01 Fundamentals of Algebra

Useful Mathematical Symbols for Reference

Symbol How it is read
 For all...
 There exists...
 And
 or
< is less than
> is greater than
 is less than or equal to
 is greater than or equal to
 is not less than
 is not greater than
 belongs to
 does not belong to
| , : , s.t. such that
 implies (If... then...)
 implies and implied by (if and only if / iff)
! factorial
The square root of
n
nth root, n  N, n > 2
 The summation of
 The product of

Greek Letters (Capital, Small) and there pronunciations

Symbol How it is read Symbol How it is read
(Capital, Small) (Capital, Small)
 alpha  nu
 beta  iota
 gamma , lambda
 delta  Pi
 epsilon  rho
 theta M,µ mu
 sigma  phi
 psi  omega

Mathematics [1]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
1. Indices:
Definition of Indices:
If '𝑎' is any non-zero real or imaginary number and '𝑚' is a positive integer, then 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎. 𝑎. 𝑎….𝑎 (𝑚 times).
Here 𝑎 is called the base and 𝑚 is the index, power or exponent.
Law of indices:
(i) 𝑎0 = 1, (𝑎  0)
1
(ii) 𝑎−𝑚 = , (𝑎  0)
am
(iii) 𝑎𝑚 . 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
am
(iv) = 𝑎𝑚–𝑛 , 𝑎  0
an
(v) (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚
𝑝
( )
(vi) ap = 𝑎 , 𝑞 𝑁 and 𝑞  2
q
𝑞

(vii) If 𝑥 = 𝑦, then 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 y, but the converse may not be true. e.g. : (1)6 = (1)8, but 6  8
For 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 we have following possibilities
• If 𝑎  ±1, 0, then 𝑥 = 𝑦
• If 𝑎 = 1, then 𝑥, 𝑦 may be any real number
• If 𝑎 = – 1, then 𝑥, 𝑦 may be both even or both odd
• If 𝑎 = 0, then 𝑥, 𝑦 may be any positive real number
𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑥)
But if we have to solve the equations like (𝑓(𝑥)) = (𝑓(𝑥)) (i.e. same base, different indices)
then we have to solve :
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = – 1
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 (d) 𝑔(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥)
Verification should be done in (b) and (c) cases
(viii) If 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑥 then consider the following cases:
• If 𝑎  ±𝑏, then 𝑥 = 0
• If 𝑎 = 𝑏  0, then 𝑥 may have any real value for which 𝑎 𝑥 is well defined.
• If 𝑎 = –𝑏  0, then 𝑥 is even.
• If 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 0, then 𝑥 can be any positive real.
If we have to solve the equation of the form [𝑓(𝑥)]ℎ(𝑥) = [𝑔(𝑥)]ℎ(𝑥) , i.e., same index, different bases,
then we have to solve:
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = – 𝑔(𝑥)
(c) ℎ(𝑥) = 0
Verification should be done in (a), (b) and (c) cases.

[2] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Illustration 1:
2
(125)1/3  =
(A) 25 (B) 5 (C) 125 (D) 625
Solution:
Ans. (A)
2
(53 )1/3   (5)2  25
Illustration 2:
(2)3 (8) −1/3 (4)2
=
(64)−1/ 6 (8)2
(A) 8 (B) 2 (C) 16 (D) 64
Solution:
Ans. (B)
23.2−1.24 27
 =2
2−1.26 26
Illustration 3:
2 3
729 =
(A) 3 (B) 9 (C) 27 (D) 81
Ans. (A)
Solution:

( (3 ) )
1/ 2
6 1/3
 3
Illustration 4:
If 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏, 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑐, 𝑐 𝑧 = 𝑎, prove that 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 1, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are distinct numbers.
Solution:
We have, 𝑎𝑥𝑦𝑧 = (𝑎𝑥 )𝑦𝑧
 𝑎𝑥𝑦𝑧 = (𝑏)𝑦𝑧 [ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏]

 𝑎𝑥𝑦𝑧 = (𝑏𝑦)𝑧
 𝑎𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 𝑐𝑧 [𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑐]

 𝑎𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 𝑎 [ 𝑐 𝑧 = 𝑎]

 𝑎𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 𝑎1
 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 1
Illustration 5:
Solve (𝑥 2 − 4)2𝑥 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)2𝑥 .
Solution:
Case-1 : When 𝑥 = 0
Base: 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 0, so 𝑥 = 0 does not satisfy given equation
Case-2 : 𝑥 2 – 4 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥  𝑥 = –2
𝑥 = –2 does not satisfy the given equation.

Mathematics [3]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
Case-3 : 𝑥 2 – 4 = – 𝑥 2 – 2𝑥  0  2𝑥2 + 2𝑥 – 4 = 0
𝑥2 + 𝑥 – 2 = 0  𝑥 = 1
satisfies the given equation
From all above cases, 𝑥{1}
2. Surds:
If ‘𝑥’ is a rational number, which is not the 𝑛𝑡ℎ power (𝑛  𝑁 \{1}) of any rational number, then the
𝑛 𝑛
number 𝑥 1/n usually denoted by √𝑥 is called surd. The sign ' √𝑥 ' is called the radical sign. The number
2
in the angular part of the sign, i.e., '𝑛′ is called order of the surd. In case of 𝑛 = 2 the expression √𝑥 ,
simply written as √𝑥.
Note :
𝑛 𝑛
• If √𝑥 is a surd then – ( √𝑥 ) is also a surd.
• Every surd is an irrational number (but every irrational number is not a surd).
• To rationalize the denominator of a fraction of the form a , multiply the numerator and denominator
b

a a b a b a b
of the fraction by b  = . = = .
2 b
b b b b
Ex.
(a) 3 is a surd and 3 is an irrational number.
3
(b) 5 is surd and 3 5 is an irrational number.
(c)  is an irrational number, but it is not a surd.

Conjugate of a Surd
If two binomial surds (surds containing two terms such as 2 + √3, 2√5 − √7 etc.) are such that only the
sign connecting the individual terms are different, then they are said to be conjugate of each other. If these
surds are quadratic, then their product would always be rational. So in case of a binomial quadratic surd,
we use its conjugate as its rationalizing factor.
Ex. Conjugate of 3√2 + √5 is 3√2 − √5 or – 3√2 + √5
Illustration 6:
1
Rationalize the denominator of .
3 2+ 5
Solution:
A conjugate of 3√2 + √5 is 3√2 − √5
Therefore multiplying the conjugate in the numerator and denominator of the given fraction.
3 2− 5
(3 2 + 5 )(3 2 − 5 )
3 2− 5 3 2− 5 3 2− 5
= = =
(3 2 ) − ( 5 )
2 2
18 − 5 13

[4] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Illustration 7:
1
Rationalize the denominator of .
3 − 2 −1
Solution:
1 1 3 + 2 +1
= 
3 − 2 −1 3 − 2 −1 3 + 2 +1
3 + 2 +1 3 + 2 +1 3 + 2 +1
= = =
( 3 − 2 − 1)( 3 + 2 + 1) ( 3) − (
2
2 + 1)
2
−2 2

 6 + 2 +2
= − 
 4 
Illustration 8:
4+3 5
Find rational numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, such that = a+b 5 .
4 −3 5
Solution:
4 +3 5 4 +3 5
 = a+b 5
4 −3 5 4 +3 5
61 + 24 5
 = a+b 5
−29
61 24
 a = − ,b = −
29 29
Illustration 9:
1
If 𝑥 = 3 – 2 2 , find 𝑥 2 + .
x2
Solution:
We have, 𝑥 = 3 – 2 2 .
1 1 1 3+2 2 3+2 2 3+2 2
 = =  = = =3+2 2
x 3 − 2 2 3 − 2 2 3 + 2 2 (3) − (2 2)
2 2 9−8
1
Thus, 𝑥 2 + = (3 – 2 2 )2 + (3 + 2 2 )2
x2
= 2((3)2 + (2 2 )2) = 2(9 + 8) = 34
Illustration 10:
Simplify 1 1
−
(5 − 2 6 ) (3 − 2 2 )
(A) 4(1 + 6 – 2 ) (B) 2(1 + 5 + 2 ) (C) 2(1 + 6 – 2 ) (D) 2(1 + 6 + 5 )
Solution:
Ans. (C)
(5 + 2 6) (3 + 2 2)
−
(5 + 2 6)(5 − 2 6) (3 − 2 2)(3 + 2 2)
 (5 + 2 6 ) – (3 +2 2 )
 2(1 + 6 – 2 )

Mathematics [5]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
3. Factorizations (Type 1 to 3)
3.1 𝒂𝟐 – 𝒃𝟐 = (𝒂 – 𝒃)(𝒂 + 𝒃)

Illustration 11:
(3𝑥 – 𝑦)2 – (2𝑥 – 3𝑦)2
Solution:
Use 𝑎2 – 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 – 𝑏) (𝑎 + 𝑏)
 (3𝑥 – 𝑦)2 – (2𝑥 – 3𝑦)2
= (3𝑥 – 𝑦 + 2𝑥 – 3𝑦)(3𝑥 – 𝑦 – 2𝑥 + 3𝑦)
= (5𝑥 – 4𝑦) (𝑥 + 2𝑦)
3.2 Factorising the Quadratic expression
Illustration 12:
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 – 187
Solution:
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 – 187
= 𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 – 11𝑥 – 187
= 𝑥(𝑥 + 17) – 11(𝑥 + 17)
= (𝑥 + 17) (𝑥 – 11)
3.3 Factorisation by converting the given expression into a perfect square.
Illustration 13:
9𝑥 4 – 10𝑥 2 + 1
Solution:
9𝑥 4 – 10𝑥 2 + 1 = (3𝑥 2 )2 – 2.3𝑥 2 + 1 – 4𝑥 2
= (3𝑥 2 – 1)2 – (2𝑥)2
= (3𝑥 2 – 1 – 2𝑥)(3𝑥 2 – 1 + 2𝑥)
= (𝑥 – 1)(3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 – 1)

Factorization (Type 4 to 5)
3.4 𝒂𝟑 ± 𝒃𝟑 ≡ (𝒂 ± 𝒃)(𝒂𝟐 ∓ 𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝟐 )
Illustration 14:
𝑎6 – 𝑏 6
Solution:
𝑎6 – 𝑏 6 = (𝑎2 )3 – (𝑏 2 )3
= (𝑎2 – 𝑏 2 ) (𝑎4 + 𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 𝑏 4 )
= (𝑎 – 𝑏) (𝑎 + 𝑏) (𝑎2 – 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) (𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

[6] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
3.5 Using Factor Theorem:
Illustration 15:
𝑥 3 – 13𝑥 – 12
Solution:
As 𝑥 = – 1 makes given expression 0, 𝑥 + 1 is a factor
x2 − x − 12
x + 1 x3 − 13x − 12
x3 + x 2
− x2 − 13 x − 12
− x2 − x
−12 x − 12
−12 x − 12
0

 𝑥 3 – 13𝑥 – 12 = (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 2 – 𝑥 – 12)
= (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 – 4) (𝑥 + 3)

Factorization (Type 6 to 7)
3.6 a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ac)
Illustration 16:
8𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 27𝑧 3 – 18𝑥𝑦𝑧
Solution:
8𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 27𝑧 3 – 18𝑥𝑦𝑧 = (2𝑥)3 + (𝑦)3 + (3𝑧)3 – 3(2𝑥)(𝑦)(3𝑧)
= (2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧) (4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 9𝑧 2 – 2𝑥𝑦 – 6𝑥𝑧 – 3𝑦𝑧)
Illustration 17:
Factorize (𝑎 – 𝑏)3 + (𝑏 – 𝑐)3 + (𝑐 – 𝑎)3
Solution:
Let 𝑥 = 𝑎 – 𝑏, 𝑦 = 𝑏 – 𝑐, 𝑧 = 𝑐 – 𝑎
 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑧 3 = 3𝑥𝑦𝑧
 (𝑎 – 𝑏)3 + (𝑏 – 𝑐)3 + (𝑐 – 𝑎)3 = 3(𝑎 – 𝑏)(𝑏 – 𝑐)(𝑐 – 𝑎)
Illustration 18:
Factorize
27𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 64𝑧 3 – 36𝑥𝑦𝑧
Solution:
(3𝑥)3 + 𝑦 3 + (4𝑧)3 – 3(3𝑥)𝑦(4𝑧)
= (3𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4𝑧)(9𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 16𝑧 2 – 3𝑥𝑦 – 4𝑦𝑧 – 12𝑧𝑥)

Mathematics [7]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
Illustration 19:
Factorize 𝑥 2 (𝑦 – 𝑧) + 𝑦 2 (𝑧 – 𝑥) + 𝑧 2 (𝑥 – 𝑦)
Solution:
𝑥 2 (𝑦 – 𝑧) + 𝑥(𝑧 2 – 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑦𝑧(𝑦 – 𝑧)
= (𝑦 – 𝑧) (𝑥 2 – 𝑥(𝑧 + 𝑦) + 𝑦𝑧)
= (𝑦 – 𝑧) (𝑥 2 – 𝑥𝑧 – 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧)
= (𝑦 – 𝑧) (𝑥(𝑥 – 𝑧) – 𝑦 (𝑥 – 𝑧))
= (𝑦 – 𝑧) (𝑥 – 𝑧) (𝑥 – 𝑦)
= – (𝑥 – 𝑦) (𝑦 – 𝑧) (𝑧 – 𝑥)
3.7 Important Algebraic Identities
• 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑦 + 𝑏)
• 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)2
• 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑧𝑥 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)2
• 𝑥 2 – 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 – 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑦)
• 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 1 = (𝑥 2 + 1)2 – 𝑥 2 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 – 𝑥 + 1)
• 𝑥 3 – 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 – 𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
• 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 2 – 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
• 𝑥 𝑛 – 𝑦 𝑛 = (𝑥 – 𝑦)(𝑥 𝑛 – 1 + 𝑥 𝑛 – 2 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑛 – 3 𝑦 2 + … + 𝑦 𝑛 – 1), 𝑛  
+1 +1 – –
• 𝑥 2𝑛 + 𝑦 2𝑛 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 2𝑛 – 𝑥 2𝑛 1 𝑦 + 𝑥 2𝑛 2 𝑦 2 – ... + 𝑦 2𝑛 ), 𝑛  
• 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑧 3 – 3𝑥𝑦𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧) (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 – 𝑥𝑦 – 𝑦𝑧 – 𝑧𝑥)
1
2
2

= ( x + y + z) ( x − y) + ( y − z ) + ( z − x)
2 2

• 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑧 3 = 3𝑥𝑦𝑧 if 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 or 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧
• 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑧 3 + 3(𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑦 + 𝑧)(𝑧 + 𝑥) = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)3

Problem Solving Strategies :

• When facing a problem with gigantic numbers, try replacing them with smaller numbers and look for
a pattern. You can often prove your pattern works and solve the problem by substituting variable
expressions for the numbers.
Illustration-20 :
Compute 2022  2020  2018  2016 + 16 without using calculator.
Solution :
Let 𝑥 = 2019
2022  2020  2018  2016 + 16
= ( x + 3)( x + 1)( x − 1)( x − 3) + 16
= ( x2 − 9)( x2 − 1) + 16

= x 4 − 10 x2 + 25 = ( x2 − 5) = x2 − 5
2

= 20192 – 5 = (2000)2 + (19)2 + 2 × 2000 × 19 – 5

= 4000000 + 361 + 76000 – 5
= 4,076, 356

[8] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
• Focusing on what makes a problem tricky helps identify what strategies might be best to solve the
problem.
• If you have a problem that involves expressions of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏 and 𝑎– 𝑏, where 𝑎 and/or 𝑏 involve
square roots, consider finding a way to multiply the expressions to get rid of the square roots.
Illustration-21 :
Suppose x = z − z 2 − 5 and 5 y = z + z 2 − 5 . Find 𝑥 when 𝑦 = 2/3.
Solution :
𝑥 = z − z 2 − 5 and 5𝑦 = z + z 2 − 5 , multiplying both equations
we get
5𝑥𝑦 = 𝑧 2 – (𝑧 2 – 5) = 5
 𝑥𝑦 = 1
3
𝑥= .
2
• When making a substitution, take some time to look for the substitution that simplifies your work the
most.
• If we have the product of two variables added to linear terms with both variables, such as
𝑚𝑛 + 3𝑚 + 5𝑛, then there is a constant we can add that will allow us to factor. For example, adding 15
to 𝑚𝑛 + 3𝑚 + 5𝑛 gives us 𝑚𝑛 + 3𝑚 + 5𝑛 + 15 = (𝑚 + 5)(𝑛 + 3).
Illustration-22 :
Find all integral solutions of 𝑥 and 𝑦 when 𝑥𝑦 – 𝑦 – 2𝑥 = 3.
Solution :
𝑥𝑦– 𝑦– 2𝑥 = 3
 𝑥𝑦– 𝑦– 2𝑥 + 2 = 5
 𝑦(𝑥– 1)– 2(𝑥– 1) = 5
 (𝑥– 1)(𝑦– 2) = 5
x − 1 y − 2 ( x, y)
5 1 (6,3)
1 5 (2,7)
−5 −1 ( −4,1)
−1 −5 (0, −3)
All possible (𝑥, 𝑦) and (6, 3), (2, 7), (0, –3) and (–4, 1)
• Guessing has a long and glorious history in mathematics and science. It is often a very important first
step in many discoveries. Don't be afraid to guess! But make sure you test your guesses – 𝑎 guess itself
is only a first step.
Illustration-23 :
Find all pairs of positive integers 𝑚 and 𝑛 such that 𝑚2 is 105 greater than 𝑛2 .
Solution :
Turning the words into math is easy :
𝑚2 = 𝑛2 + 105.
 (𝑚– 𝑛)(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 105.
(𝑚– 𝑛)(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 1.105 = 3.35 = 5.21 = 7.15

Mathematics [9]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
Because 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive, we know that 𝑚– 𝑛 is smaller than 𝑚 + 𝑛, so we only have these four cases
to consider :
𝑚– 𝑛 = 1 𝑚– 𝑛 = 3 𝑚– 𝑛 = 5 𝑚– 𝑛 = 7
𝑚 + 𝑛 = 105 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 35 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 21 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 15
Each of these systems of equations gives us a solution (𝑚, 𝑛). Adding the equations in the first case gives
us 2𝑚 = 106, so 𝑚 = 53. Substitution then gives 𝑛 = 52. Similarly, we can work through each of the other
three cases to find the four solutions (𝑚, 𝑛) = (53, 52); (19, 16); (13, 8); (11, 4).
Illustration-24 :
The number 7,999,999,999 has two prime factors. Find them.
Solution :
Let 7,999,999,999 = 8,000,000,000 – 1
= (2000)3 – 13 = (2000 – 1) (20002 + 2000 + 1)
= (1999) (4002001)
According to question, 7,999,999,999 has two prime factors, they must be 1999 and 4002001.
Illustration-25 :
Factor 𝑥 4 + 4𝑦 4.
Solution :
𝑥 4 + 4𝑦 4 = (𝑥 2 )2 + (2𝑦 2 )2 – 2(𝑥 2 )(2𝑦 2 ) + (2𝑥𝑦)2
= (𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 )2 – (2𝑥𝑦)2
= (𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 – 2𝑥𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦)

Miscellaneous Algebraic Manipulations

Illustration 26:
1
Suppose x + = 5 find
x
1 1
(i) x2 + (ii) x 4 −
x2 x4
Solution:
1
(i) Given : x + =5
x
2
 1 1 1
By squaring both sides  x +  = (5)  x2 + 2 + 2 = 25  x2 + 2 = 23
2

 x x x
2 2
 1  1 1
(ii)  x −  =  x +  − 4 = 21  x − =  21
 x  x x
1
x2 − = 5 21
x2
1
from (i) we have x2 + = 23
x2
1
So x 4 − = 23  5 21 = 115 21
x4

[ 10 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Illustration 27:

Simplify 6 + 11 + 6 − 11
Solution:

Let x = 6 + 11 + 6 − 11
By squaring both sides

( ) +( )
2 2
x2 = 6 + 11 6 − 11 + 2 36 − 11
= 12 + 10 = 22
Since 𝑥 is positive, so x = 22 .
OR

x = 6 + 11 + 6 − 11 =
1
( 12 + 2 11 + 12 − 2 11 )
2

=
1
2
( ( 11 + 1) +
2
( 11 − 1)
2
)
1
= ( 11 + 1 + 11 − 1)
2
 x = 22
Illustration 28:
2
 1 1
If  a +  = 3 , then a3 + 3 equals :
 a a
(A) 6 3 (B) 3 3 (C) 0 (D) 6 3
Ans. (C)
Solution:
1
a+ = 3
a
3
1  1  1
a3 + 3
=  a +  − 3 a +  =  3 3 3 3 = 0
a  a  a
Illustration 29:
3− 2 3+ 2
If x = and y = , then find 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 .
3+ 2 3− 2
Solution:
3− 2
( )
2
x= = 3− 2 =5−2 6
3+ 2
y =5+2 6
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = (𝑥 + 𝑦) (𝑥 2 – 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
= (𝑥 + 𝑦) [(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 – 3𝑥𝑦]
= 10 × [100 – 3]
= 970

Mathematics [ 11 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
4. Polynomial in One Variable
An algebraic expression of the form 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛–1 𝑥 𝑛–1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 is called a polynomial
function in ′𝑥′ where 𝑎𝑖 (𝑖 = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 𝑛) is a constant which belongs to the set of real numbers and
sometimes to the set of complex numbers and 𝑛 is a whole number.
• 𝑎𝑖 is the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑖 for 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 𝑛 and 𝑎0 is constant term of 𝑝(𝑥).
• If 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 is called leading term and 𝑎𝑛 is called leading co-efficient.
• If 𝑎𝑛 = 1, then polynomial is called monic polynomial.
• If 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then degree of the polynomial is 𝑛.
• 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 is called constant polynomial. Its degree is 0, if 𝑎0 ≠ 0. If 𝑎0 = 0, the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is
called ZERO polynomial. Its degree is defined as  to preserve following two properties listed below.
Some people prefer not to define degree of zero polynomial.
If 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑛 and 𝑔(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑚 then
1. 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree ≤ 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑛, 𝑚}
2. 𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑔(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑚 + 𝑛.
(a) Types of Polynomials (w.r.t. Degree)
Degree of the polynomial in one variable is the largest exponent of the variable. For example, the degree
of the polynomial 3𝑥 7 – 4𝑥 6 + 𝑥 + 9 is 7 and the degree of the polynomial 5𝑥 6 – 4𝑥 2 – 6 is 6.
Polynomials classified by degree
Degree Name General form Example
Undefined or  Zero polynomial 0 0
(Non-zero) constant
0 a; (a  0) 4
polynomial
1 Linear polynomial ax + b; (a  0) x+1
Quadratic
2 ax2 + bx + c; (a  0) x2 + 1
polynomial
3 Cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 +cx + d; (a  0) x3 + 1
Usually, 𝑎 polynomial of degree 𝑛, for 𝑛 greater than 3, is called a polynomial of degree 𝑛, although the
phrases quartic polynomial for degree 4 and quantic polynomial for degree 5 are sometimes used.
Note :
Polynomials having only one term are called monomials. E.g. 2, 2𝑥, 7𝑦 5 , 12𝑡 7 etc. Polynomials having
exactly two dissimilar terms are called binomials. E.g. 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑟(𝑦) = 2𝑦 7 + 5𝑦 6 etc.
Polynomials having exactly three distinct terms are called trinomials.
E.g. 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 6, 𝑄(𝑦) = 9𝑦 6 + 4𝑦 2 + 1 etc.

(b) Division in Polynomials

Consider two polynomials 𝑃(𝑥) & 𝑑(𝑥) with 𝑑(𝑥) being not identically zero and degree of 𝑑(𝑥)  degree of
𝑃(𝑥) then there exists unique polynomials 𝑄(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) such that
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) . 𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥)
Here 𝑃(𝑥) is called as dividend,
𝑑(𝑥) is called as divisor,
𝑄(𝑥) is called as quotient,
& 𝑟(𝑥) is called as remainder with degree of 𝑟(𝑥) < degree of 𝑑(𝑥)

[ 12 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Note :
If 𝑑(𝑥) is a divisor of 𝑃(𝑥) then 𝑘𝑑(𝑥) will also be a divisor of 𝑃(𝑥); 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 – {0} and 𝑑(– 𝑥) will be a divisor
of 𝑃(– 𝑥).
Illustration 30:
Which of the following is polynomial?
1 3
(A) x2 + (B) x + x3 − x + 1 (C) x5 + x6 + 3 (D) + 4
x x
Ans. (C)
Solution:
𝑥 5 + 𝑥 6 + √3 is polynomial.
Illustration 31:
Degree of the polynomial 6𝑥 2 – 9𝑥 3 + 3 𝑥 5 + 8𝑥 10 is
(A) 3 (B) 10 (C) 8 (D) 5
Ans. (B)
Solution:
Largest exponent of the variable in polynomial 6𝑥 2 – 9𝑥 3 + 3 𝑥 5 + 8𝑥 10 is 10
So degree is 10.
Illustration 32:
Which of the following is not monomial?
(A) 2 (B) 𝑡 2 (C) 3x (D) 1 + 𝑥 2
Ans. (D)
Solution:
1 + 𝑥 2 is not monomial.

5. Remainder Theorem
Statement : Let 𝑝(𝑥) be a polynomial of degree  1 and ′𝑎′ is any real number. If 𝑝(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 – 𝑎),
then the remainder is 𝑝(𝑎).
Illustration 33:
Let 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑏𝑒 𝑥 3 – 7𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 4. Divide 𝑝(𝑥) with (𝑥 – 6) and find the remainder
Solution:
Put 𝑥 = 6 in 𝑝(𝑥) i. e. 𝑝(6) will be the remainder.
 required remainder be
𝑝(6) = (6)3 – 7.62 + 6.6 + 4 = 216 – 252 + 36 + 4 = 256 – 252 = 4
x2 − x
x − 6 x3 − 7 x 2 + 6 x + 4
3
x − 6 x2
− +

− x2 + 6 x + 4
− x2 + 6 x
+ −

Remainder = 4
Thus, 𝑝(𝑎) is remainder on dividing 𝑝(𝑥) by (𝑥 – 𝑎).

Mathematics [ 13 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
Remark :
(i) 𝑝(– 𝑎) is remainder on dividing 𝑝(𝑥) by (𝑥 + 𝑎) [ 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0  𝑥 = – 𝑎]

(ii) b [ 𝑎𝑥 – 𝑏 = 0  𝑥 = 𝑏/𝑎]

p   is remainder on dividing 𝑝(𝑥) by (𝑎𝑥 – 𝑏)
a

(iii) p  −b  is remainder on dividing 𝑝(𝑥) by (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) [ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0  𝑥 = – 𝑏/𝑎]

 a 

(iv) p  b  is remainder on dividing 𝑝(𝑥) by (𝑏 – 𝑎𝑥) [ 𝑏 – 𝑎𝑥 = 0  𝑥 = 𝑏/𝑎]

a

Illustration 34:
Find the remainder when
𝑥 3 – 𝑎𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 – 𝑎 is divided by 𝑥 – 𝑎
Solution:
Let 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 – 𝑎𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 – 𝑎
𝑝(𝑎) = 𝑎3 – 𝑎(𝑎)2 + 6(𝑎) – 𝑎
= 𝑎3 – 𝑎3 + 6𝑎 – 𝑎 = 5𝑎
So, by the Remainder theorem, remainder = 5𝑎.
Illustration 35:
Find remainder when 𝑥 4 – 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 – 𝑏 is divided by 𝑥 – 1.
Solution:
Let 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 – 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 – 𝑏
𝑝(1) = 1 – 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎 – 𝑏 = 1
So, by the remainder theorem, remainder = 1.

6. Factor Theorem
Statement:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a polynomial of degree  1 and a be any real constant such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 0, then (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a
factor of 𝑓(𝑥). Conversely, if (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑓(𝑎) = 0.
Proof :
By Remainder theorem, if 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 – 𝑎), the remainder will be 𝑓(𝑎). Let 𝑄(𝑥) be the quotient.
Then, we can write, 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 – 𝑎) × 𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑎) ( Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder)

If 𝑓(𝑎) = 0, then 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 – 𝑎) × 𝑄(𝑥)

Thus, (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Converse Let (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Then we have a polynomial 𝑄(𝑥) such that 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 – 𝑎) × 𝑄(𝑥)
Replacing 𝑥 by a, we get 𝑓(𝑎) = 0.
Hence, proved.
Note: A polynomial function of degree '𝑛' ( 1) has exactly n zeroes (real or imaginary).
i.e., 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥– 𝑟1 )(𝑥 – 𝑟2 ) … (𝑥– 𝑟𝑛 )

[ 14 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Illustration 36:
Use the factor theorem to determine whether (𝑥 – 1) is a factor of
𝑓(𝑥) = 2√2𝑥 3 + 5√2𝑥 2 − 7√2
Solution:
By using factor theorem, (𝑥 – 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), only when 𝑓(1) = 0
𝑓(1) = 2√2(1)3 + 5√2(1)2 − 7√2 = 2√2 + 5√2 − 7√2 = 0
Hence, (𝑥 − 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Illustration 37:
Use the factor theorem to determine whether (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − (5 + 𝑎)𝑥 2 + (5𝑎 + 6)𝑥 − 6𝑎
Solution:
(𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), only when 𝑓(𝑎) = 0
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎3 − 5𝑎2 − 𝑎3 + 5𝑎2 + 6𝑎 − 6𝑎 = 0
Hence, (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Illustration 38:
Find the constants 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 such that (2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 7)(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) = 2𝑥 4 + 11𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 + 13𝑥– 35
Solution :
Method : 1
(2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 7)(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) = 2𝑥 4 + 11𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 + 13𝑥– 35
By comparing coefficient of 𝑥 4 from both sides
 2𝑎 = 2  𝑎 = 1
By comparing coefficient of 𝑥 3 from both sides
 2𝑏 + 3𝑎 = 11  𝑏 = 4
By comparing coefficient of 𝑥 2 from both sides
 2𝑐 + 3𝑏 + 7𝑎 = 9  𝑐 =– 5
By comparing coefficient of 𝑥 from both sides
 3𝑐 + 7𝑏 = 13 (𝑏 & 𝑐 satisfy)
By comparing constant
 7𝑐 =– 35  𝑐 =– 5
So 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 4, 𝑐 =– 5
Method : 2
Given that (2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 7)(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) = 2𝑥 4 + 11𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 + 13𝑥– 35
2x4 + 11x3 + 9x2 + 13x − 35
 ax2 + bx + c =
2 x2 + 3 x + 7
= 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥– 5
By comparing
 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 4 and 𝑐 = – 5.

Mathematics [ 15 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
Illustration 39 :
Show that (𝑥 – 3) is a factor of the polynomial 𝑥 3 – 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥– 12.
Solution :
Let 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 – 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥– 12 be the given polynomial. By factor theorem, (𝑥 – 𝑎) is a factor of a polynomial
𝑝(𝑥) iff 𝑝(𝑎) = 0. Therefore, in order to prove that 𝑥– 3 is a factor of 𝑝(𝑥), it is sufficient to show that
𝑝(3) = 0.
Now, 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 – 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥– 12
 𝑝(3) = 33 – 3 × 32 + 4 × 3 – 12 = 27 – 27 + 12 – 12 = 0
Hence, (𝑥 – 3) is a factor of 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 – 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 – 12.
Illustration 40 :
The polynomials 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 – 3 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 – 5𝑥 + 𝑘, when divided by (𝑥 – 4) leave the same
remainder. The value of 𝑘 is
(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) 0 (D) –1
Solution :
𝑃(4) = 64𝑘 + 48– 3 = 64𝑘 + 45
 𝑄(4) = 128– 20 + 𝑘 = 𝑘 + 108
given 𝑃(4) = 𝑄(4)
 64𝑘 + 45 = 𝑘 + 108
 63𝑘 = 63  𝑘 = 1
Option (B) is correct
Illustration 41 :
If 𝑓(𝑥) is monic polynomial of degree 6 such that 𝑓(0) = 0, 𝑓(1) = – 1, 𝑓(2) = – 2, 𝑓(3) = – 3, 𝑓(4) = – 4
and 𝑓(5) = – 5, then find 𝑓(𝑥).
Solution :
According to question
𝑓(0) = 0, 𝑓(1) = – 1, 𝑓(2) = – 2, ..., 𝑓(5) = – 5
 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑥 = 0 has the roots 𝑥 = 0, 1, 2, ..., 5
 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 – 2)(𝑥 – 3)(𝑥 – 4)(𝑥 – 5) (By factor theorem)
 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 – 2)(𝑥 – 3)(𝑥 – 4)(𝑥 – 5) – 𝑥.
Illustration 42 :
Let 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 are constants. If 𝑃(1) = 10, 𝑃(2) = 20, 𝑃(3) = 30,
then compute 𝑃(4) + 𝑃(0).
Solution :
𝑃(1) = 10, 𝑃(2) = 20 and 𝑃(3) = 30
we can write these information as
 𝑃(𝑥) = 10𝑥 for 𝑥 = 1, 2, 3
 𝑃(𝑥) – 10𝑥 = 0 has roots 𝑥 = 1, 2 and 3
By factor theorem
 𝑃(𝑥)– 10𝑥 = (𝑥 – 𝛼)(𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 – 2)(𝑥 – 3)
 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 – 𝛼)(𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 – 2)(𝑥 – 3) + 10𝑥
 𝑃(4) + 𝑃(0) = (4 – )(3)(2)(1) + 40 + (–)(–1)(–2)(–3) + 0
= 24 – 6 + 40 + 6
= 64

[ 16 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Illustration 43 :
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are roots of 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
find (i) 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 (ii) 𝑎𝑏𝑐
Solution :
By factor theorem
2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 2(𝑥 – 𝑎)(𝑥 – 𝑏)(𝑥 – 𝑐)
 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 2(𝑥 3 – (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑥 2 + (𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎)𝑥 – 𝑎𝑏𝑐)
 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 2𝑥 3 – 2(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑥 2 + 2(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎)𝑥 – 2𝑎𝑏𝑐
By comparing coefficient of 𝑥 2 and constant term, we have
– 2(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) = 1 and – 2𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 1
−1 −1
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐= and 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = .
2 2

7. Equations Reducible to Quadratic Equations

There are certain equations which can be reduced to 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 by some proper substitution.
𝟐
(a) 𝒂(𝒇(𝒙)) + 𝒃(𝒇(𝒙)) + 𝒄 = 𝟎, where 𝒇(𝒙) is expression of 𝒙.
Method of solving : Put 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
Illustration 44:
(a) Solve 2𝑥+3 + 2–𝑥 – 6 = 0
2
 x   x 
(b) Solve   + 6 − 5 =0
 x +1  x +1
Solution:
(a) Put 2𝑥 = 𝑦
 8y + 1 − 6 = 0
y

 8𝑦 2 – 6𝑦 + 1 = 0
 (4𝑦 – 1) (2𝑦 – 1) = 0
1 1
 y= ,
4 2
 2𝑥 = 2–2 and 2𝑥 = 2–1
 𝑥 = – 2, 𝑥 = – 1
x
(b) Put =y
x +1
 𝑦 2 – 5𝑦 + 6 = 0
 (𝑦 – 2) (𝑦 – 3) = 0
x x
 = 2 and =3
x +1 x +1
 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 2 and 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 3
3
 𝑥 = −2 𝑥=−
2

Mathematics [ 17 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
(b) (𝒙 – 𝒂)𝟒 + (𝒙 – 𝒃)𝟒 = 𝒄,

Method of Solving : Put x − a + x − b = t  x =

( a + b) + t
2 2
Illustration-45 :
(𝑥 – 1)4 + (𝑥 – 7)4 = 272
Solution :
7+1
Put x = +t
2
𝑥 =𝑡+4
 (𝑡 + 3)4 + (𝑡 – 3)4 = 272
 2(𝑡 4 + 6.9𝑡 2 + 81) = 272
 𝑡 4 + 54𝑡 2 + 81 = 136
 𝑡 4 + 54𝑡 2 – 55 = 0
 (𝑡 2 – 1)(𝑡 2 + 55) = 0
 𝑡2 = 1
 𝑡 = ±1
 𝑥 = 5,3

(c) 𝒎𝒂𝟐𝒙 + 𝒏(𝒂𝒃)𝒙 + 𝒓𝒃𝟐𝒙 = 𝟎 (𝒂 & 𝒃 > 𝟎)

x
a
Method of Solving : Divide the equation by 𝑏 2𝑥
and put   = t for 𝑡 > 0
b
Illustration 46:
32𝑥+2 + 5.6𝑥 – 4𝑥+1 = 0
Solution:
32𝑥+2 + 5.6𝑥 – 4𝑥+1 = 0
 9 × (3)2𝑥 + 5 × (2 × 3)𝑥 – 4(2)2𝑥 = 0
2x x
3 3
 9   + 5  − 4 = 0 ...(1)
2  2
x
3
Let   = t for 𝑡 > 0
2
Equation 1 becomes
9𝑡 2 + 5𝑡 – 4 = 0
4
 t = −5  25 + 144 = −1 or
18 9
𝑡 = – 1 (rejected)
x 2 −2
4 3 2 3
t=    =  = 
9 2 3 2
 𝑥 = –2
Solution of the given equation is 𝑥 = – 2

[ 18 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
(d) 𝒎. 𝒂𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒏. 𝒃𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒓 = 𝟎, where 𝒂𝒃 = 𝟏, 𝒂 & 𝒃 > 𝟎 and 𝒇(𝒙) is expression of 𝒙
1
Method of Solving : put 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡, then b f ( x ) =
t
Illustration 47:

( ) +( )
x x
Solve 5+2 6 5−2 6 = 10

Solution:

Let a = 5 + 2 6 and b = 5 − 2 6
𝑎𝑏 = 1
Let 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑡
Given equation become
1
t+ = 10  𝑡 2 – 10𝑡 + 1 = 0
t

 t = 10  96 = 5  2 6
2

 (5 + 2 6 ) = (5 + 2 6 ) 
x /2 x
=1  𝑥 = 2
2

or (5 + 2 6 ) = (5 − 2 6 ) = (5 + 2 6 )
x /2 −1

x
 = −1  𝑥 = – 2
2
Solutions of the given equation is 𝑥 = 2 or – 2.

(e) (𝒙 + 𝒂)(𝒙 + 𝒃)(𝒙 + 𝒄)(𝒙 + 𝒅) + 𝒆 = 𝟎 when 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒂 + 𝒅

Illustration 48:
Solve 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 3) – 8 = 0
Solution:
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 3) – 8 = 0
 𝑥(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) – 8 = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥) (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2) – 8 = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥)2 + 2(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥) – 8 = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥)2 + 4(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥) – 2(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥) – 8 = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥) (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) – 2(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 – 2) (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 – 2) = 0 or (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = 0

 x = −3  17 or x = −3  7 i
2 2

Mathematics [ 19 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
(f) (𝒙 + 𝒂)(𝒙 + 𝒃)(𝒙 + 𝒄)(𝒙 + 𝒅) + 𝒆𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎, where 𝒂𝒅 = 𝒃𝒄.
ad
Method of solving : Divide given equation by 𝑥 2 and put x + =t
x
Illustration 49:
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 6) = 3𝑥 2
Solution:
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 6) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) – 3𝑥 2 = 0
 (𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6)(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6) – 3𝑥 2 = 0
  x + 6 + 7  6 
 x + + 5  − 3 = 0
 x  x 
6
Let x + =t
x
 (𝑡 + 7)(𝑡 + 5) – 3 = 0  𝑡 2 + 12𝑡 + 32 = 0  𝑡 = – 8 or – 4
6
when x + = −8  𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 6 = 0  x = −4  10
x
6
x + = −4  𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6 = 0  x = −2  2 i
x
Illustration 50:
Solve (𝑥 2 – 3𝑥)(𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 2) + 1 = 0
Solution:
Let 𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 = 𝑦
 𝑦(𝑦 + 2) + 1 = 0
 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 0
 (𝑦 + 1)2 = 0
 𝑦 = –1
Putting 𝑦 = – 1 in 𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 = 𝑦
we have 𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 = – 1
 𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 1 = 0

 x = 3 5
2
(g) 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒙𝟑 + 𝒄𝒙𝟐 + 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒆 = 𝟎, where 𝒂 = 𝒆 & 𝒃 = ± 𝒅
𝟒

1 1
Method of solving : Divide given equation by 𝑥 2 and put 𝑥 + = 𝑡 or x − = t whichever is applicable.
x x
Illustration 51:
Solve 𝑥 4 – 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 – 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
Solution:
𝑥 4 – 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 – 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
By dividing 𝑥 2 both sides we have
2 1
𝑥 2 – 2𝑥 + 3 – + 2 = 0
x x
1  1
 x2 + 2
− 2 x +  + 3 = 0
x  x

[ 20 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
1
Let x + =t
x
Above equation become
 𝑡 2 – 2 – 2𝑡 + 3 = 0
 𝑡 2 – 2𝑡 + 1 = 0  (𝑡 – 1)2 = 0
1 1 3 i
𝑡 = 1 𝑥 + = 1  𝑥2 – 𝑥 + 1 = 0  x =
x 2
Roots are 1  3 i
2
(h) By Guessing Rational Roots of Polynomial.
Illustration 52:
Solve : 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 – 2𝑥 2 – 𝑥 + 1 = 0
Solution:
Let 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 – 2𝑥 2 – 𝑥 + 1
𝑃(1) = 0 and 𝑃(– 1) = 0
 (𝑥 – 1) (𝑥 + 1) factor of 𝑃(𝑥)
We can find other factor of 𝑃(𝑥) by dividing 𝑥 2 – 1 from 𝑃(𝑥).
 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 – 1) (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 – 1) = 0
 𝑥 = ±1 or 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 – 1 = 0
 𝑥 = ±1 or 𝑥 = −1  5
2

solution of 𝑃(𝑥) = 0 are 𝑥 = ±1 or −1  5 .

2
Illustration 53:
Solve: 𝑥 3 – 12𝑥 2 + 41𝑥 – 30 = 0
Solution:
Let 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 – 12𝑥 2 + 41𝑥 – 30
 𝑃(1) = 0  (𝑥 – 1) is factor of 𝑃(𝑥)
We can find other factor of 𝑃(𝑥) by dividing (𝑥 – 1) from 𝑃(𝑥)
 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 2 – 11𝑥 + 30)
 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 2 – 11𝑥 + 30 = 0
 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 = 5, 6
Solution of 𝑝(𝑥) are [𝑥 = 1, 5, 6].
Illustration 54:
𝑥 4 – 13𝑥 2 + 36 = 0
Solution:
Let 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 – 13𝑥 2 + 36
 𝑃(2) = 0 & 𝑃(– 2) = 0
 (𝑥 2 – 4) is factor of 𝑃(𝑥)
We can find other factor of 𝑃(𝑥) by dividing
(𝑥 2 – 4) from 𝑃(𝑥)
 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 – 4)(𝑥 2 – 9)
 𝑥 = ±2 or 𝑥 = ±3
Ans. [𝑥 = 2, – 2, 3, – 3]

Mathematics [ 21 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
8. System of Equations
Illustration 55:
1 1
If 𝑥 – 𝑦 = 2 and 𝑥𝑦 = 24, find the value of + .
x y
Solution:
(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = (𝑥 – 𝑦)2 + 4𝑥𝑦 = 4 + 4(24)
 (𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = 100
 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 10, – 10
x + y 10 5 x + y 10 5
 = = ; =− =−
xy 24 12 xy 24 12
Illustration 56:
x2 + 3xy
If 2𝑥 – 3𝑦 – 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑥 + 3𝑦 – 14𝑧 = 0, then find .
y2 + z2
Solution:
2x 3 y x 3y
− =1 & + = 14
z z z z
x y
Solving = 5; = 3
z z
2
 x  3x y
  + .
z z 25 + 3 (5)(3) 70
   2
z
= = =7
( 3) + 1
2
 y 10
  +1
z
Illustration 57:
Given 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 20 and 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = 800, find 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
Solution:
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 20
 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 = 400 ...(1)
 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = 800
 (𝑎 + 𝑏) (𝑎2 – 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) = 800
 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 – 𝑎𝑏 = 40 ...(2)
By adding twice of second equation with first equation.
 3(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ) = 480
 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 160.
Illustration 58:
𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑧) = 29, 𝑦(𝑧 + 𝑥) = 26; 𝑧(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 51 find 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧.
Solution:
𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧𝑥 = 29 ...(1)
𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦 = 26 ...(2)
𝑥𝑧 + 𝑦𝑧 = 51 ...(3)
 2[𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧𝑥] = 106
 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧𝑥 = 53

[ 22 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Now : 𝑥𝑦 = 2, 𝑧𝑥 = 27; 𝑦𝑧 = 24
 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 = 24 × 2 × 27 = (36)2
3 4 
 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = ± 36  ( x , y , z )   , ,18  or  − 3 , − 4 , −18 
2 3   2 3 
Illustration 59:
If 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 35; and 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 = 30, then find (𝑥, 𝑦).
Solution:
x3 + y 3
=
(
( x + y ) x2 − xy + y2 35 7
= =
)
x2 y + xy 2 xy ( x + y ) 30 6
 6𝑥 2 – 13𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑦 2 = 0  (3𝑥 – 2𝑦) (2𝑥 – 3𝑦) = 0  3𝑥 = 2𝑦 or 2𝑥 = 3𝑦
3
 3x 
Case-I : 3𝑥 = 2𝑦, x +   = 35  35𝑥 3 = 8 × 35  𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 3
3

2
3
 2x 
Case-II : 2𝑥 = 3𝑦, x +   = 35  35𝑥 3 = 27 × 35  𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 2
3

3
9. Intervals
Intervals are basically subsets of ℝ and are very important in mathematics as you will get to know shortly.
If there are two numbers 𝑎, 𝑏  ℝ such that 𝑎 < 𝑏, we can define four types of intervals as follows:
Closed Intervals
All numbers 𝑥 between 𝑎 and 𝑏 including both numbers is written in closed interval. It is denoted by [ ].
i.e. 𝑎  𝑥  𝑏 or 𝑥  [𝑎, 𝑏] or {𝑥 : 𝑥  ℝ and 𝑎  𝑥  𝑏}
Graphical Representation
– a b 

Open Intervals
All numbers 𝑥 between 𝑎 and 𝑏 excluding both numbers is written in open interval. It is denoted by][or ( ).
i.e. 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 or 𝑥  ]𝑎, 𝑏[ or 𝑥  (𝑎, 𝑏) or {𝑥 : 𝑥  ℝ and 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏}
Graphical Representation
– a b 

Open-Closed Intervals
All numbers 𝑥 between 𝑎 and 𝑏 including 𝑏 and excluding 𝑎 is written in open - closed interval. It is denoted
by ]𝑎, 𝑏] or (𝑎, 𝑏] or 𝑎 < 𝑥  𝑏 or {𝑥 : 𝑥  ℝ and 𝑎 < 𝑥  𝑏}
Graphical Representation
– a b 

Closed-Open Intervals
All numbers 𝑥 between 𝑎 and 𝑏 including 𝑎 but excluding 𝑏 is written in closed-open interval. It is denoted
by [𝑎, 𝑏[ or [𝑎, 𝑏) or 𝑎  𝑥 < 𝑏 or {𝑥 : 𝑥  ℝ and 𝑎  𝑥 < 𝑏}.
Graphical Representation
– a b 

Mathematics [ 23 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
The Infinite Intervals are Defined as follows:
• (𝑎, ) = {𝑥 : 𝑥 > 𝑎}
• [𝑎, ) = {𝑥 : 𝑥  𝑎}
• (–, 𝑏] = {𝑥 : 𝑥  𝑏}
• (–, 𝑏) = {𝑥 : 𝑥 < 𝑏}
Note:
𝑥  {1, 2} denotes some particular values of 𝑥, i.e. 𝑥 = 1, 2
If there is no value of 𝑥, then we can say 𝑥   (Null set)
Intervals are particularly important in solving inequalities.
Union: (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) / (𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐵)
If A contains some elements and B contains some elements, then (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) contains elements which are in A or B.
Intersection: (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) / (𝐴 and 𝐵)
If A contains some elements and B contains some elements, then (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) contains elements which are
common in both A and B.
Difference : (𝐴 − 𝐵)
If A contains some elements and B contains some elements, then (𝐴 − 𝐵) contains elements which are in A
only but not in B.
Illustration 60:
Represent following sets on the number line
(i) (–, 2)  [7, )
(ii) 𝑥  4 or 𝑥 > 8
(iii) (–, –1)  (–5, 6]
(iv) (0, 5]  [–3, 4)
(v) [–2, 10) – (1, 5]
Solution:
(i)
2 7

(ii)
4 8

(iii) 6
–5 –1

Union of given two sets is (–, 6]

0 5
(iv)

–3 4

0 4
The intersection of given two sets is (0, 4).

[ 24 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
–2 10
(v)

1 5

–2 1 5 10

Difference of given two sets is [–2, 1]  (5, 10)

10. Inequalities
Basic Rules:
• If 𝑎 > 𝑏 and 𝑏 > 𝑐, then 𝑎 > 𝑐.
• If 𝑥 > 𝑦, then 𝑥 + 𝑐 > 𝑦 + 𝑐 for any real number 𝑐. Additionally, if 𝑎 > 𝑏, then 𝑥 + 𝑎 > 𝑦 + 𝑏.
• If 𝑥 > 𝑦 and 𝑎 > 0, then 𝑥𝑎 > 𝑦𝑎.
• If we multiply or divide an inequality by a negative number, we must reverse the sign.
For example, if 𝑥 > 𝑦 and 𝑎 < 0, then 𝑥𝑎 < 𝑦𝑎.
• If 𝑥 > 𝑦 > 0 and 𝑎 > 𝑏 > 0, then 𝑥𝑎 > 𝑦𝑏.
1 1
• If 𝑥 > 𝑦 and 𝑥 and 𝑦 have the same sign (positive or negative), then  .
x y
• If 𝑥 > 𝑦 ≥ 0, then for any positive real number 𝑎, we have 𝑥 𝑎 > 𝑦 𝑎 .
In particular, if 0 < 𝑎 < 𝑏, then n
a  n b for all positive integral values of 𝑛 > 1.
E.g. 4
2  4 7, 3 3  3 5, 5 10  5 13 etc.
If two simple surds of different orders viz. n
a and m
b have to be compared, they have to be expressed as
surds of the same order i.e. LCM of 𝑛 and 𝑚.
E.g. Compare 4
6 and 3 5 ,
we express both as the surds of 12th order.
 4
6 = 12 63 and 3
5 = 12 54 . As 63 < 54  4
635
Illustration 61:
Which of the following is greater 5 + 3,3 + 14 ?
(Without calculating the values of 3, 14 )
Solution:
Lets assume 3 + 14 is greater than 5 + 3 .
 3 + 14  5 + 3
 14 − 3  2
Squaring both sides
 14 + 3 − 2 42  4
 13  2 42
13
  42
2
Squaring again

Mathematics [ 25 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
169
  42
4
 42.25 > 42
Which is true so we can say that
What we assumed initially is true.
So, (3 + 14) is greater than 5 + 3 .
Illustration 62:
8− x
Solve 4
7
Solution:
8− x
 4  8 – 𝑥 ≥ 28  – 𝑥 ≥ 20
7
 𝑥 ≤ – 20  𝑥 ∈ (– ∞, – 20]
Illustration 63:
1
Solve  5
x
Solution:
1 1 1  1
 5   >  5  0  x   𝑥 ∈  0, 
x x 5  5
Illustration 64:
Which fraction is larger?
13 17 31 37
(a) or (b) or
17 21 35 41
Solution:
13 17
(a) or
17 21
13 17 221
Making Numerator same:  =
17 17 289
17 13 221
 =
21 13 273
Now number which will have high denominator will be smaller
13 17
So 
17 21
31 37
(b) or
35 41
31 41 1271
Making denominator same:  =
35 41 1435
37 35 1295
 =
41 35 1435
Now number which will have high Numerator will be larger
31 37
So 
35 41

[ 26 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Illustration 65:
What values of 𝑥 satisfy the inequality, 7 – 3𝑥 < 𝑥 – 1 ≤ 2𝑥 + 9?
Solution:
7 – 3𝑥 < 𝑥 – 1 ≤ 2𝑥 + 9
Equation can be written as:-
 7 − 3𝑥 < 𝑥 − 1 …(1)
& 𝑥 − 1 ≤ 2𝑥 + 9 …(2)
Solving (1)
 7 – 3𝑥 < 𝑥 – 1
 8 < 4𝑥
𝑥>2 ...(3)
solving (2)
 𝑥 − 1 ≤ 2𝑥 + 9
 −10 ≤ 𝑥
 𝑥 ≥ −10 …(4)
intersection of (3) & (4) 𝑥 ∈ (2, ∞) Ans.

11. Trivial and Sum of squares (SOS) Inequality

The square of any real number is non-negative. So if 𝑥 is real, then 𝑥 2 ≥ 0. This is known as Trivial
inequality. Equality holds only if 𝑥 = 0.
i=n
Sum of squares (SOS) of real numbers is non negative. That is x
i =1
2
i  0 . This is known as SOS inequality.

Equality holds if 𝑥𝑖 = 0
Ex. 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 0  𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧 = 0.
Note :
• 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑔(𝑥)]2𝑛 where 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁  𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0
1
• 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑔(𝑥)]2𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑔(𝑥) ≥ 0  𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0
Illustration 66:
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 – 𝑎𝑏 – 𝑏𝑐 – 𝑐𝑎 = 0, prove that 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐.
Solution:
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 – 𝑎𝑏 – 𝑏𝑐 – 𝑐𝑎 = 0
 2𝑎2 + 2𝑏 2 + 2𝑐 2 – 2𝑎𝑏 – 2𝑏𝑐 – 2𝑐𝑎 = 0
 (𝑎2 – 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) + (𝑏 2 – 2𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐 2 ) + (𝑐 2 – 2𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎2 ) = 0
 (𝑎 – 𝑏)2 + (𝑏 – 𝑐)2 + (𝑐 – 𝑎)2 = 0
𝑎– 𝑏 = 𝑏– 𝑐 = 𝑐– 𝑎 = 0
 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐.

Mathematics [ 27 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
Illustration 67:
For 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, find the all possible values (range) of expression 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 – 12𝑥 + 6𝑦.
Solution:
If 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦) = 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 – 12𝑥 + 6𝑦
= (2𝑥)2 – 2(2𝑥) × 3 + (3)2 + (3𝑦)2 + 2(3𝑦) + (1)2 – 10
= (2𝑥 – 3)2 + (3𝑦 + 1)2 – 10
By sum of square (SOS), (2𝑥 – 3)2 + (3𝑦 + 1)2 ≥ 0
 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦) = (2𝑥 – 3)2 + (3𝑦 + 1)2 – 10 ≥ 0 – 10
So, Range of 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦) = [– 10, ∞)
Illustration 68:
If 𝑏 2 – 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 and 𝑎 > 0, then show that 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
Solution:
 b 
 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = a  x2 + x  + c
 a 
 b b2 b2 
= a  x2 + x + 2 − 2  + c
 a 4a 4a 
2
 b   b2 − 4ac 
= a x +  −    0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Hence proved.
 2a   4a 
Illustration 69:
Find the values of expression 𝐸 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 – 4𝑥 – 6𝑦 + 15; 𝑥 , 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 𝑒 (D) 
Ans. (B, C, D)
Solution:
𝐸 = 𝑥 2 – 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 – 6𝑦 + 9 + 2
𝐸 = (𝑥– 2)2 + (𝑦– 3)2 + 2
By SOS (𝑥– 2)2 + (𝑦– 3)2 ≥ 0
Add 2 on both sides
(𝑥– 2)2 + (𝑦– 3)2 + 2 ≥ 2
𝐸≥ 2
So 𝐸 can take values 2, 𝑒 and 𝜋 from the options.

12. Mean:
In any collection of data a specific value between two extremes (minimum/maximum) is called a mean of
the data.
For Two Variables :
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 be two positive real numbers with 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦.
x+ y
• The Arithmetic Mean (𝑨) of 𝑥 and 𝑦 is
2
x+ y
Observe x  y
2
• The Geometric Mean (G) of 𝑥 and 𝑦 is xy

[ 28 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Observe x  xy  y
We have 𝑥 ≤ 𝐺 ≤ 𝐴 ≤ 𝑦
Equality holds only when 𝑥 = 𝑦.

Proof: For two positive numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, the Trivial inequality gives us ( x − y )  0
2

 x + y − 2 xy  0
x+ y
  xy  AG
2
Note :
1 1
• x+  2 ∀ 𝑥 > 0 and x +  −2 ∀ 𝑥 < 0
x x
Illustration 70:
4
Find all possible values (range) of the expression x + , when 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 – {0}.
x
Solution:
4
x+
When 𝑥 > 0, x  x  4 = 2 (By 𝐴 ≥ 𝐺)
2 x
4
 x+ 4,
x
So, when 𝑥 > 0, range = [4, ∞) ...(1)
4
x+
for 𝑥 < 0, x  − x 4
2 x
4
 x+  −4 ...(2)
x
From (1) and (2), range = (– ∞, – 4] ∪ [4, ∞)
Illustration 71:
x4 + 8
Find the minimum value of
x2
Solution:
x4 + 8 8
2
= x2 + 2
x x
 AM  GM

8
x2 + 1

 x2   x2 . 8  2
 2 
2  x 
1
x4 + 8
 x2 + 82  2(8) 2  2
4 2
x x
x +8
4
Minimum value of is 4 2 .
x2

Mathematics [ 29 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
Illustration 72:
3x2 + 12
For 𝑥 < 0, find the maximum value of .
x
Solution:
3x2 + 12 12
= 3x +
x x
12
As 𝑥 is negative, Applying AM  GM on – 3𝑥 & –
x
12 1
−3x −
  12   2
12 1
 x  (−3x) −
    − 3 x −  2  (36) 2
2   x  x
12 12
 −3x −  12  3x +  −12
x x
3x2 + 12
Maximum value of is – 12.
x

13. Ratio and Proportion

a
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two quantities of the same kind, then their ratio is 𝑎: 𝑏; which is denoted by the fraction
b
(This may be an integer or fraction).
a ma na
A ratio may be represented in a number of ways e.g. = = = ... where 𝑚, 𝑛, ... are non-zero numbers.
b mb nb
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 be positive integers now to compare two ratios 𝑎 : 𝑏 and 𝑐 ∶ 𝑑 we use following :
• (𝑎 ∶ 𝑏) > (𝑐 ∶ 𝑑) if 𝑎𝑑 > 𝑏𝑐
• (𝑎 ∶ 𝑏) = (𝑐 ∶ 𝑑) if 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐
• (𝑎 ∶ 𝑏) < (𝑐 ∶ 𝑑) if 𝑎𝑑 < 𝑏𝑐
To compare two or more ratio, reduce them to common denominator.
Illustration 73:
What term must be added to each term of the ratio 5 ∶ 37 to make it equal to 1 ∶ 3 ?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 be added to each term of the ratio 5 ∶ 37.
x +5 1
Then =  3𝑥 + 15 = 𝑥 + 37 i.e. 𝑥 = 11
x + 37 3
Illustration 74:
If 𝑥 ∶ 𝑦 = 3 ∶ 4; find the ratio of 7𝑥 – 4𝑦 ∶ 3𝑥 + 𝑦
Solution:
x 3 3
= x= y
y 4 4
3
7. y − 4 y
7x − 4 y
Now = 4 (putting the value of 𝑥)
3x + y 3
3. y + y
4
= 5 y = 5 i.e. 5 ∶ 13
13 y 13

[ 30 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Proportion:
When two ratios are equal, then the four quantities compositing them are said to be proportional.
a c
So, if = , then it is written as 𝑎 ∶ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ∶ 𝑑 or 𝑎 ∶ 𝑏 ∷ 𝑐 ∶ 𝑑
b d
Where '𝑎' and '𝑑 ' are known as extremes and '𝑏 and 𝑐' are known as means.
(i) An important property of proportion : Product of extremes = product of means.
(ii) If a = c = e then each is equal to a + c + e
b d f b+d + f

a+b c+d
(iii) If 𝑎 ∶ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ∶ 𝑑, then = (Componendo and dividendo)
a −b c −d
Illustration 75:
a b c d
If = = = , prove that (𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑑 + 𝑑𝑒)2 = (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2 )(𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2 + 𝑒 2 )
b c d e
Solution:
a b c d
Let, = = = = k , then we have
b c d e
(say)
i.e. 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑘  𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 2 𝑘
𝑏 = 𝑐𝑘  𝑏𝑐 = 𝑐 2 𝑘
𝑐 = 𝑑𝑘  𝑐𝑑 = 𝑑2 𝑘
𝑑 = 𝑒𝑘  𝑑𝑒 = 𝑒 2 𝑘
so, (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2 ) = 𝑘 2 (𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2 + 𝑒 2 ) ...(i)
Now L.H.S. = (𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑑 + 𝑑𝑒)2
= (𝑘𝑏 2 + 𝑘𝑐 2 + 𝑘𝑑2 + 𝑘𝑒 2 )2
= 𝑘 2 (𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2 + 𝑒 2 )2
= 𝑘 2 (𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2 + 𝑒 2 )(𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2 + 𝑒 2 )
= (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2 )(𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2 + 𝑒 2 ) = R.H.S
Illustration 76:
a 2 b 4 a+b
If = and = , then find value of
b 3 c 5 b+c
Solution:
a 2
=
b 3
a+b 5
Componendo  = …(1)
b 3
b 4 c 5
=  =
c 5 b 4
b+c 9
Componendo  = …(2)
b 4
a + b 5 4 20
(1) ÷ (2)  =  =
b + c 3 9 27

Mathematics [ 31 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
14. Sign-Scheme (Wavy Curve) Method
Given 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are polynomials.
f ( x)
To solve the inequalities of the type * 0, where '*' can be >, , < or , we take the following steps:
g( x )
(i) Find all the roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and g(𝑥) = 0
(ii) Write all these roots on the real line in increasing order of values.
f ( x)
(iii) Check the sign of the expression at some 𝑥 greater than the largest root. If it is positive,
g( x )
put + sign in rightmost interval. In case of negative, put – 𝑣𝑒 sign in rightmost interval and while
moving from right to left change sign in accordance with step (iv).
(iv) If a root occurs even number of times, then sign of expression will be same on both sides of the root
and if a root occurs odd number of times, then sign of the expression will be different on both sides
of the root.
(v) Write the answer according to need of the question.
Note:
• We don't give equality sign on '±' in the solution as they are two improper points of number line.
• We can't take zeroes of denominator in the final answer as at these points expression is not defined
(because division by '0' is not defined).
• In case of  0 or  0, zeroes of numerator will be part of the answer provided they are not appearing
in denominator also.
• Do not cross multiply the terms in the inequalities.
Illustration 77:
Find the solution of – 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 7  0
Solution:
–𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 7  0
 𝑥 2 – 6𝑥 – 7  0
 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 – 7)  0
+ – +
–1 7

 𝑥  [– 1,7]
Illustration 78:
( x − 1)( x − 2)
Find the solution of the inequalities 0
( x − 3)
Solution:
𝑥 – 1 = 0, 𝑥 – 2 = 0, 𝑥 – 3 = 0  𝑥 = 1, 2, 3
Since 𝑥 – 3  0, 𝑥  3
– + – +
– 1 2 3 

So, 𝑥  [1, 2]  (3, )

[ 32 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Illustration 79:
( x − 3)( x + 2)( x + 5)
If f ( x ) = , then find 𝑥 such that
( x + 1)( x − 7)
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 (ii) 𝑓(𝑥) < 0.
Solution:
( x − 3)( x + 2)( x + 5)
Given f ( x ) =
( x + 1)( x − 7)
– + – + – +
–5 –2 –1 3 7

(i) 𝑓(𝑥) > 0  𝑥  (– 5, – 2)  (– 1, 3)  (7, )

(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) < 0  𝑥  (–, –5)  (– 2, – 1)  (3, 7)
Illustration 80:
1 2 3
Solve for real x : + 
x +1 x +2 x +3
Solution:
3x + 4 3

( x + 1)( x + 2) x + 3
3x + 4 3 4x + 6
 − 0  0
( x + 1)( x + 2) x + 3 ( x + 1)( x + 2)( x + 3)
+ – + – +
–3 – 2 – 3/2 – 1
 3
So, 𝑥 ∈ (–, –3)   −2, −   ( −1,  )
 2
Illustration 81:
( x − 1)3 ( x + 2)4 ( x − 3)5 ( x + 6)
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = . Solve the following inequality
x2 ( x − 7)3
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 (ii) 𝑓(𝑥)  0 (iii) 𝑓(𝑥) < 0 (iv) 𝑓(𝑥)  0
Solution:
We mark on the number line zeroes of numerator of expression : 1, – 2, 3 and – 6 (with black circles) and
the zeroes of denominator 0 and 7 (with white circles), isolate the double points ∶ – 2 and 0 and draw the
wavy curve :
+ – – – + – +
–6 –2 0 1 3 7

From graph, we get

(i) 𝑥  (–, –6)  (1, 3)  (7, )
(ii) 𝑥  (–, –6]  {– 2}  [1, 3]  (7, )
(iii) 𝑥  (– 6, – 2)  (– 2, 0)  (0, 1)  (3, 7)
(iv) 𝑥  [– 6, 0)  (0, 1]  [3, 7)

Mathematics [ 33 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
15. Modulus & Its graph
For any real number 𝑥, modulus or absolute value of 𝑥 is denoted by |𝑥| and is defined as
 x , if x0
| x |= 
 – x , if x0
• Graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥|

– 6 – 5 – 4 – 3 – 2 – 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1

Note:
• |𝑥| = |–𝑥|  0
• Geometrically |𝑥| is distance of real number 𝑥 from zero along the real number line
• More generally |𝑥 – 𝑎| is distance between '𝑥' and '𝑎' on the number line.
|𝑥 – 𝑎|

𝑎 0 𝑥
• | x |= x2
• |𝑥𝑦| = |𝑥| |𝑦|
Illustration 82:
Sketch the graph of following equation and also find all possible values (Range) of 𝑦,
𝑦 = |𝑥| + 𝑥
Solution:
 x+ x , x0
𝑦 = |𝑥| + 𝑥 = 
 0 , x 0
 2x , x  0
=
 0 , x 0

𝑦 = 2𝑥

𝑦=0

From graph we can find all

possible values (range) of 𝑦 which is [0, )

[ 34 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Modulus Equations
Illustration 83:
Solve for 𝑥
(a) |2𝑥 + 5| = 2 (b) |𝑥 – 3| = –1
Solution:
(a) |2𝑥 + 5| = 2
 2𝑥 + 5 = 2 or 2𝑥 + 5 = –2
3 7
 x=– or x = −
2 2
 3 7
Answer  𝑥  − , − 
 2 2
(b) |𝑥 – 3| = –1
A modulus quantity cannot be negative
So 𝑥   is our answer.
Illustration 84:
Solve for 𝑥; |2𝑥 – 3| = |3𝑥 + 5|
Solution:
5
Case I: 𝑥 < −
3
 – (2𝑥 – 3) = – (3𝑥 + 5)
 –2𝑥 + 3 = –3𝑥 – 5
5
 𝑥 = –8 (Accepted as 𝑥 < − )
3
5 3
Case II: −  x 
3 2
 – (2𝑥 – 3) = (3𝑥 + 5)
 5𝑥 = –2
2 5 3
𝑥 =− (Accepted as −  x  )
5 3 2
3
Case III: x 
2
 2𝑥 – 3 = 3𝑥 + 5
3
 𝑥 = –8 (Rejected as x  )
2
 2
Final answer: 𝑥  –8, − 
 5
Illustration 85:

Mathematics [ 35 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
If |𝑥 – 1||𝑥 – 2| = – (𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 2), then find the interval in which 𝑥 lies?
Solution:
|(𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 – 2)| = – (𝑥 – 2)(𝑥 – 1)
+ – +
–∞ 1 2 ∞
 (𝑥 – 1)(𝑥 – 2)  0
1𝑥2
Illustration 86:
Solve for 𝑥; 𝑥 2 + 3|𝑥| + 2 = 0
Solution:
𝑥 2 + 3|𝑥| + 2 = 0
 |𝑥|2 + 3|𝑥| + 2 = 0
 |𝑥|2 + 2|𝑥| + |𝑥| + 2 = 0
 |𝑥| (|𝑥|+2) + 1(|𝑥|+2) = 0
 (|𝑥|+2) (|𝑥|+1) = 0
Either |𝑥| + 2 = 0 or |𝑥| + 1 = 0
 |𝑥| = –2 |𝑥| = –1
Modulus cannot be negative
So 𝑥
Illustration 87:
Solve for 𝑥; |𝑥| – 2|𝑥 + 1| + 3|𝑥 + 2| = 0
Solution:
Case 1: when 𝑥 < –2
 –𝑥 + 2(𝑥 + 1) – 3(𝑥 + 2) = 0
 –2𝑥 – 4 = 0
 𝑥 = –2 (Rejected as 𝑥 < –2)
Case 2: when –2  𝑥 < –1
 –𝑥 + 2(𝑥 + 1) + 3(𝑥 + 2) = 0
 4𝑥 + 8 = 0  𝑥 = –2 (Accepted as –2  𝑥 < –1)
Case 3: when –1  𝑥 < 0
 –𝑥 – 2(𝑥 + 1) + 3 (𝑥 + 2) = 0
 –𝑥 –2𝑥 – 2 + 3𝑥 + 6 = 0
4=0
Not possible
So no solution in this interval
Case 4: 𝑥  0
 𝑥 – 2𝑥 – 2 + 3𝑥 + 6 = 0
 2𝑥 + 4 = 0
 𝑥 = –2 (Rejected as 𝑥  0)
Final answer:- 𝑥 = –2
16. Determinants

[ 36 ] Mathematics
Fundamentals of Algebra
Introduction:
If the equations 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 = 0, 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 = 0 are satisfied by the same value of 𝑥, then 𝑎1 𝑏2 – 𝑎2 𝑏1 = 0. The
expression 𝑎1 𝑏2 – 𝑎2 𝑏1 is called a determinant of the second order, and is denoted by:
a1 b1
a2 b2
A determinant of second order consists of two rows and two columns.
Next consider the system of equations 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0, 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 = 0
If these equations are satisfied by the same values of 𝑥 and 𝑦, then on eliminating 𝑥 and 𝑦 we get.
𝑎1 (𝑏2 𝑐3 – 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) + 𝑏1 (𝑐2 𝑎3 – 𝑐3 𝑎2 ) + 𝑐1 (𝑎2 𝑏3 – 𝑎3 𝑏2 ) = 0
The expression on the left is called a determinant of the third order, and is denoted by
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
A determinant of third order consists of three rows and three columns.
Value of a determinant:
a1 b1 c1
b c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
𝐷 = a2 b2 c2 = 𝑎1 2 – 𝑏1 + 𝑐1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c3
= 𝑎1 (𝑏2 𝑐3 – 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) – 𝑏1 (𝑎2 𝑐3 – 𝑎3 𝑐2 ) + 𝑐1 (𝑎2 𝑏3 – 𝑎3 𝑏2 )
Note :
Sarus diagram to get the value of determinant of order three :
–ve –ve –ve
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1
a b c a b2
D = a2 b2 c2 = 2 2 2 2 = (𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑐3 + 𝑎2 𝑏3 𝑐1 + 𝑎3 𝑏1 𝑐2 )– (𝑎3 𝑏2 𝑐1 + 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑐3 + 𝑎1 𝑏3 𝑐2 )
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c3
+ve +ve +ve
Note that the product of the terms in first bracket (i.e. 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 ) is same as the product of the
terms in second bracket.
Illustration 88:
1 2 3
The value of −4 3 6 is -
2 −7 9
(A) 213 (B) –231 (C) 231 (D) 39
Ans. (C)
Solution:
1 2 3
3 6 −4 6 −4 3
−4 3 6= 1 –2 + 3
−7 9 2 9 2 −7
2 −7 9
= (27 + 42) – 2 (– 36 – 12) + 3 (28 – 6) = 231

Mathematics [ 37 ]
 JEE (Main + Advanced) : Mathematics
Alternative :
By sarrus diagram
–ve –ve –ve
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2
−4 3 6 = −4 3 6 −4 3
2 −7 9 2 −7 9 2 −7
+ve +ve +ve
= (27 + 24 + 84)– (18 – 42 – 72) = 135 – (18 – 114) = 231
Minors & Cofactors:
The minor of a given element of determinant is the determinant obtained by deleting the row & the column
in which the given element stands.
a1 b1 c1
b c2 a1 c1
For example, the minor of 𝑎1 in a2 b2 c2 is 2 & the minor of 𝑏2 is .
b3 c3 a3 c3
a3 b3 c3
Hence a determinant of order three will have “9 minors”.
If 𝑀𝑖𝑗 represents the minor of the element belonging to 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗 𝑡ℎ column then the cofactor of that
element is given by∶ 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (– 1)𝑖+𝑗 . 𝑀𝑖𝑗
Illustration 89:
2 −3 1
Find the minors and cofactors of elements '– 3′, ′5′, ′– 1′ & ′7' in the determinant 4 0 5
−1 6 7
Solution:
4 5
Minor of – 3 = = 33; Cofactor of – 3 = – 33
−1 7
2 −3
Minor of 5 = = 9; Cofactor of 5 = – 9
−1 6
−3 1
Minor of – 1 = = – 15; Cofactor of – 1 = – 15
0 5

2 −3
Minor of 7 = = 12; Cofactor of 7 = 12
4 0

[ 38 ] Mathematics