VIS-COM|GRAPHICS

I. PROCESSES IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING, LETTERING, DIMENSIONS,
& DETAILING

Understanding Basic Drawing Instruments

The following are the basic drawing instruments used in architecture:

1. Drawing Tools – the basic drawing material for writing or drawing.;

consists of thick stick of graphite enclosed in a long thin piece of
wood.

Three Types/General Classes of Pencils:

▪ Soft Pencils – used for lettering (2B-7B)
▪ Medium Pencils – used for final lining (B, H, F, 2H, 3H)
▪ Hard Pencils – used for layout work (4H-9H)

Graphite Grading Scale:

▪ B – blackness of the pencil’s mark (soft lead)
▪ F – fine point of the pencil’s mark
▪ H – hardness of the pencil’s lead
▪ HB – hardness and darkness of the pencils (equivalent to #2
pencil used for standard tests)

2. Set Squares – to draw lines with an angle (30, 45, 60, or 90 degrees)
between them.
3. Architect’s Scale – known as triangular scale, it has a 3-lobed cross-
section with 6 different types of scales on the edges used for
measuring and preparing scale drawings.
4. French Curves – an irregular shape used for drawing irregular curves,
shapes, or arcs.
5. Technical Pens – specialized material used to make lines of constant
width for technical drawings. (Rapidograph is a trademarked name for
one type of technical pen.)
6. Drawing Templates – contains spaces of several shapes and letters
(furniture) for floor planning.
7. Circle Templates – stencils with circle cutouts used to draw circles and
arcs.
8. Eraser – piece of rubber used to remove the lines or spots of mistakes.
9. Utility Cutter – known as Stanley knife, is a fixed knife with blade with a
cutting edge for utility purposes.
10. Erasing Shield – thin sheet stainless steel/plastic with slots and holes of
different shapes used to erase lines and text without removing lines
close to it.
11. Brush – tool with handle, bristles, hair, or wire, used for cleaning,
scrubbing, applying a liquid or powder to a surface.
12. Mini Drafter – instrument used for multiple functions in a drawing;
contains two arms adjustable to required angle; used in drawing
horizontal, vertical, inclined, parallel, and perpendicular lines and
angles,
13. Clinograph – instrument used to draw parallel lines to the inclined lines;
contains one adjustable wing or strip adjustable to required angle.
14. Tracing Paper – transparent paper used for tracing drawings.
15. Drawing Sheet – white paper where object is drawn;

Drawing Sheet Type Dimensions – LxW (mm)

A0 841 x1189
A1 594 x 841
A2 420 x 594
A3 297 x 420
A4 210 x 297
A5 148 x 210

16. Masking Tape – adhesive tape used to cover areas where paint is
unwanted.
17. Protractor – to draw and measure angles of lines in the drawing; in the
shape of semi-circle and the edge consists of one-degree accuracy.
18. Compass – to draw an arc or circle with known dimensions; one leg
contains a needle and the other contains a ring for pencil.
19. Divider – two legs are provided with needles; to divide a line or curve
into equal parts; to check the measurements.
20. Flexible Curve – known as a spline, consists of long strips fixed in
position at a number of points to create smooth curves.
21. Paper Holders – to fix the drawing sheet to the board; thumb pins,
spring clips, stick tapes, etc.
22. Drawing Board – made of soft rectangular wood used to support
drawing sheets.

Types of Drawing Board LxWxT (mm)

D0 1500 x 1000 x 25
D1 1000 x 700 x 25
D2 700 x 500 x 15
D3 500 x 350 x 15

23. T-Square – a guide for drawing straight lines on drafting table.

 24. Drawing Table – table that has surface that can be raised up and
down to different angles.

Definition of Lines and its Types

Line is a point moving in space. It is the most fundamental of all elements
in design. It is the starting place for most artistic creations.

Types of lines:

1. Horizontal Lines – straight lines parallel to the horizon, moving from left
to right; suggest width, distance, calmness, and stability.
2. Vertical Lines – straight up and down lines moving in space without
slant and is perpendicular to horizontal lines; suggest height and
strength.
3. Diagonal Lines – straight lines that slant in any direction except
horizontal or vertical; suggest movement or lack of stability.

Types of Diagonal line:

▪ 30 x 60 diagonal line – use 30x60x90 ruler
▪ 45 diagonal line – use 45x45 ruler

Types of Hatching:
▪ Hatching – lines going in the same direction; the closer the
lines, the darker.
▪ Cross-hatching – lines used to create texture, volume,
shading, or patterns.

Alphabet of Lines in Technical Drawing

Alphabet of lines refers to the line symbols used in technical drawings. It is
used to express the features of designed products clearly and accurately.

The following are the alphabet of lines:

1. Object or visible lines – thick dark lines used to show outline of the
object, visible edges, and surfaces.

2. Construction lines – very light and thin lines used to construct layout
work.

3. Dimension lines – thin and dark lines used to show size of an object
with numeric value; terminates with arrowheads or tick markings.
4. Hidden lines – Short dash lines used to show nonvisible surfaces; shows
medium thickness.

5. Center lines – long and short dash lines; indicate the centers of holes
and arcs, usually thin and dark lines.

6. Extension lines – thin and dark lines used to show the staring and
ending of dimensions.

7. Cutting plan lines – Extra thick lines used to show cutaway views or
plane of projection where section view is taken; indicated arrows show
the direction of the view.

8. Short and Long Break lines – Short and long medium lines used to show
cutaway view of a long section.

9. Leader lines – medium lines with arrowhead to show notes or label for
size or special information about a feature.

10. Phantom lines – long line followed by two short dashes used to show
alternate position of a moving part.

11. Section lines – medium lines drawn at 45 degrees used to show interior
view of solid areas of cutting plane line.
 Additional information graphs:

Lettering
Technical lettering is the process of forming letters, numerals, and other
characters in a technical drawing. It is used to describe or provide detailed
specifications of an object. It is considered a branch of design.

General classifications of single-stroke lettering:

 1. Single-stroke vertical capitals – type of lettering used for reference
letters and for titles.
2. Vertical lower-case letters – used in map drawing; the size of the body
of letters is two-thirds the height of the capital letters; ascending stems
of lower-case letters extend to the height of the capital letters while
descending stems extend to the same distance as the ascenders.
3. Single-stroke inclined capitals – order and direction of strokes is
observed in inclined capitals, marking the difference as the latter
needs slant guidelines to aid the eye in keeping uniformity in slopes.
4. Single-stroke inclined lower-case letters – used for notes and
statement on drawings.

Single-stroke vertical capitals Vertical lower-case letters

Single-stroke inclined capitals Single-stroke inclined lower-case letters

Types of Circles
A circle is a plane figure bounded by curved lines (circumference) which
is always equidistant from its center. It is the curve traced out by a point that
moves in a plane. It is a round shaped figure that has no corners or edges. It is a
closed, two-dimensional curved shape.

Important Circle Parts:

1. Radius – distance from the center to the circle of its outer rim.
2. Chord – line segment whose endpoints are on a circle.
3. Diameter – chord that passes through the center of the circle; two radii
are equal to length of a diameter.
4. Secant – line that intersects a circle in two points.
5. Tangent – line that intersects a circle in one point.
6. Point of Tangency – pointe where a tangent line and circle meets.
 Types of Circles:

1. Tangent Circles – two or more circles intersect at one point.

2. Concentric Circles – two or more circles have the same center but
different radii.
3. Congruent Circles – two or more circles with the same radius but
different centers.

Orthographic Projection
Orthographic projection is the graphical representation of the different
views of an object which includes the 6 principal views: top, front, left side, right
side, rear and bottom view.

First angle projection is a method of creating a 2D drawing of a 3D object.

The following are notes in this projection:

▪ View from the front is in the middle

▪ View from left is on the right
▪ View from the right is on the left
▪ View from the top is on the bottom
▪ View from the bottom is on the top
▪ View from the rear is on the far right.
 Third angle projection is used in technical drawing which consists of three
views: front, top, and side.

▪ View from the left of the front is drawn on the left

▪ View from the right is drawn on the right
▪ View from the top of the front view is drawn on the top
▪ View from the underside is drawn on the bottom.

Types of Orthographic Projection:

1. Isometric – has constant angles the preceding lines are parallel; it

shows 3 faces of an object: top and two sides.
2. Perspective – divided into two graphical projection perspectives:
▪ Linear perspective – approximate representation on a flat
surface of an image.
▪ Parallel projection

Graphical Architectural Symbols

Graphical Symbols are visually perceptible figures with a particular
meaning used to transmit information independently of language. Architectural
symbols are classified into different types: plans, elevations, types of doors and
windows, materials, furniture and fixture, construction, and landscape symbols.
Doors and Windows, Sanitary and Plumbing layout, and Electrical layout symbols
Doors are movable structures for opening and closing an entrance.
Windows are openings on walls or roofs of a building fitted with glass or any
material.

The following are types of doors:

Types (Mechanism) Description Example

Hinged Door with hinges
attached to the panels.
 Collapsible Used for wide passages;
has rollers on the bottom

Bi-fold Made up of panels for

large passages

Rolling Shutter Door collapsing

vertically with end cap
inside which the door
would roll up when
opened.

Sliding Two panels – one is fixed,

and one slides.

Rotating/Revolving Three/more separate

door panels held
together in vertically
opposite axes.

Up and Over Electrically operated

doors used in agarges.
High Speed Advanced rolling
shutters in industries.

Automatic Advanced high-

performance doors with
the use of sensors

Louvered Made of several

horizontal strips of wood

Bypass Solid sliding door in most

closets

Trap In line with the ceiling;

Used in attics and
basements.

The following are types of windows:

Types Description Example

Fixed Fixed to wall without any
closing or opening
operation.
 Sliding Window shutters are
movable (horizontal or
vertical).

Pivoted Windows that swing

(horizontal or vertical).

Double-hung Pair of shutters attached

to one frame. Two
shutters can slide
vertically with the frame.

Louvered Windows for ventilation

without any outside
vision.

Casement Shutters are attached to

frame and can be
opened and closed like
a door.

Metal Windows made of mild

steel

Sash Like casement windows

but case panels are fully
glazed; consists of top,
bottom, and
intermediate rails; sash
bars divide spaces
between rails.
 Corner Provided at the corners
of the room.

Bay Projected windows form

wall which are provided
to increase the area of
opening.

Dormer Provided for sloped

roofs.

Clerestory Vertical windows

located on high walls,
allowing light and
breezes into the space.
Lantern Provided for over the
flat roofs, providing
more light and air
circulation.
Gable Provided at the gable
end of sloped roof.

Ventilators Provided ventilation to

the space; provided at
greater height than
typical windows.

Skylights Provided on top of

sloped roof to admit
light into the room;
parallel to the sloping
surface.
 Sanitary plumbing is the installation, renewal, replacement, alteration,
and repair or maintenance of above ground pipework, fittings, and fixtures
which convey waste to the sanitary drainage system. It consists of the entire
system of piping, fixtures, and appliances.

Electrical working drawings consist of lines, symbols, dimensions, and

notions to accurately convey an engineering design to the workers who install
the electrical system. Electrical drawing, known as wiring diagram, provides
visual representation and information relating to an electrical system or unit.
Electrical symbols are added to the drawings, indicating power sockets, light
switches, wall and ceiling lights, detectors and alarms, extract fans, etc.
Architectural Working Drawings
Working drawing is a scale drawing serving as a guide for the construction
or manufacture of a building or machine. It provides dimensioned, graphical
information used by a contractor to construct the works.

Floor plans are two-dimensional layouts of rooms or a building. It includes

key dimensions and levels, hatching, symbols, and annotations and
abbreviations to indicate materials, fittings, and appliances.

Block plan, one line drawing plan, shows the siting of buildings as blocks
laid out on maps of the surrounding area. Standard mark ups can be used to
depict boundaries, roads, and other details. The scales of the block plans are:
1:2500, 1:1250, and 1:500. It is interchangeable with site plan. However, a site
plan shows more detail the contents and extent of the site for an existing or
proposed development while block plan shows less detail of the site and more
on surrounding area. Location plan is then used for a large site of the impact on
the surrounding area.

Types of Drawings for Building Design:

1. As-Built Drawings – revised set of drawings submitted by a contractor

upon completion of a subject of job. It reflects all the changes in the
specification and working drawings during construction process.
2. Assembly Drawings – represent items that consist of more than one
component; shows how components fir together, may include
orthogonal plans, sections, and elevations, and 3d and exploded
view.
3. Detailed Drawings – provide a detailed description of the geometric
form of a part of an object (building, bridge, tunnel, machine plant,
etc); large scale drawings showing detailed parts.

4. Scale Drawings – illustrates items that are not useful or convenient to

draw at their actual size.

General scale depending on the nature of the drawings:

▪ Location plan – 1:1000
▪ Site plan – 1:200
▪ Floor plan – 1:100
▪ Room plan – 1:50
▪ Component drawing – 1:5
▪ Assembly drawing – 1:2

5. Working Drawings – provided dimensioned, graphical information used

by a contractor to construct the works; may include architectural,
structural, civil, mechanical, electrical plumbing and piping, etc.
drawings.
6. Section Drawings – known as sectional drawings, shows a view of a
structure as through it had been sliced in half or cut along another
imaginary plane.
7. Schematic Drawings – illustrate the elements of a system at an abstract
level; involves the use of graphic symbols and lines rather than a
 realistic representation. Electrical circuit diagram and transit maps are
common examples.
8. Concept Drawings – known as freehand or sketches, used by designers
as a quick and simple way of exploring initial ideas for designs.
9. Spatial Drawings – known as spatial plan, used to illustrate future
spatial development of an area.

Elevations refers to an orthographic projection of the exterior (or interior)

faces of the building namely: front, rear, left side, and right side for exterior and
north, south, west, and east for interior. Section is a drawing of a vertical cut
through a building. It is to show the main volumes of the building and its material
components. A section must include house footings, foundation walls, above
ground exterior walls, any windows, and exterior roof lines.

Site development plan depicts the general layout and configuration of

the site, including footprints, parking and street layout, conceptual landscaping
and lighting, site cross section drawings, and building elevations. Site
development is the implementation of the improvements needed to prepare on
a construction site. Site plan is a set of construction drawings builders use to
make improvements to a property.

Perspectives is the view from a particular fixed viewpoint. It is the space in

which drawings occur. It uses vanishing points as guide to the perspective.

THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES OF PERSPECTIVES, SHADES, AND SHADOWS

Understanding Perspective Drawings

Perspective drawings are used to show an item in 3D on a 2D page.

Types of Perspectives:

1. Single-point Perspectives – shows an object from the front in a realistic

way; it is often used to show a view in a room.

2. Two-point Perspectives – shows an object from the side with two

vanishing points; it gives the most realistic view of a product.
 3. Three-point Perspectives – have two vanishing points on the horizon
line while the third perspective point is vertical, which makes the
drawing looks smaller; it is used by many product designers when
sketching; it is the hardest perspective to draw.

Light, Shades, and Shadows

Values are defined as how light or dark something is and are used to
depict light and shadow. These have different shades of gray between white
and black. The value scale is a system of organizing values, consisting of nine
values ranging from white to black, with several shades of grey, which makes up
the meat of the drawing. The scale is the basic ingredient for shading.

Hatching is created when non-crossing lines are used to indicate the

value on an object. Less marks are lighter; more marks are darker. Cross hatching
are layers of hatching applied at different angles to create different textures and
darker tones. It can create rippled moire effect.
 Shade is the darkness of an object without direct light while shadows are
the silhouettes of an object’s shape.

Before drawing appropriate values, identify the following:

▪ Light source – the direction where the dominant light originates.

▪ Shadows – area of an object that receives little to no light.
▪ Cast Shadow – dark area on an adjacent surface where the light is
blocked by the solid object.

As you look at the drawings, ask these questions:

▪ Where are the light values? – highlights are the brightest of the
lightest values.
▪ Where are the dark values? – dark values reveal the sections of the
object that are in shadow.
▪ Where is the cast shadow? – section of the cast shadow is usually
the darkest value in a drawing.

Various Station point/variable horizon

Station point is the position of an observer that determines the perspective
rendering of the objects or scene being represented in a drawing. It is the
location or vantage point from which an artist or exhibitor intends an observer to
experience artwork. In photography, station point is the location of the camera
at the point in time when the camera records a view to a recording medium.
Oculus is the point in space where a viewer sees a scene portrayed on a picture
plane. If it was taken by a camera, it becomes the station point.
Structure Perspective Plotting 1
Picture plane is the imaginary plane located between the eye point and
the object being viewed and is usually coextensive to the material surface of the
work. It is a vertical plane perpendicular to the sightline to the object of interest.
Horizon line allows you to control the height of a viewer’s eye when looking at
the picture. It is used in outdoor landscapes. It is the first horizontal line almost
halfway dorm from the top of the drawing space. Ground line signifies the
surface of the ground in blueprints. Spectator is the person viewing the object.
Vanishing points are the points on the horizon line where the horizontal lines
disappear to.
Structure Perspective Plotting 2

The following are steel framing terminologies:

1. Purlins – longitudinal, horizontal, structural member in a roof; These also

appear in steel frame construction.

Three basic types of purlin:

▪ Purlin plate
▪ Principal purlin
▪ Common purlin

2. Rafter – series of sloped structural members such as wooden beams

that extend from the ridge or hip to wall plate, downslope perimeter or
eave, and that are designed to support the roof shingles, roof deck,
and its associated loads. Couple refers to a pair of rafters.
3. Eave – part of a roof that meets or overhangs the walls of a building.
4. Column – an upright pillar supporting an entablature, arch, or other
structure or monument. It transmits the weight of the structure to other
structural elements below – thus a compression member; it is applied
to a large round support with a capital and base or pedestal. Post is a
small wooden or metal support with piers (rectangular or non-round
section).
5. Girts – Known as sheeting rail, it is a horizontal structural member in a
framed wall, providing lateral support to wall panels to resist wind
loads.