Integral Calculus

Dr Oteng Maphane

Botswana International University of Science and Technology

maphaneot@biust.ac.bw

April 16, 2025

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Overview

1 The Integral
P
Sigma Notation
Area and Estimating with Finite Sums
Definite Integral
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Indefinite Integrals and Triq Substitution Method
2 Applications of Definite Integrals
Volumes Using Cross-Sections
Areas of Surfaces of Revolution
3 Techniques of Integration and Taylor Series
Improper Integration
Numerical Integration
Taylor Series and Applications

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Introduction

Modern calculus has its origins in two mathematical problems of antiquity.

The first of these, the problem of finding the line tangent to a given curve,
was, as we have noted, not solved until the seventeenth century. Its
solution (by Newton and Leibniz) gave rise to what is known as
differential calculus. The second of these problems was to find the area
enclosed by a given curve. The solution of this problem led to what is now
termed integral calculus. It is not known how long scientists (Egyptians
and ancient Greeks) have been concerned with finding the area bounded by
a curve. However, of interest is the problem on the area of a circular
field with a diameter of nine units, which was found to have the same
as the area of a square with a side of eight units. If we compare this
statement with the correct formula for the area of a circle, we find that

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Introduction Cont’d

2
A = πr 2 = π 92 = 82 or π ≈ (4.5) 64 64
2 = 20.25 ≈ 3.16. Thus we see that

before 1650 B.C. the Egyptians could calculate the area of a circle from
the formula A = 3.16r 2 . Since π = 3.1416, we see that this result is
remarkably close, considering that the Egyptian formula dates back nearly
four thousand years!
In ancient Greece there was much interest in obtaining methods for
calculating the areas bounded by curves other than circles and rectangles.
The problem was solved for a wide variety of curves by Archimedes of
Syracuse (287-212 B.C.), who is considered by many to be the greatest
mathematician who ever lived. Archimedes used what he called the
method of exhaustion to calculate the shaded area A bounded by a
parabola. To be discussed at a later stage.

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 P
The Notation
It turns out approximating the area under a curve is the same as writing
the sum
n
X
a1 + a2 + · · · + an = ak ,
k=1
P
which is, “the sum of terms ak as k goes from 1 to n. ”and is called
the summation sign, and k is called the index of summation.
The
P4 following example, is on evaluating sum of integers. Calculate
k=1 k. Solution: Here ak = k, such that
4
X
k = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10.
k=1
P5 2,
Also, calculate, k=1 k evaluating the sum of squares. Solution: Here
ak = k 2 , and
5
X
k 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 = 55.
k=1
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Using the summation notation

Write the sum S8 = 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5 − 6 + 7 − 8 by using the summation

sign. Solution: Since 1 = (−1)2 , −2 = (−1)3 · 2, 3 = (−1)4 · 3, . . . , we
have
X8
S8 = (−1)k+1 · k.
k=1

Also write the following sum by using the summation sign:

 2  2  2  2
1 1 2 1 7 1 8 1
S= + + ··· + + .
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Solution: We have
8  2 8   8
X k 1 X 1 2 1 X 2
S= = k = k .
8 8 83 83
k=1 k=1 k=1

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Example cont’d

In the previous example we used the following fact:

n
X n
X
cak = c ak ,
k=1 k=1

where c is a constant. This easily derives from the fact that

n
X
cak = ca1 + ca2 + · · · + can
k=1
n
X
= c(a1 + a2 + · · · + an ) = c ak .
k=1

Note that: 5k=1 k = 5j=1 j = 10, changing the index of summation does
P P
not change the sum.

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Example cont’d
In the next section, we will encounter the sum

S = f (x1 )∆x1 + f (x2 )∆x2 + · · · + f (xn )∆xn

which can be written as

n
X
S= f (xk )∆xk .
k=1

Exercise:
Pn Suppose g is some function whose domain include integers, show
that k=1 [g (k) − g (k − 1)] = g (n) − g (0) called the Telescoping sum.
Further, if we let g (k) = 12 k(k + 1), show that g (k) − g (k − 1) = k and
deduce that the first part yields
n
X
k = n(n + 1)/2.
k=1

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Algebra Rules for Finite Sums

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Approximations to area

In this section, we describe the a method first used by Archimedes for

computing the area under a curve. We estimate the area as the sum of
areas of rectangles and then show how the estimate can be improved.
Finally, we take a limit of these estimates, and it is this limit that is equal
to the area sought.
The idea behind integration is that we can effectively compute many
quantities by breaking them into small pieces, and then summing the
contributions from each small part. We develop the theory of the integral
in the setting of area, where it most clearly reveals its nature. We begin
with examples involving finite sums.
These lead naturally to the question of what happens when more and more
terms are summed. Passing to the limit, as the number of terms goes to
infinity, then gives an integral.

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Example

What is the area of the shaded region R that lies above the x-axis, below
the graph of y = 1 − x 2 and between the vertical lines x = 0 and x = 1

(See Figure 5.1.). Unfortunately, there is no simple

geometric formula for calculating the areas of shapes having curved
boundaries like the region R. As a result, the area of a region with a
curved boundary can be approximated by summing the areas of a
collection of rectangles.
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Example Cont’d

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Example Cont’d

Figure 5.2a shows two rectangles that together contain the region R. Each
rectangle has width 12 and they have heights 1 and 43 moving from left to
right. The height of each rectangle is the maximum value of the function
f , obtained by evaluating f at the left endpoint of the subinterval of [0, 1]
forming the base of the rectangle. The total area of the two rectangles
approximates the area A of the region R,
1 3 1
A≈1· + · = 0.875.
2 4 2
This estimate is larger than the true area A, since the two rectangles
contain R. We say that 0.875 is an upper sum because it is obtained by
taking the height of each rectangle as the maximum (uppermost) value of
f (x) for x a point in the base interval of the rectangle.

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Example Cont’d

In Figure 5.2b, we improve our estimate by using four thinner rectangles,

each of width 41 which taken together contain the region R. These four
rectangles give the approximation
1 15 1 3 1 7 1 35
A≈1· + · + · + · = = 0.78125,
4 16 4 4 4 16 4 32
which is still greater than A since the four rectangles contain R.
Suppose instead we use four rectangles contained inside the region R to
estimate the area, as in Figure 5.3a. Each rectangle has width as before,
but the rectangles are shorter and lie entirely beneath the graph of f . The
function is decreasing on [0, 1], so the height of each of these rectangles is
given by the value of f at the right endpoint of the subinterval forming its
base.

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Example Cont’d

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Example Cont’d

The fourth rectangle has zero height and therefore contributes no area.
Summing these rectangles with heights equal to the minimum value of
f (x) for x a point in each base subinterval, gives a lower sum
approximation to the area,
15 1 3 1 7 1 1 17
A≈ · + · + · +0· = = 0.53125.
16 4 4 4 16 4 4 32
This estimate is smaller than the area A since the rectangles all lie inside
of the region R. The true value of A lies somewhere between these lower
and upper sums:
0.53125 < A < 0.78125.

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Example Cont’d

Yet another estimate can be obtained by using rectangles whose heights

are the values of f at the midpoints of their bases (Figure 5.3b). The
midpoint rule gives an estimate that is between a lower sum and an upper
sum, but it is not clear whether it overestimates or underestimates the true

area.

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Example Cont’d

Table 5.1 shows the values of upper and lower sum approximations to the
area of R using up to 1000 rectangles. In a moment we will see how to get
an exact value of the areas of regions such as R by taking a limit as the
base width of each rectangle goes to zero and the number of rectangles
goes to infinity. With the techniques developed there, we will be able to
show that the area of R is exactly 23 .
The finite sum approximations we considered in earlier got more accurate
as the number of rectangles increased and the subinterval widths (lengths)
became thinner. The next example shows how to calculate a limiting value
as the widths of the subintervals go to zero and their number grows to
infinity.

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Limits of finite sums

Recall that in each of our computed sums, the interval [a, b] over which
the function f is defined was subdivided into n subintervals/rectangles of
b−a
equal width (also called length) ∆x = and f was evaluated at a
n
point ci in each subinterval: c1 in the first subinterval, c2 in the second
subinterval, and so on. The finite sums then all take the form
n
X
f (ck )∆x = f (c1 )∆x + f (c2 )∆x + · · · + f (cn )∆x.
k=1

By taking more and more rectangles, with each rectangle thinner than
before, it appears that these finite sums give better and better
approximations to the true area of the region R.

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Riemann sum

Here we study the limits of finite approximations in their more general

setting. The theory of limits of finite approximations was made precise by
the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann. We now introduce the
notion of a Riemann sum, which underlies the theory of the definite
integral.
We begin with an arbitrary function f defined on a closed interval [a, b].
Like the function pictured in Figure 5.8, f may have negative as well as
positive values. We subdivide the interval [a, b] into subintervals, not
necessarily of equal widths (or lengths), and form sums in the same way as
we did before for the finite approximations. To do so, we choose n − 1
points {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 } between a and b and satisfying

a < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn−1 < b.

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Riemann sum cont’d

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Riemann sum cont’d

To make the notation consistent, we denote a by x0 and b by xn so that

a = x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn−1 < xn = b.

The set P = {x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 , xn } is called a partition of [a, b]. The

partition P divides [a, b] into n closed subintervals

[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xn−1 , xn ].

The first of these subintervals is [x0 , x1 ], the second is [x1 , x2 ] and the k-th
subinterval of P is [xk−1 , xk ], for k an integer between 1 and n.

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Riemann sum cont’d

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Riemann sum cont’d

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Riemann sum cont’d

The sum SP is called a Riemann sum for f on the interval [a, b]. There are
many such sums, depending on the partition P we choose, and the choices
of the points ck in the subintervals. Any Riemann sum associated with a
partition of a closed interval [a, b] defines rectangles that approximate the
region between the graph of a continuous function f and the x-axis.

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Riemann sum cont’d

We will see in the next section that if the function f is continuous over the
closed interval [a, b], then no matter how we choose the partition P and
the points ck in its subintervals to construct a Riemann sum, a single
limiting value is approached as the subinterval widths, controlled by the
norm of the partition, approach zero. We define the norm of a partition P,
written ||P|| to be the largest of all the subinterval widths.

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Example

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Limits of Riemann Sums

Find the limiting value of lower sum approximations to the area of the
region R below the graph of y = 1 − x 2 and above the interval [0, 1] on
the x-axis using equal width rectangles whose widths approach zero and
whose number approaches infinity.
Solution: We compute a lower sum approximation using n rectangles of
equal width and then we see what happens as We start by subdividing
[0, 1] into n equal width subintervals

[0, 1/n], [1/n, 2/n], · · · , [(n − 1)/n, 1].

Each subinterval has width 1/n. The function 1 − x 2 is decreasing on

[0, 1], and its smallest value in a subinterval occurs at the subinterval’s
right endpoint.

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Solution Cont’d

So a lower sum is constructed with rectangles whose height over the

subinterval [(k − 1)/n, k/n] is f (k/n) = 1 − (k/n)2 , giving the sum
               h  n i  1 
1 1 2 1 k 1
f + f +· · ·+ f +· · ·+ f .
n n n n n n n n

We write this in sigma notation and simplify,

n    X n  2 !  
X k 1 k 1
f = 1−
n n n n
k=1 k=1
n
1 k2
X  
= −
n n3
k=1

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Solution Cont’d

n n
X 1 X k2
= −
n n3
k=1 k=1
n
1 1 X 2
=n· − 3 k
n n
k=1
 
1 (n)(n + 1)(2n + 1)
=1−
n3 6
3 2
2n + 3n + n
=1− .
6n3
We have obtained an expression for the lower sum that holds for any n.
Taking the limit of this expression as we see that the lower sums converge
as the number of subintervals increases and the subinterval widths
approach zero:
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Solution Cont’d

2n3 + 3n2 + n
 
2 2
lim 1 − 3
=1− = .
n→∞ 6n 6 3
The lower sum approximations converge to 2/3. A similar calculation
shows that the upper sum approximations also converge to 2/3 and left as
an Exercise. This is because it is possible to show that any finite sum
approximation is trapped between the lower and upper sum approximations
(The Sandwich Rule). For this reason we are led to define the area of the
region R as this limiting value.

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Example 2

Approximate the area bounded by the curve y = x 2 and the x-axis above

the interval [0, 1].

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Solution

Solution: We compute s a lower sum approximation, consider n rectangles

of equal width subintervals

[0, 1/n], [1/n, 2/n], · · · , [(n − 1)/n, 1].

Each subinterval has width 1/n. We evaluate the function x 2 at the

subinterval’s right endpoint. So a lower sum is constructed with rectangles
whose height over the subinterval [(k − 1)/n, k/n] is f (k/n) = (k/n)2 ,
giving the sum
               h  n i  1 
1 1 2 1 k 1
f + f +· · ·+ f +· · ·+ f .
n n n n n n n n

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Solution Cont’d

We write this in sigma notation and simplify,

n    Xn  2  
X k 1 k 1
f =
n n n n
k=1 k=1
n
X k2
=
n3
k=1
n
1 X 2
= 3 k
n
k=1
1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= 3·
n 6
3 2
2n + 3n + n
= .
6n3

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Solution Cont’d

Taking the Limit yields

2n3 + 3n2 + n 2n2 + 3n + 1 2 1

lim 3
= lim 2
= = .
n→∞ 6n n→∞ 6n 6 3
A similar calculation shows that the upper sum approximations also
converge to 1/3 and by Sandwich Theorem the area of the region R is 1/3.

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The Definite Integral

Recall that, we investigated the limit of a finite sum for a function defined
over a closed interval [a, b] using n subintervals of equal width (or length),

∆x = (b − a)/n.

Now, we consider the limit of more general Riemann sums as the norm of
the partitions of [a, b] approaches zero.
For general Riemann sums the subintervals of the partitions need not have
equal widths. The limiting process then leads to the definition of the
definite integral of a function over a closed interval [a, b].

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Definite Integral Cont’d

The definition of the definite integral is based on the idea that for certain
functions, as the norm of the partitions of [a, b] approaches zero, the
values of the corresponding Riemann sums approach a limiting value I .
What we mean by this converging idea is that a Riemann sum will be close
to the number I provided that the norm of its partition is sufficiently small
(so that all of its subintervals have thin enough widths).
To capture this, we introduce the symbol ϵ as a small positive number that
specifies how close to I the Riemann sum must be, and the symbol δ as a
second small positive number that specifies how small the norm of a
partition must be in order for that to happen.

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Precise formulation

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Precise formulation cont’d

Leibniz introduced a notation for the definite integral that captures its
construction as a limit of Riemann
Pn sums.
He envisioned the finite sums k=1 f (ck )∆xk becoming an infinite sum of
function values f (x)
P multiplied by “infinitesimal”subinterval widthsR∆xk .
The sum symbol is replaced in the limit by the integral symbol ,
whose origin is in the letter “S.”
The function values f (ck ) are replaced by a continuous selection of
function values f (x).
The subinterval widths become the differential dx. It is as if we are
summing all products of the form f (x) · dx as x goes from a to b.
While this notation captures the process of constructing an integral, it is
Riemann’s definition that gives a precise meaning to the definite integral.

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Notation and Existence of the Definite Integral

The symbol for the number I in the definition of the definite integral is
Z b
f (x)dx
a

which is read as “the integral from a to b of f of x dee x”or sometimes as

“the integral from a to b of f of x with respect to x,”and f (x) is the
Rb
integrand. That is, I = a f (x)dx and that f is integrable over [a, b]. The
definite integral exists when we always get the same limit I , no matter
what choices are made. When the limit exists we write it as the definite
integral
Xn Z b
lim f (ck )∆xk = I = f (x)dx.
||P||→0 a
k=1

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Notation cont’d

When each partition has n equal subintervals, each of width

∆x = (b − a)/n,

we will also write

n
X Z b
lim f (ck )∆xk = I = f (x)dx.
n→∞ a
k=1

The limit is always taken as the norm of the partitions approaches zero
and the number of subintervals goes to infinity.

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Integrable and Nonintegrable Functions

Theorem 1 tells us that functions continuous over the interval [a, b] are
integrable there. Functions that are not continuous may or may not be
integrable. Discontinuous functions that are integrable include those that
are increasing on [a, b] (See Tutorial Exercise), and the
piecewise-continuous functions which are continuous except at a finite
number of points in [a, b]. For integrability to fail, a function needs to be
sufficiently discontinuous so that the region between its graph and the
x-axis cannot be approximated well by increasingly thin rectangles. The
function (
1, x is rational
f (x) =
0, x is irrational.
is nointegrable on [0, 1], or has no Riemann integral over [0, 1]. (See a
Tutorial Exercise).

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Properties of Definite Integrals

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Example

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Area Under the Graph of a Nonnegative Function

We now make precise the notion of the area of a region with curved
boundary, capturing the idea of approximating a region by increasingly
many rectangles. The area under the graph of a nonnegative continuous
function is defined to be a definite integral.

For the first time we have a rigorous definition for the area of a region
whose boundary is the graph of any continuous function. We now apply
this to a simple example, the area under a straight line, where we can
verify that our new definition agrees with our previous notion of area.

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Example 4

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Solution

To compute the definite integral as the limit of Riemann sums, we

calculate
Xn
lim f (ck )∆xk
||P||→0
k=1

for partitions whose norms go to zero. We know that it does not matter
how we choose the partitions or the points ck as long as the norms
approach zero. All choices give the exact same limit. So we consider the
partition P that subdivides the interval [0, b] into n subintervals of equal
width
b−0 b
∆x = =
n n
and we choose ck to be the right endpoint in each subinterval. The
partition is

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Solution cont’d

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Solution cont’d

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Conclusion

The following results can also be established using a Riemann sum

calculation similar to that in Example 4 (See Tutorial Exercise).

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The Average or Mean Value of a Function

A continuous function f on [a, b], whether positive, negative or both, may

have infinitely many values, but we can still sample them in an orderly
way. We divide [a, b] into n subintervals of equal width and evaluate f at
a point f (ck ) in each subinterval.
The average of the n sampled values is obtained by dividing a Riemann
sum for f on [a, b] by (b − a). That is, as we increase the size of the
sample and let the norm of the partition approach zero, the average
approaches av(f ) (see Tutorial exercise).

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Example 5

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Example 5-Figure 5.15

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The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Theorem 1 says nothing about how to calculate definite integrals. A

method of calculation will be developed here, through a connection to the
process of taking antiderivatives.
We present the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which is the central
theorem of integral calculus.
It connects integration and differentiation, enabling us to compute
integrals using an antiderivative of the integrand function rather than by
taking limits of Riemann sums as we did before.
Along the way, we present the integral version of the Mean Value
Theorem, which is another important theorem of integral calculus and
used to prove the Fundamental Theorem.

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Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals

Geometrically, if f ≥ 0, the Mean Value Theorem says that there is a

number c in [a, b] such that the rectangle with height equal to the average
value f (c) of the function and base width b − a has exactly the same area
as the region beneath the graph of f from a to b. That is,
Z b
f (c)(b − a) = f (x)dx.
a

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Application

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Figure for Example 1

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The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1 and 2

The Theorem in Part 2 says that to calculate the definite integral of f over
[a, b] all we need to do is:

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Application

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Conclusions

says that if you first differentiate the function F and then integrate the
result, you get the function F back (adjusted by an integration constant).
In a sense, the processes of integration and differentiation are “inverses”of
each other. That is, every continuous function f has an antiderivative F ,
and dy /dx = f (x) has a solution y = F (x) for every continuous function
f.

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Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Rule

Recall that a definite integral is a number defined by taking the limit of

Riemann sums associated with partitions of a finite closed interval whose
norms go to zero.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus says that a definite integral of a
continuous function can be computed easily if we can find an
antiderivative of the function.
Antiderivatives generally turn out to be more difficult to find than
derivatives. However, it is well worth the effort to learn techniques for
computing them.
The set of all antiderivatives of the function f is called the indefinite
integral of f with respect to x, and is symbolized by
Z
f (x)dx.

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Indefinite Integrals Cont’d

When finding the indefinite integral of a function f , remember

R b that it
always includes an arbitrary constant
R C . A definite integral a f (x)dx is a
number. An indefinite integral f (x)dx is a function plus an arbitrary
constant C .
In this section we begin to develop more general techniques for finding
antiderivatives.
The first integration techniques we develop are obtained by inverting rules
for finding derivatives, such as the Power Rule and the Chain Rule.

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The Power Rule in Integral Form

If u is a differentiable function of x and n is a rational number different

from -1, the Chain Rule tells us that

We are thus led to the following rule, denoted

by Eq.(1)

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Substitution: Running the Chain Rule Backwards

The substitutions in Examples 1,2 and 3 are instances of the following

general rule.

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Substitution rule cont’d

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Example 1

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Example 2

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Example 3

We can verify this solution by differentiating and checking that we obtain

the original function cos(7θ + 5).

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Trigonometric Substitutions

Trigonometric
√ substitutions
√ can be effective
√ in transforming integrals
2 2 2 2 2 2
involving a − x , a + x , and x − a into integrals we can
evaluate directly. There are three most common/basic substitutions,
x = a tan θ, x = a sin θ and x = a sec θ. They come from the reference
right triangles in Figure 8.2.

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Reference triangles for the three basic substitutions

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Example 1
Z
dx
Evaluate √ .
4 + x2

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Example 1 Cont’d

Notice how we expressed ln | sec θ + tan θ| in terms of x : We drew a

reference triangle for the original substitution x = 2 tan θ (Figure 8.4) and

read the ratios from the triangle.

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Example 2

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Example 2 Cont’d

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Example 3

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Example 3 Cont’d

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Application of Definite Integrals

Recall that we discovered the connection between Riemann sums

n
X
SP = f (ck )∆xk
k=1

associated with a partition P of the finite closed interval [a, b] and the
process of integration. We found that for a continuous function f on
[a, b], the limit of SP as the norm of the partition ||P|| approaches zero is
the number Z b
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a),
a
where F is any antiderivative of f . In first year, we applied this to the
problems of computing the area between the x-axis and the graph of
y = f (x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, and to finding the area between two curves.

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Applications Cont’d

In this section, we extend the applications to finding volumes, lengths of

plane curves, and areas of surfaces of revolution.
We define all these as limits of Riemann sums of continuous functions on
closed intervals—that is, as definite integrals which can be evaluated using
the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

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Volume using cross-sections

Here, we define volumes of solids whose cross-sections are plane regions. A

cross-section of a solid S is the plane region formed by intersecting S with
a plane (Figure 6.1). Suppose we want to find the volume of a solid S like
the one in Figure 6.1. We begin by extending the definition of a volume of
a cylinder from classical geometry to cylindrical solids with arbitrary bases
(Figure 6.2). If the cylindrical solid has a known base area A and height h,
then the volume of the cylindrical solid is

Volume = Cross-section Area × height = A · h.

This equation forms the basis for defining the volumes of many solids that
are not cylindrical by the method of slicing.

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Figures

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Figures

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Volume Cont’d

If the cross-section of the solid S at each point in the interval [a, b] is a

region R(x) of area A(x), and A is a continuous function of x, we can
define and
calculate the volume of the solid S as a definite integral in the following way.

This definition applies whenever A(x) is continuous, or more generally,

when it is integrable. To apply the formula in the definition to calculate
the volume of a solid, take the following steps:

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Calculating the Volume of a Solid

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Example 1-Volume of a Pyramid
A pyramid 3 metres high has a square base that is 3 metres on a side. The
cross-section of the pyramid perpendicular to the altitude x metres down
from the vertex is a square x metres on a side. Find the volume of the

pyramid.
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Solution cont’d

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Example 2-Volume of a Wedge
A curved wedge is from a cylinder of radius 3 is cut by two planes. One
plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The second plane crosses
the first plane at a 45◦ angle at the center of the cylinder. Find the

volume of the wedge.

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Solution

The cross-section at x is a rectangle of area

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Solids of Revolution: The Disk Method

The solid generated by rotating a plane region about an axis in its plane is
called a solid of revolution. To find the volume of a solid like the one
shown in Figure 6.8, we need only observe that the cross-sectional area
A(x) is the area of a disk of radius R(x), the distance of the planar
region’s boundary from the axis of revolution. The area is then

A(x) = π[R(x)]2 .

So the definition of volume gives

This method for calculating the volume of a solid of revolution is often

called the disk method because a cross-section is a circular disk of radius
R(x).

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Figure 6.8

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Example 4-A Solid of Revolution (Rotation About the
x-Axis)

√
The region between the curve y = x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 and the x-axis is
revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find its volume.
Solution: We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the
generated solid (Figure 6.8). The volume is

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Example 5-Volume of a Sphere

The circle x 2 + y 2 = a2 is rotated about the x-axis to generate a sphere.

Find its volume.
Solution: We imagine the sphere cut into thin slices by planes
perpendicular to the x-axis (Figure 6.9). The cross-sectional area at a
typical point x between −a and a is

A(x) = πy 2 = π[a2 − x 2 ].

Therefore, the volume is

Z a a a
x3
Z 
2 2 2 4
V = A(x)dx = π[a − x ]dx = π a x − = πa3 .
−a −a 3 −a 3

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Figure 6.9

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Example 6-Rotation About the Line y = 1
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by
√
y = x and the lines y = 1 and x = 4 about the line y = 1.
Solution: We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the
generated solid (Figure 6.10). The volume is

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Figure 6.10

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Solids of Revolution: The Washer Method

If the region we revolve to generate a solid does not border on or cross the
axis of revolution, the solid has a hole in it (Figure 6.13). The
cross-sections perpendicular to the axis of revolution are washers (the
purplish circular surface in Figure 6.13) instead of disks. The dimensions
of a typical washer are Outer radius R(x) and Inner radius r (x). The
washer’s area is
A(x) = π([R(x)]2 − [r (x)]2 ).
Consequently, the definition of volume gives

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Figure 6.13

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Figure 6.14

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A Washer Cross-Section (Rotation About the x-axis)
The region bounded by the curve y = x 2 + 1 and the line y = −x + 3 is
revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Solution: Find the outer and inner radii of the washer as it revolves about
the x-axis along with the region. Find the limits of integration as the
intersection points of the curve and line in Figure 6.14(a). Evaluate the
volume integral.

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Volume and Area using Triq Substitutions

A trigonometric substitution can sometimes help us to evaluate an integral

containing an integer power of a quadratic binomial, as in the following
examples.
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the x-axis the
region bounded by the curve y = 4/(x 2 + 4), the x-axis, and the lines
x = 0 and x = 2. We sketch the region and use the disk method:

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Solution

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Solution Cont’d

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Example-Area of an Ellipse

x2 y2
Find the area enclosed by the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1. Because the ellipse is
a b
symmetric with respect to both axes, the total area A is four times the
area in the first quadrant (see figure below). Solving the equation of the
bp 2
ellipse for y ≥ 0 we get y = a − x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ a.
a

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Solution

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Areas of Surfaces of Revolution
When you jump rope, the rope sweeps out a surface in the space around
you called a surface of revolution. The “area”of this surface depends on
the length of the rope and the distance of each of its segments from the
axis of revolution. We want our definition of the area of a surface of
revolution to be consistent with known results from classical geometry for
the surface areas of spheres, circular cylinders,
√ and cones. So if the jump
rope takes the shape of a semicircle y = a2 − x 2 with radius a rotated
about the x-axis (see figure below), it generates a sphere with surface area
4πa2 .

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Definitions

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Applying the Surface Area Formula

Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve

√
y = 2 x, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 about the x-axis (see figure below).

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Solution

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Solution Cont’d

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Example

The line segment x = 1 − y , 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, is revolved about the y -axis to

generate the cone in the figure below. Find its lateral surface area (which
excludes the base area).

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Solution

Applying Equation (4) we take,

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Improper Integration
Recall that definite integrals have finite domain of integration [a, b], and
the range of the integrand be finite on this domain. In practice, we may
encounter problems that fail to meet one or both of these conditions. The
integral for the area under the curve y = (ln x)/x 2 from x = 1 to x = ∞
is an example for which the domain is infinite (see figure (a)). The
√
integral for the area under the curve y = 1/ x of between x = 0 and
x = 1 is an example for which the range of the integrand is infinite (see
figure (b)). In either case, the integrals are said to be improper and are
calculated as limits.

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Infinite Limits of Integration
Consider the infinite region that lies under the curve y = e −x/2 in the first
quadrant (see figure below) which appears to have infinite area,

but in fact the natural value to assign is finite. That is, first find the area
A(b) of the portion of the region that is bounded on the right by x = b.

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Definition-Infinite Limits of Integration

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Exercise

In each case, if the limit is finite we say that the improper integral
converges and that the limit is the value of the improper integral. If the
limit fails to exist, the improper integral diverges.
Evaluate the following improper integrals
Z ∞
ln x
dx = 1,
1 x2
Z ∞
dx
dx = π,
−∞ 1 + x2
and (
∞ 1
p−1 , p>1
Z
dx
dx =
1 xp ∞, p < 1.

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Numerical Integration

Recall that, the ideal way to evaluate a definite integral is to find a

formula F (x) for one of the antiderivatives of f (x) and calculate the
number F (b) − F (a). But some antiderivatives require considerable work
to 2
√ find, and still others, like the antiderivatives of sin(x ), 1/ ln(x) and
1 + x 4 have no elementary formulas. In this case, we turn to numerical
methods such as the Trapezoidal Rule and Simpson’s Rule

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Applying the Trapezoidal Rule
R2
Use the Trapezoidal Rule with n = 4 to estimate 1 x 2 dx. Compare the
estimate with the exact value. Partition [1, 2] into four subintervals of
equal length. Then evaluate y = x 2 at each partition point.

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Simpson’s Rule

R2
Example: Use Simpson’s Rule with n = 4 to approximate 0 5x 4 dx.

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Solution

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Taylor Series and Applications

This section shows how functions of a single variable (one independent

variable) that are infinitely differentiable generate power series called
Taylor series. In many cases, these series can provide useful polynomial
approximations of the generating functions.
Let f be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout some interval
containing a as an interior point. Then the Taylor series generated by f
at x = a is
∞
X f k (a) f ′′ (a)
(x − a)k = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2
k! 2!
k=0
f (n) (a)
+ ··· + (x − a)n + · · · .
n!

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Taylor Series Cont’d

The Maclaurin series generated by f is

∞
X f k (0) f ′′ (0) 2
x k = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + x
k! 2!
k=0
f (n) (0) n
+ ··· + x + ··· ,
n!
which is the Taylor series generated by f at x = 0.
Example: Find the Taylor series generated by f (x) = cos x at x = 0.

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Solution

The function cos x and its derivatives are

f (x) = cos x, f ′ (x) = − sin x,

f ′′ (x) = − cos x, f ′′′ (x) = sin x,
f (4) (x) = cos x, f (5) (x) = − sin x,
f (6) (x) = − cos x, f (7) (x) = sin x
..
.
f (2n) (x) = (−1)n cos x, f (2n+1) (x) = (−1)n+1 sin x.

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Solution Cont’d

At x = 0, we have f (2n) (0) = (−1)n and f (2n+1) (0) = 0 for every

n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . Therefore, the Taylor series generated by f at x = 0 is

f ′′ (0) 2 f ′′′ (0) 3 f (n) (0) n

f (0) + f ′ (0)x + x + x + ··· + x + ···
2! 3! n!
x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
=1+0·x − −0· + +0· − +0· + ···
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
x2 x4 x6 (−1)n x 2n
=1− + − + ··· + + ···
2! 4! 6! (2n)!

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Example

Find the Taylor series generated by f (x) = e ix , and show that

e ix = cos x + i sin x. If x = π, then show the Euler’s identity e iπ + 1 = 0.
Solution: The function e ix and its derivatives are

f (x) = e ix , f ′ (x) = ie ix ,
f ′′ (x) = −e ix , f ′′′ (x) = −ie ix ,
f (4) (x) = e ix , f (5) (x) = ie ix ,
f (6) (x) = −e ix , f (7) (x) = −ie ix
..
.
f (2n) (x) = (−1)n e ix , f (2n+1) (x) = (−1)n+2 ie ix .

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Solution Cont’d

At x = 0, we have f (2n) (0) = (−1)n and f (2n+1) (0) = i(−1)n+2 for every
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . Therefore, the Taylor series generated by f at x = 0 is

f ′′ (0) 2 f ′′′ (0) 3 f (4) (0) 4 f (5) (0) 5

f (0) + f ′ (0)x + x + x + x + x
2! 3! 4! 5!
f (n) (0) n
+ ··· + x + ···
n!
x 2 ix 3 x 4 ix 5 x 6 ix 7
= 1 + ix − − + + − − + ···
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
x2 x4 x6 (−1)n x 2n x3 x5
=1− + − + ··· + + · · · + i(x − +
2! 4! 6! (2n)! 3! 5!
x 7 n+2
(−1) x 2n+1
− + ··· + + ···)
7! (2n + 1)!

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Solution Cont’d

x2 x4 x6 (−1)n x 2n
But 1 − + − + ··· + + · · · and
2! 4! 6! (2n)!
x3 x5 x7 (−1)n+2 x 2n+1
x− + − + ··· + + · · · are the Taylor series
3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)!
generated by cos x and sin x respectively at x = 0. Thus,

e ix = cos x + i sin x.

If x = π, then
e iπ + 1 = 0.

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