit) is excited to LUMO.

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 Energy level diagram

 The energy of LUMO of donor and acceptor are similar and therefore,
after excitation the electron transferred to LUMO (acceptor), generating a
CT state.

 This permits the generation of holes in the HOMO, which produces the
open channel for the charge carriers to migrate through.

 Therefore, Field-induced charge transfer from triphenylamine to

phthalimide exhibit the switching behavior (bi-stable states ON/OFF).

 This device exhibits dynamic random access memory(DRAM) behavior

with an ON/OFF current ratio of up to105 eV

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry

 DISPLAY SYSTEMS

Present day technological developments in the information oriented society are

mainly attributed to discovery of electronic, optoelectronic, and photonic devices
which use in semiconductors such as inorganic semiconductor. In recent years,
new organic materials which exhibit electro-optical properties similar or
superior to classical inorganic materials have been discovered. Accordingly,
new fields of organic electronics, organic optoelectronics and organic photonics
using organic materials have emerged.

Display Systems are used to share information in a digital format. The

primary method of getting information out of a computer is to use a computer
video display unit (VDU). Display systems convert computer signal into text and
pictures and display them on a TV like screen. Display System: “a system through
which information is conveyed to people through visual means”.

Photoactive materials: are those that can absorb light and convert it into an
electrical signal. In other words, photoactive materials are semiconductors
composed of π-electron systems that can respond to photo electric or other
electromagnetic radiation.

These materials are used in photo sensors and photovoltaic cells, which are
commonly found in solar panels. When light falls on a photoactive material, it
releases electrons, which generate an electric current. In display technology,
photoactive materials are used in LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) panels, where they
are used as a backlight or to control the pixels in the display.

Electroactive materials: are those that can change their physical properties,
such as shape, size, or refractive index, when exposed to an electric field.

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 These materials are used in electroluminescent displays, which are
commonly found in watches, calculators, and other portable electronic devices.
When an electric field is applied to an electro active material, it emits light, which
is used to create the image on the display.

Working Principle of display:

 In the device there are cathode (-ve) and anode (+ve) materials, in-between
there are organic materials such as photoactive and electroactive materials
that absorb and emit light in the UV to near IR region.

 The display system made of photo active and electro active material absorb
the light and allows an electron to jump from HOMO of a Donor to LUMO
of an Acceptor.

 This phenomenon generates and transport charge carriers.

 In an OLED device, the light-emitting layer is excited by the recombination

energy of electrons from the cathode and holes from the anode, and then
the light-emitting layer emits light when returning to the ground state.
One of the electrodes consists of transparent material in order to extract light
from the light emitting layer. ****

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry

 Silicon and vanadium oxide are the most commonly used materials in the
electronics industry, although silicon and other inorganic semiconductors are very
tough and inflexible material. Therefore, research interest focuses on alternative
materials such as organic materials including pentacene, fullerene, oligomers and
conducting polymers, etc.
Devices using organic materials have the following advantages over
inorganic semiconductor-based devices

 They are light weight

 They are flexible
 They can be easily synthesized by chemical method
 Cost of production is less
 They can be used in novel thin-film flexible devices
 Properties can be fine-tuned by structure modification

Hence, they are being used in Organic photovoltaic devices (OPVs), Organic
light emitting diodes (OLEDS), and organic field-effect transistors
(OFETS).Organic materials used in optoelectronic devices are referred to as photo
and electroactive organic materials (They are also called as organic
semiconductors). When these materials are used in devices, they exhibit
optoelectronic phenomenon.

Optoelectronic device: A hardware device that converts electrical energy into

light and light into energy through semiconductors is called Optoelectronic device.
Optoelectronic devices are primarily transducers i.e. they can convert one energy
form to another

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 Working principle

If the photon has an energy greater than the energy of a gap, the photon is absorbed
by the semiconductor and excites an electron from the valence band into the
conduction band, where it can move freely. A free hole remains in the valence
band. When the excited electron returns to the valence band, additional photon
energy is emitted in the form of light. This principle is used in optoelectronic
devices.

Organic compounds with extensive conjugation and n-electrons systems are

capable of exhibiting above mentioned set of properties. These organic materials
can be broadly classified in to three categories.

 Small molecule
 Oligomers with well-defined structure
 Polymers

Small organic molecules are crystalline in nature. Few examples for this
class of molecules are, the metal and metal free phthalocyanines, porphyrines,
poly-condensed aromatic hydrocarbons like pentacene, anthracenes and fullerenes

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 P-Conjugated oligomers are new family of organic Π-electron system with
well defined structures. Whose properties and functions can be control by varying
the n-conjugation length, Few example for this class are, pentacene and
oligothiophenes.

Polymers are bad conductors of electrons. But conducting polymers with

extensive conjugation and n-electron system exhibit above mentioned electro-
optical behaviour and they are excellent functional materials example of the class
of polymers which find extensive application as organic semiconducting materials
are, polyacetylene, poly (p-phenylene vinylene), poly (99-dialkylfluorene),
polythiophenes, polypyroles and polyanilines.

a. Nanomaterials (Silicon Nanocrystals) for Optoelectronic devices

Definition: The materials of at least one dimension between 1 to 100 nanometer

(10-9 m) are known as nanomaterials. Examples: Silicon nanocrystals, quantum
dots, CNTs etc

The properties of nanomaterials are different from bulk materials due to:

1. Quantum Confinement effect: describes electrons in terms of energy levels,

valence bands, conduction bands, and electron energy band gaps.

Bulk Nanocrystal Cluster

EF µ

Continuous (in bulk materials ) and discreet (in nano materials) energy levels
Unbound electron have motion that is not confined Electron motion becomes confined

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 The quantum confinement effect is observed when the size of the particle is
too small to be comparable to the wavelength of the electron. To understand this
effect, let’s break down the words “quantum” and “confinement.” The word
“confinement” means to restrict the movement of a randomly moving electron. Its
movement in certain energy levels (discreteness) and quanta reflects the atomic
range of particles. So, as the size of the particles decreases, the band gap energy
increases.

2. Increased surface area to volume ratio: The surface area to volume ratio
for a material made of nanoparticles has a significant effect on the properties of the
material. Firstly, materials made up of nanoparticles have a relative larger surface
area when compared to the same volume of material made up of bigger particles.

For example, let us consider a sphere of radius r. The surface area of the sphere
will be 4πr2 The volume of the sphere = 4/3πr3. Therefore the surface area to the
volume ratio will be 4πr2 /(4/3πr3 ) = 3/r.
Materials made of nanoparticles have a much greater surface area per unit
volume ratio compared with the materials made up of bigger particles. This leads
to nanoparticles being more chemically reactive. As chemical reactions occur
between particles that are on the surface, a given mass of nanomaterial will be
much more reactive than the same mass of material made up of large particles.
This means that materials that are inert in their bulk form are reactive when
produced in their nanoparticle form.
The improved electronic properties yielded for nanostructured silicon in
comparison to its bulk, which led the use of Silicon Nanocrystals in electronics
and optoelectronics fields.
Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry
 Special properties of Silicon Nano crystals for optoelectronics

1. Silicon Nanocrystal has wider band gap energy due to quantum

confinement.
2. SiNCs shows higher light emission property (Photoluminescence)
3. SiNCs exhibit quantum yield of more than 60%.
4. Si-NCs exhibit tunable electronic structure
5. Larger surface area-volume ratio****

b. Organic materials for Optoelectronic devices [Light absorbing materials

– Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)]

Polythiophenes are import class of conjugated polymers, thermally and

environmentally stable material. Chemical structure of P3HT [Poly(3-
hexylthiophene)] is a polymer with chemical formula (C10H14S)n. It is a
polythiophene with a short alkyl group on each repeat unit.Highly ordered (P3HT)
are composed of closely packed, p–p stacked (p–p distance of 0.33nm) fully
extended chains which are oriented perpendicular to the substrate.

Chemical structure of Poly(3-hexylthiophene)

Special properties of P3HT for optoelectronics

1. P3HT is a semiconducting polymer with high stability and exhibits

conductivity due to holes therefore considered as p-type semiconductor.

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2. P3HT have great capability as light-absorbing materials in organic electronic
devices.
3. P3HT has a crystalline structure and good charge-transport properties
required for Optoelectronics.
4. P3HT has a direct-allowed optical transition with a fundamental energy gap
of 2.14 eV.
5. Fundamental band gap of P3HT is 490 nm visible region, corresponding to
π→π* transition, giving electron-hole pair.
6. P3HT indicate that an increase in the conductivity is associated with an
increase in the degree of Crystalline

Applications:

1. P3HT-ITO forms a p-n junction permits the charge carriers to move in

opposite direction and hence, used in Photovoltaic devices.
2. It can be used as a positive electrode in Lithium batteries.
3. Used in the construction of Organic Solar Cells.
4. Used in the fabrication new types of memory devices****

c. Light emitting material- Poly [9-vinyl carbazole](PVK)]

Poly [9-vinyl carbazole] is a temperature-resistant thermoplastic polymer produced

from the monomer N-vinylcarbazole. It is a photoconductive polymer and thus
the basis for photorefractive polymers and organic light-emitting diodes.
Photoconductive polymers absorb electromagnetic radiation and produce an
increase of electrical conductivity. The photorefractive effect is a nonlinear
optical effect seen in certain crystals and other materials that respond to light by
altering their refractive index.

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 Chemical structure of PVK

Applications:

1. PVK has been commonly used in OLEDs, light harvesting applications, and
memory devices
2. Used in the fabrication of light-emitting diodes and laser printers.
3. Used in the fabrication of organic solar cells when combined with TiO2 on
glass substrate.
4. Used in the fabrication of solar cells when combined with Perovskite
materials.
5. PVK-Perovskite junction is used in Light-Emitting Diodes with Enhanced
Efficiency and Stability

What are Liquid Crystals?

Thermodynamic phases of condensed matter with a degree of order intermediate

between that of the crystalline solid and the simple liquid are called liquid crystals
or mesophases.
Liquid crystal is a state of matter whose properties are between those of
conventional liquids and those of solid crystals. For example, a liquid crystal may
flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be oriented in a crystal-like way.
Examples: including polymers, Cholesteryl benzoate, p-azoxyphenetole p-
azoxyanisole, Anisaldazine, all of which are highly deformable materials.
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 Liquid crystal finds application in the areas of science and engineering,
particularly in display systems of modern electronic gadgets. Devices using liquid
crystal displays have the advantage of low power consumption and hence are
widely used in display devices of mobile communications, appliances, aircraft,
cockpit, laptops and related electronic equipments.

History

The liquid crystal state was first discovered by an Austrian botanist,

Freidrich Reinitzer in 1888 in cholesteryl benzoate molecule. He observed that
solid cholesteryl benzoate on heating becomes a hazy liquid at 145.5°C which on
further heating turns into a clear, transparent liquid at 178.5°C (as if it had two
melting points). On cooling, similar phase change was observed at same
temperature. The state of Cholesteryl benzoate in between 145.5°C and 178.5°C is
a liquid crystal state. The temperature at which it converts into the liquid
crystalline state (145.5 °C) is the melting point. The temperature at which the
transition from liquid crystalline state to isotropic liquid (178.5 °C) takes place is
commonly referred to as the clearing temperature. Liquid crystal phase is also
called as mesophase.

Structure of Cholesteryl benzoate

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Classification of Liquid Crystals

The distinguishing characteristics of phases of condensed matter are

1. Positional order
2. Orientational order.

Positional order refers to the extent to which molecules or groups of molecules,

on average, show translational symmetry (gives regular distance between
molecules).

Orientational order refers to the extent to which the molecules align along a
specific direction on a long-range basis (oriented in the same direction)

Molecular ordering lie intermediate between the crystalline solid state and the
completely disordered liquid. The liquid crystal state is also referred to as
mesophase.

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Additionally Liquid crystals are classified into two main categories, namely,

1. Thermotropic liquid crystals

2. Lyotropic liquid crystals

1. Thermotropic Liquid Crystals: The class of compounds that exhibit liquid

crystalline behaviour on variation of temperature alone are referred to as
thermotropic liquid crystals. The temperature ranges at which some liquid crystals
are stable are given below:

Cholesteryl benzoate 145.5°C to 178.5°C

p-azoxyphenetole 137°C to 167°C

p-azoxyanisole 116°C to 135°C

Anisaldazine 165°C to 180°C

Thermotropic liquid crystals may be further classified as:

a) Nematic liquid crystals

b) Chiral Nematic liquid crystals

c) Smectic liquid crystals

d) Disotic liquid crystals

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a) Nematic liquid crystals

Nematic (Greek nematos = thread like) liquid crystals are formed by compounds
that are optically inactive. The molecules have elongated shape and are
approximately parallel to one another. In this phase the molecules maintain a
preferred orientational direction but positional order is completely absent and
they can diffuse throughout the sample. An example of a nematic liquid crystal is
para-azoxyanisole (PAA) which exhibits liquid crystalline behaviour in the
temperature range of 118°C to 135°C.

b) Smectic Mesophase

Substances that form smectic phases are soap-like (in Greek, smectos means soap).
In fact, the soft substance that is left at the bottom of a soap dish is a kind of
smectic liquid crystal phase. In smectic mesophase, there is a small amount of
orientational order and also a small amount of positional order. Based on the
orientation of the director there are two types of smectic phases.

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c) Chiral (Twisted) Nematic Phase

Chiral nematic liquid crystals, are formed from optically active compounds having
chiral centres. Compared to nematic phase where all the molecules are
approximately parallel to one another, in chiral nematic phase, the molecules
arrange themselves so as to form a helical structure.

d) Discotic Liquid Crystalline Phase

Liquid crystal phase is shown by molecules which have disk-like or plate-like

structure. These are referred to as discotic or columnar liquid crystals. These
molecules have rigid structures like benzene, triphenylene in the central part. The
mplest discotic phase is also called the discotic nematic phase because there is
orientational order but no positional order.

2. Lyotropic Liquid Crystals: They are usually obtained by mixing the compound
in a slovent and increasing the concentration of compound till liquid crystal phase
is observed. Such liquid crystals are called lyotropic liquid crystals. The
formation of lyotropic mesophases is dependent on the concentration of either the
component or the solvent.

Examples:

(i) soap (soap water mixture) molecules

(ii) phospholipids which are biologically important molecules where each cell
membrane owes its structure to the liquid crystalline nature of the phospholipid -
water mixture.

****

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry

Construction of Liquid Crystal Display: is a flat panel display technology that
uses liquid crystal molecules to produce images. LCDs are commonly used in
electronic devices such as televisions, computer monitors, mobile phones etc.

1. LCD consists of two polarized glass pieces. Two electrodes are used, one is
positive and the other one is negative.
2. Liquid crystal layer of about 10-20μm is placed between two glass sheets.
3. External potential is applied to LCD through this electrodes and it is made up of
indium-tin-oxide.
4. Polarizer allows only light waves of specific polarization and blocks light
waves of other polarization.

Working of Liquid Crystal Display

 The basic working principle of LCD is blocking of light. It does not produce
light on its own. So external light source is used.
 When the external light passes from one polarizer to the next polarizer,
external supply is given to the liquid crystal ,the polarized light aligns itself so
that the image is produced in the screen.

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 The indium oxide conducting surface is a transparent layer which is placed
on both the sides of the sealed thick layer of liquid crystal. When no external bias
is applied the molecular arrangement is not disturbed.

When the external bias is applied the molecular arrangement is disturbed it

and that area looks dark and the other area looks clear.

Advantages:

 It is thin and compact

 Low power consumption
 Less heat is emitted during operation
 Low cost

Disadvantages:

 Speed of operation is low

 Lifespan is less
 Restricted viewing angles

Properties of Liquid crystals

1. Electro-Optic Effects In Liquid Crystals

Nematic liquid crystals have rod like molecular structure and align themselves
spontaneously along the director. Nematic materials have two dielectric
Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry
constants- one in the direction parallel to the director and the other perpendicular
to the director. The difference between the dielectric constants parallel and
perpendicular to the director is called as Dielectric anisotropy.

Similarly, nematic materials have two refractive indices- one in the

direction parallel to the director and the other perpendicular to the director. They
exhibit optical anisotropy which is defined as the difference between refractive
index parallel to the director and refractive index perpendicular to the director.

These two properties are important for the electro-optic effects in liquid
crystals.

2. Effect of light

Case1: If a source of light radiation is kept below first polarizer, it passes

through it and rotated by liquid crystal and passes through the second polarizer.
Hence, it gives bright appearance to display.

Case2: Now, if an electric field is applied between two polarizers, then liquid
crystal molecules will rearrange themselves to applied field and hence the rotation
of plane of the polarized light is also affected. Thus, light passing through first
polarizer cannot pass through second polarizer and it gives dark appearance to
display.

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry

Thus, display appears bright in the absence of electric field and appears dark in the
presence of an electric field. These combinations of optical and electrical
properties of liquid crystals are used in Liquid Crystal Displays.

Applications of liquid crystals in display systems

1. LCDs are Used in digital wrist watch

2. Display images in digital cameras
3. Used in numerical counters
4. Display screen in calculators
5. Mainly used in television
6. Used in mobile screens
7. Used in video players
8. Used in image sensing circuits, traffic signals, advertisement boards and
petrol pump indicators.

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED'S)

An organic light-emitting diode (electroluminescent diode), is a light-emitting

diode in which the emissive electroluminescent layer, is a film of organic
compound, that emits light in response to an electric current.

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry

 Construction and Working Principle of OLED

 An OLED device consists of two electrodes: anode and cathode and organic
layers (intrinsic role) are placed between two electrodes.
 When applied external voltage → charge carriers are injected from the
electrodes to the organic layers.
 Anode injects holes (positive charges) and cathode injects electrons
(negative charges) to the system.
 The holes and electrons are transported to an emission site and recombined.
 Organic materials in the emission site are excited by recombination of
holes and electrons. When the exited organic material returns to its ground
state, then emission occurs.

Properties of an OLEDs

1. Thin and flexibility: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them
suitable for use in flexible displays.

2. High contrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means that they
can produce deep blacks and bright whites, resulting in images with rich colors.

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry

3. Fast response time: OLEDs have a fast response time, which means that they
can switch on and off quickly

4. Wide viewing angle: OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, which means that the
image quality is maintained even when viewed from different angles.

5. Energy efficiency: OLEDs are energy efficient, as they do not require a back
light like traditional LCD displays, resulting in lower power consumption.

6. Self-emissive: OLEDs are self-emissive, which means that they do not require a
separate light source, resulting in a thinner display.

7. Long lifespan: OLEDs have a long life span, as they do not contain a backlight
that can degrade overtime, resulting in a longer-lasting display.

Applications

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) have a wide range of applications due to
their unique properties, including high contrast, energy efficiency, thinness, and
flexibility.

1. Televisions and displays: OLEDs is plays are used in televisions, computer

monitors, smart phones, and other electronic devices.

2. Lighting: OLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various

applications, including automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural
lighting.

3. Wearable devices: such as smart watches and fitness trackers.

4. Automotive: such as dashboard displays, interior lighting, and tail lights.

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry

5. Medical: such as in surgical lighting and medical imaging. They offer bright
and highly accurate lighting options that can help improve medical procedures and
diagnosis

Quantum Light Emitting Diodes (QLED/QD-LED)

QLED stands for quantum dot light-emitting diode.

A display technology that uses phosphorescent QD crystals to improve the

LED backlight on an LCD TV, cell phones, and digital cameras. Defination of
QDs: QDs are small or tiny particles with at least one dimension between 2-10
nm in size.

A quantum dot display is a display device that uses quantum dots,

semiconductor nanocrystals which can produce pure monochromatic red, green,
and blue light. Photo-emissive quantum dot particles are used in LCD
backlights. → the next generation's display technology after OLED displays.

The structure of QD-LED is similar to the fundamental design of OLED.

But, the difference is that the light emitting is from the QDs, such as cadmium
selenide (CdSe) nanocrystals, iron oxide, gold QDs, ZrO2 QDs

Construction and Working Principle of QLED

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry

• A QD-LED device consists of two electrodes, an anode and a cathode and
a QD layer placed between two electrodes.

• . An external voltage is applied to a QD-LED device through anode and

cathode, charge carriers are injected from the electrodes to the QD layer.

• Anode injects holes (positive charges) and cathode injects electrons

(negative charges) to the system.

• The holes and electrons are transported to an emission site and recombined.

• QDs material in the emission site is excited by recombination of holes and

electrons.

• When the exited QD returns to its ground state, emitting photons. In QD-
LED, for better recombination efficiency, a single layer of QDs in colloidal
form as an emissive layer.

Properties of QLED

1. Accurate and vibrant colors: QLEDs are capable of producing highly

accurate and vibrant colors due to their use of quantum dots, which emit
light of a specific color when they are excited by a light source or an
electrical current.

2. Energy-efficient: QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD

displays.

3. High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios, which means that
the differences between the darkest and brightest are as of the display is
greater, resulting in broad images.

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry

4. Long life span: QLEDs have a longer life span than traditional LCD
displays because they do not suffer from color fading overtime.

5. Fast response times: QLED displays have fast response times, which
means that they can display fast-moving images without motion blur.

6. Flexibility: QLEDs can be made on flexible substrates, which allows

forthe creation of flexible displays that can be bent or curved

Applications of QLEDs

1. Televisions and displays: QLED displays are commonly used in

televisions, monitors, smart phones, and other electronic devices. They
offer superior image quality and color accuracy compared to traditional
LCD displays.

2. Lighting: QLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various

applications, including automotive lighting, street lighting, and
architectural lighting.

3. Medical imaging: QLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications,

such as in MRI machines, to produce high-resolution and accurate
images.

4. Advertising displays: QLED displays can be used in advertising

displays, such as digital billboards and sign age, to produce high-quality
and eye- catching visuals.

Prof. Basavaraj Patel B M, Dept. of Chemistry