AUPRTA Rev3

AUPRTA Rev 3.0 – February 2017

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ICAO EXECUTIVE LETTER

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

OEM recommendations – Upset prevention and recovery

Based upon ICAO document 10011, Airbus, ATR, Boeing, Bombardier,

Embraer and ICAO have created Revision 03 of the Airplane Upset
Recovery Training Aid to emphasize the importance of prevention. This
revision is expanded to include transport category straight wing
propeller airplanes and regional jet airplanes.

Since the original airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid was published,
many positive advances with regard to upset training and to Threat and
Error Management (TEM) have been made.

The premise of this revision is that an upset exists anytime an airplane

is diverging from what the pilots are intending it to do. Prior training
practices (i.e. "close your eyes while the instructor drives the simulator
to an upset", etc.) missed the primary objective for pilots to intervene
as soon as an undesired airplane state starts occurring. This was due to
the fact that an upset was previously defined as exceeding fixed
parameters (unintentional pitch beyond +25 or -10 degrees or bank
angles greater than 45 degrees or speed inappropriate for the
conditions). Most recovery maneuver training was done only after
exceeding these parameters, without paying attention to the reasons of
these diversions. Therefore, this document redefines airplane upsets
and uses the established concept of undesired airplane state and the
pilot's awareness of this regardless of airspeed or specific pitch and/or
bank angle parameters. The name of the document has been modified
to reflect the criticality of recognition and prevention. Therefore, the
name is now Airplane Upset Prevention and Recovery Training Aid
(AUPRTA).

With focus upon recognition and avoidance, it is the Original Equipment

Manufacturers (OEMs) motivation to ensure pilots are properly taught to
operate their airplanes throughout the entire operational flight
envelope.

Passing a type rating/skill test check ride is not a complete measure of

how well the pilot(s) understand the performance and handling
characteristics of their airplane, because this check is completed in a
narrow band of the overall envelope. Training programs leading up to
type rating checks are usually focused on the environment to be tested,
rather than on the entire operational flight envelope the pilots will be
exposed to.

Moreover, a large portion of the operational flight envelope where the

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pilots will usually operate is systematically managed through use of

autopilots and auto thrust/throttle systems.

Therefore, it is realistically impossible for pilots to recognize and

respond correctly to an undesired airplane state without having practical
knowledge of the airplane performance and handling characteristics
available (or not available) to them throughout the entire operational
flight envelope.

With this document, it is the OEM's intent to emphasize that training

within the entire operational flight envelope (as per AFM) is needed to
develop pilots' awareness and handling skills, both in manual and
automated flight. Training outside the operational flight envelope should
not be necessary for awareness and skill development. Without first
exposing pilots to the entire operational flight envelope, developing
training sequences beyond this envelope could lead to significant
negative transfer of training. Academic training and OEM recommended
FSTD exercises (within the capabilities of existing simulation devices) to
expose the pilots to the airplane's handling characteristics and
performance envelope will add significant benefits to managing
undesired airplane states and preventing upsets.

The OEM recommended training sequences within this document are

grouped by upset-inducing topics, with each topic consisting of the
exercise conditions, training objectives, description and rationale.

Recommended crew actions for both "Stall Recovery Procedure" and

"Upset Recovery Techniques" as well as training scenarios have
unanimous agreement among these OEMs and are reflected in this
Training Aid.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE ICAO LETTER

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. AUPRTA OBJECTIVES

3. DEFINITION OF AIRPLANE UPSET

4. MONITORING

5. CAUSES OF AIRPLANE UPSETS

5.1. ENVIRONMENTALLY-INDUCED AIRPLANE UPSETS

5.2. SYSTEMS-ANOMALIES-INDUCED AIRPLANE UPSETS
5.3. PILOT-INDUCED AIRPLANE UPSETS
5.4. MISUSE OF AIRPLANE AUTOMATION

6. FLIGHT FUNDAMENTALS FOR PILOTS

6.1. FLIGHT DYNAMICS

6.2. ENERGY STATES
6.3. AERODYNAMIC FLIGHT ENVELOPE
6.4. AERODYNAMICS
6.5. AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
6.6. ICING
6.7. AUTOMATION
6.8. ENGINE FLAMEOUT

7. RECOVERY FROM AIRPLANE UPSETS

7.1. SITUATIONAL AWARENESS OF AN AIRPLANE UPSET

7.2. MISCELLANEOUS ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH UPSET RECOVERY
7.3. AIRPLANE UPSET RECOVERY TECHNIQUES

8. OEM RECOMMENDED TRAINING SEQUENCES

8.1. AIRCRAFT HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS

8.2. UPSET RECOGNITION AND RECOVERY
8.3. STALL
8.4. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
8.5. WAKE VORTEX
8.6. MECHANICAL / SYSTEM-INDUCED
8.7. PILOT FACTORS

9. KEY POINTS HIGHLIGHTED THROUGHOUT THE TRAINING AID

10. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

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1. INTRODUCTION

The goal of this "Airplane Upset Prevention and Recovery Training

Aid" (AUPRTA) is to increase the ability of pilots to recognize and
avoid situations that can lead to airplane upsets and to improve their
ability to recover control of an airplane that diverges from a crew's
desired airplane state.

This will be accomplished by reviewing basic aerodynamics, increasing

awareness of potential upset situations and by application of this
knowledge during simulator training scenarios

The education material and the recommendations provided in the

Airplane Upset Prevention and Recovery Training Aid Rev3 has been
reviewed, updated (where necessary) and agreed upon by many OEMs
who were involved in various working groups in recent years.
Additionally, the training and recovery recommendations contained
within are unanimously agreed upon by these OEMs.

These recommendations are the result of experience derived in

pertinent transport category airplanes and not concluded from simulator
assumptions, or non-transport airplanes.

Additional Information

The foundation of this document remains that which was originally

developed through an extensive review process by a large industry
group in order to achieve a consensus of the air transport industry.
This video remains as relevant today as when it was created during
1997.

Original extract from AURTA video.

Because there are an infinite number

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situations, it is not appropriate to attempt to define testing or checking

criteria.

The goal is to avoid an upset, intervene if one is developing, or to

regain control. Training to proficiency has shown to be the best and only
way to achieve this goal.

Additional Information

Airplane upset recovery education must not include simulator testing

criteria. By definition, testing implies procedure demonstration and
objective assessment of performance.

OEMs have generally defined recommendations instead of procedures.

This is because no two upsets are the same.

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2. AUPRTA OBJECTIVES

The aim of this training aid is to:

• Acquire the knowledge to recognize and avoid upset situations

• Learn to take appropriate and timely measures to prevent further
divergence
• Understand basic airplane aerodynamics
• Learn airplane maneuvering techniques throughout the airplane
operational flight envelope to perform recoveries from upsets.

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3. DEFINITION OF AIRPLANE UPSET

An airplane upset is an undesired airplane state characterized by

unintentional divergences from parameters normally experienced during
operations.

An airplane upset may involve pitch and/or bank angle divergences as

well as inappropriate airspeeds for the conditions.

Note: undesired airplane state is defined in the Line Operations Safety

Audit (LOSA) manual, ICAO Doc 9803, 1st edition.

Deviations from the desired airplane state will become larger until
action is taken to stop the divergence.

Return to the desired airplane state can be achieved through natural

airplane reaction to accelerations, auto-flight system response or pilot
intervention.

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4. MONITORING

The OEMs believe that flight crew engagement combats complacency

through active monitoring. Therefore, active monitoring is the critical
element to ensure awareness and avoidance of undesired airplane
states and provides the strongest countermeasure against startle. An
engaged crew is in the best position to cope with undesired airplane
states.

From the early stages of training, pilots acquire Knowledge, Skills and
Attitudes to perform active monitoring throughout all operations and
phases of flight. This should become part of the "competent pilot DNA".

Additional Information

OEM's Human Factors experts have defined active monitoring as

follows:

"Active monitoring is a proactive knowledge-driven process of

encountering and keeping track of how things are in relation to the
perceiver and his expectations to enable the perceiver to take
meaningful action. Active monitoring involves proactively seeking
relevant information, making important information available,
filtering information that is meaningless, creating new information,
and off-loading cognitive processing onto the interface or adapting
the interface to support monitoring".

In the context of undesired airplane states, active monitoring means

keeping track of the environment, the airplane's energy state and flight
path trajectory. This creates expectations about future airplane state to
detect deviations in order to take timely corrective actions.

Flight Path Monitoring (Flight Safety Foundation)

More Details

Effective monitoring of the environment, the airplane energy state

and flight path depends very heavily on an accurate and
comprehensive understanding of the current airplane's energy state
and flight path trajectory based on the relevant indications of its
status. This understanding, or mental model, can then be used to
create expectations about future state and deviations from the
expected state. These expectations then serve as a baseline for
monitoring.
The monitoring process involves:
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• Pilots using their knowledge to formulate an understanding

(mental model).
• Their understanding (mental model) is used to create a set of
expectations that directs their attention and their perception of
events, e.g. if you are expecting to level off you are likely to
monitor parameters associated with level off.
• When their expectations are not met, pilots use their knowledge
to direct their attention to seek and perceive additional
information to fill any gaps in their understanding that were
identified by the deviations. Actively seeking more information is
part of the monitoring process leading to corrective actions if
necessary. Monitoring other parameters, changing the display
information, and communicating with the other crew members
are ways to get more information.

Active monitoring is the responsibility of all crew members to ensure

the airplane state is understood and correct for the situation.

Additional Information

Each pilot should:

• Know and understand the expected airplane state for the situation
• Communicate expectations
• Keep track of current airplane state
• Detect and communicate deviations from expectations
• Assess risk and decide on a response
• Update and communicate understanding
• Take timely corrective actions

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5. CAUSES OF AIRPLANE UPSETS

An airplane upset is not a common occurrence. There are a variety of

reasons why upsets occur, including:

• Environmentally-induced
• Systems-induced.
• Pilot-induced

Additional Information

NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) and NTSB analysis of

several loss of control accidents highlight the most prevalent causes.

5.1. ENVIRONMENTALLY-INDUCED AIRPLANE UPSETS

A predominant number of upsets has an environment element involved.

Because the crew cannot modify the environment, it is essential they

are aware of the risks so they can be minimized or avoided all together.

Environmental conditions that could lead to an airplane upset include:

• Air Mass Related

• Wake Turbulence

5.1.1. Air Mass related

Air Mass related causes include:

• Turbulence:
◦ Clear Air Turbulence
◦ Mountain waves
◦ Windshear
• Thunderstorms
◦ Air Mass Thunderstorms
◦ Frontal Thunderstorm
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• Icing

Turbulence, when extreme, can lead to airplane upsets, and/or

structural damage. These incidents of turbulence can cause large
airspeed, altitude, or attitude deviations.

Severe or extreme turbulence can be associated with CAT (Clear Air

Turbulence), mountain waves, windshear, and thunderstorms.

Additional Information

Turbulent atmosphere is characterized by a large variation in an air

current over a short distance. The main causes of turbulence are jet
streams, convective activity, obstructions to wind flow and windshear.
Turbulence is categorized as "light", "moderate", "severe" and
"extreme".

5.1.1.1. Turbulence

5.1.1.1.1. Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)

Clear air turbulence (CAT) is defined by the FAA Aeronautical

Information Manual as "high-level turbulence (normally above 15,000 ft
above sea level) not associated with cumuliform clouds, including
thunderstorms."

Although CAT can be encountered in any layer of the atmosphere, it is

almost always present in the vicinity of jet streams.

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0:00 / 0:27

Additional Information

CAT is particularly difficult to predict as it is extremely dynamic and

does not have common dimensions or area or time.

More Details

In general, areas of turbulence associated with a jet stream are

from 100 NM to 300 NM long, elongated in direction of the wind: 50
NM to 100 NM wide and 2 000 ft to 5 000 ft deep.

5.1.1.1.2. Mountain Wave

Mountains are the greatest obstructions to wind flow. This type of

turbulence is classified as "mechanical" because it is caused by a
mechanical disruption of wind.

Over mountains, rotor or lenticular clouds are sure signs of turbulence.

However, mechanical turbulence may also be present in air too dry to
produce clouds.

5.1.1.1.3. Windshear

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A rapid change in wind speed and/or direction over a relatively short

distance in the atmosphere is the primary characteristic of windshear.

Thunderstorms and rain showers can produce violent windshears that

are a hazard to safe flight (See Thunderstorms).

Additional Information

Windshear can also result from a large variety of meteorological

conditions such as terrain, temperature inversions, sea breezes,
frontal systems, strong surface winds.

5.1.1.2. Thunderstorms

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There are two types of thunderstorms: air mass and frontal.

5.1.1.2.1. Air Mass Thunderstorms

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Air mass thunderstorms are randomly distributed in unstable air, and

they develop from localized heating of the Earth's surface. As the
heated air rises, it cools to form cumulus clouds, which can continue to
develop vertically and produce precipitation in the higher levels.

Precipitation signals the beginning of the mature stage and the

presence of a downdraft.

Additional Information

The growth from cumulus to mature thunderstorm can last

approximately one hour. Over this time span, the heated updraft
growing the thunderstorm is cooled by the rainfall and the
thunderstorm will dissipate.
Many thunderstorms produce an associated cold air gust front as a
result of the downflow and outrush of rain cooled air.
These gust fronts are usually very turbulent and can cause rapid
divergences from stabilized flight.

5.1.1.2.2. Frontal Thunderstorms

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Frontal thunderstorms are usually associated with weather systems line

fronts, converging wind, and troughs aloft. Frontal thunderstorms form
in squall lines; last several hours; generate heavy rain, and possibly
hail; and produce strong gusty winds, and possibly tornadoes.

The principal distinction in formation of these more severe

thunderstorms is the presence of large, horizontal wind changes in both
speed and direction at different altitudes in the actual thunderstorm.

This can cause the thunderstorm to be vertically tilted, which means the
precipitation falls away from the heated updrafts resulting in a much
longer maturity timeframe.

Additional Information
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The heated updrafts will rise to much higher vertical velocities which
ultimately result in higher horizontal wind velocities at the surface.

More Details

The downward column of air, or downdraft, of a typical

thunderstorm is quite large at about 1 NM to 5 NM in diameter.
Resultant outflows may produce large changes in windspeed and/or
direction (windshear).

5.1.1.2.3. Microbursts

A more concentrated and powerful downdraft is known as a microburst.

These severe thunderstorm phenomena can occur anywhere convective

weather conditions exist.

When a microburst downdraft reaches the ground, it spreads out

horizontally and may form one or more horizontal vortex rings around
the downdraft. The outflows are not always symmetrical, therefore no
assumed performance changes can be determined.

It is vital to know that if encountered, some microbursts cannot be

successfully recovered from using any known techniques.

Additional Information

Approximately 5% of all thunderstorms produce a microburst.

Downdrafts associated with microbursts are typically only a few
hundred to 3000 ft across.

5.1.1.3. Icing
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Icing will lead to a large degradation in airplane performance if ice

accumulation is allowed to build-up on airplane surfaces.

Although icing can accrete quickly, it usually accumulates over time.

The location and type of ice is critical to flight performance, hence the
axiom "keep it clean".

Unexpected airplane handling characteristics can be expected with ice

build-up.

Further information in Chapter 6.6. Icing.

5.1.2. Wake Turbulence

Wake turbulence is involved in the largest number of documented upset

events. However, a wake turbulence encounter does not mean that a
developed upset will occur.

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A rotational vortex is created behind an airplane's wings as a result of

lift created. The area of greatest vortex energy is within the small core
at the center of the rotating air. The energy, and hence rotational force,
dissipates rapidly from the core outward, even though a rotation still
exists.

An encounter with wake turbulence usually results in a rapid but short

rolling or pitch moment and, in rare instances, could cause structural
damage to an airplane.

Opposing a roll moment using normal roll control (aileron and roll
spoilers) is usually effective and induced roll is minimal in cases where
the wingspan and ailerons of the encountering airplane extend beyond
the rotational flowfield of the vortex core.

With either little or no input, an airplane encountering wake turbulence,

will be expelled from the vortex.

Additional Information

The strength of the turbulence is determined predominately by the

weight, wingspan and speed of the airplane. Generally, vortices
descend at an initial rate of about 300 ft/min to 500 ft/min for about
30 s. The descent rate decreases and eventually approaches zero
between 500 ft and 900 ft below the flight path.

More Details

Pilot and air traffic control (ATC) procedures and standards are
designed to avoid wake turbulence.
Wake turbulence is a definite cause factor within upset statistics.
However, the resulting upset is often the result of crew over
reaction to the wake. This can perhaps be more clearly understood
because of the over exaggeration of many diagrams and schematics
illustrating the intensity and potential of a vortex encounter.

5.2. SYSTEMS-ANOMALIES-INDUCED AIRPLANE UPSETS

Improvement in airplane designs and equipment components has

always been a major focus in the aviation industry. In spite of this
continuing effort, there are still failures.

Some of these failures can lead to an airplane upset.

Most failures are survivable if correct responses are made by the flight
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crew.

Flight crews are trained to overcome or mitigate the impact of single or

multiple failures.

5.2.1. Flight Instruments

Instrument failures infrequently occur.

All airplane operating manuals provide flight instrument information so

that when failures do happen, the pilot can analyze the impact and
select the correct procedural alternatives.

Additional Information

Airplanes are designed to make sure pilots have at least the

minimum information needed to safely control the airplane.

More Details

Past accident reports point out that pilots are not always prepared
(actively monitoring) to correctly analyze the situation and an upset
can develop.

The following picture illustrates an airspeed indication discrepancy:

5.2.2. Autoflight Systems

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Autoflight systems include the autopilot, auto-throttles, and all related

systems that perform flight management and guidance.

The systems integrate information from a variety of other airplane

systems.

Additional Information

They keep track of altitude, heading, airspeed, and flight path self-
monitored to a high degree of accuracy.
All of these devices are designed to reduce the flight crew workload.

As reliable as the autoflight systems have become, they can still

malfunction.

The pilot community has tended to develop a great deal of confidence in

the systems, and that has led to complacency in some cases.

Because of the integration of systems, full analysis to determine the

cause of the anomaly can be difficult for a pilot.

5.2.3. Flight Control and Other Anomalies

Pilots need to be prepared for the unexpected (active monitoring)

Flight control anomalies, such as flap asymmetry, spoiler problems and

others, are addressed in airplane operations manuals.

Unlike most system faults, flight control anomalies could require

immediate action from the pilot.

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5.3. PILOT-INDUCED AIRPLANE UPSETS

5.3.1. Instrument Cross-Check

Pilots must cross-check and interpret the instruments. When a

divergent indication exists from what was intended, it must be
communicated to the other pilot and corrected with proper pitch, bank
and power adjustments.

Misinterpretation of the instruments and/or lack of "active monitoring"

by the pilots can lead to an airplane upset.

More Details

An important factor influencing cross-check technique is the ability

of the pilot: all pilots do not interpret instrument presentations with
the same speed; some are faster than others in understanding and
evaluating what they see. One reason for this is that the natural
ability of pilots varies. Another reason is that the experience levels
are different. Most of the time, the level of crew "active monitoring"
is a prime factor. Proper instrument crosscheck must be adequately
trained and practiced.

Additional Information

Because situations may change rapidly during high work-load

periods, it is crucial for both pilots to monitor the flight path and
instruments.
In a low workload environment, one pilot can usually monitor the
airplane as there is normally little change.
Since it is difficult to stay focused on monitoring during low workload
periods, it may be beneficial for pilots to alternate this responsibility.
The important thing to remember is that at least one pilot must
monitor the airplane at all times.
Effective active monitoring allows the crew to intervene before an
upset can occur.

The following video illustrates an undesired airplane state due to an

inappropriate airspeed in cruise:

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0:00 / 0:45

5.3.2. Adjusting Attitude and Power

A satisfactory instrument cross-check is only part of the task because it

is necessary for the pilot to ensure the correct adjustments to pitch,
bank and power are made in order to control the airplane.

Additional Information

Airplane upsets have occurred when the pilot has made incorrect
adjustments.
This can happen when the pilot is not familiar with the airplane
response to power adjustments or control inputs. Pilots are very well
experienced in the low altitude environment, but usually only observe
the autoflight systems handle the airplane at high altitude. For this
reason, they tend to make larger than necessary control inputs
(inputs which would be appropriate at low altitude will most likely be
too large at higher altitudes).

Control inputs are usually based upon understanding what the outcome
should be.

If the pilot's control inputs are reactionary, unplanned or excessive, the

airplane reaction may be a complete surprise.

A continued divergence from what is expected due to excessive control

inputs can lead to an upset.

The following animation illustrates pilot flight control inputs that make
the turbulence divergence larger instead of smaller.

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0:00 / 0:26

There have also been instances when two pilots have applied opposing
inputs simultaneously leading to an upset or a failure to recover from an
upset.

5.3.3. Inattention and Complacency

A review of airplane upsets shows that inattention or neglect of

"actively monitoring" can result in upsets.

Many events can be traced to inadequate instrument cross-check; for

example, neglecting to monitor all the instruments or fixating on certain
instrument indications and not detecting changes in others.

Although flight path control responsibility is shared while under ATC

radar vectoring, situational awareness and vigilance cannot be relaxed
and/or delegated to ATC.

5.3.4. Distraction From Primary Cockpit Duties

Distractions can be external or self-induced.

"Control the airplane first" has always been a guiding principle in flying.

Cockpit discipline is the principle that must be respected to ensure that

at least one pilot is actively monitoring. It is impossible to intervene to
stop a divergence if the crew is not actively monitoring the airplane.

A pilot who is aware of the energy and flight

path is less likely to be startled and therefore
more likely to deal with the situation with
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controlled inputs versus reactive responses.

5.3.5. Pilot Incapacitation

While this is a very rare occurrence, it does happen and pilots need to
be prepared to react properly.

Incapacitation occurs in many forms ranging from sudden death to

subtle, partial loss of mental or physical performance. Subtle
incapacitations are the most dangerous and they occur the most
frequently. Incapacitation effects can range from loss of function to
unconsciousness or death.

Suspicion of some degree of gross or subtle incapacitation should also

be considered when a crewmember does not respond to any verbal
communication associated with a significant deviation from a standard
procedure or standard flight profile. Failure of any crewmember to
respond to a second request or a checklist response is cause for
intervention.

Airlines must establish clear policy to address subtle incapacitation.

5.3.6. Vertigo or Spatial Disorientation

Spatial disorientation has been a significant factor in many airplane

upset accidents when a crew member does not follow what they are
seeing on the flight instruments because they believe the instruments
are incorrect.

Spatial disorientation is the inability to correctly orient oneself with

respect to the Earth's surface.

All pilots are susceptible to sensory illusions while flying at night or in

certain weather conditions.

These illusions can lead to a conflict between actual attitude indications

and what the pilot "feels" is the correct attitude.

Disoriented pilots may not be aware of their orientation error.

Many airplane upsets occur while the pilot is engaged in some task that
takes attention away from the flight instruments.

Spatial disorientation usually impacts only one of the crew members.

Therefore, if the other crew member recognizes something unexpected,
it is imperative to communicate this observation or take control
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(including engaging AFS). Spatial disorientation is a form of

incapacitation.

Airlines must establish clear policy to address spatial disorientation.

Additional Information

Examples of spatial disorientation causes are:

• Flying over sloping cloud decks or land that slopes gradually

upward into mountainous terrain
• Aurora borealis in which false vertical and horizontal cues are
generated by the aurora
• Black hole illusion during departure and arrival
• Physiological illusions (Somatogravic or other)

It must be emphasized that safe flight can only be accomplished when

an effective instrument cross-check is being done.

This applies to IMC or VMC.

Any situation or factor that interferes with the flow of flight information
to the pilots increases the potential for disorientation.

The pilot's responsibility in preventing airplane upsets due to spatial

disorientation involves:

• Active monitoring
• Effective planning
• Disciplined adherence to SOPs

5.4. MISUSE OF AIRPLANE AUTOMATION

Technology in modern airplanes includes flight directors, autopilots,

auto-throttles and flight management systems.

Systems will react to what the pilot commands even if it is not what the
flight crew intended. Failure to confirm and monitor intended modes of
operation may lead to an airplane upset.

Reliability of modern technologies can lead to overconfidence and

eventual complacency.

The following video illustrates inappropriate use of vertical speed

resulting in loss of airspeed:

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0:00 / 1:00

5.4.1. Pilot-Induced Oscillations (PIO) / Airplane-Pilot Coupling (APC)

All airplane are developed and certified to ensure control is easy and
well-behaved throughout the operational flight envelope.

Testing to ensure these good handling characteristics assumes that

pilots are utilizing typical piloting techniques.

In some circumstances, pilot control inputs can cause unwanted

secondary airplane motion that could lead or contribute to an upset or
loss of control.

This condition occurs when a pilot's commands become out of phase

with the airplane's motion.

Additional Information

There could be a number of technical or human factor causes for this

condition, including over-speed, some out-of-trim conditions or some
flight control system failures.
To the pilot, all of the causes result in the airplane not responding as
quickly, or as aggressively, as the pilot desires.
This leads to pilot inputs that grow increasingly out of phase with the
airplane response.

During an upset recovery a PIO/APC can also be initiated when the pilot
reacts with large rapid inputs before determining what is happening.

Additional Information

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The net effect is that pilot inputs may produce unexpected airplane
motion with accompanied pitch or roll oscillations.

More Details

Sometimes, the PF may be so involved in regaining control, s/he

may not be aware of this oscillatory motion.
In this case, the pilot monitoring may need to verbalize the
PIO/APC condition or be prepared to take control.

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6. FLIGHT FUNDAMENTALS FOR PILOTS

Airplanes are designed, tested and certified based on accepted

assumptions of how pilots will operate them, as well as various
environmental and technical constraints (e.g. gusts or engine failure
dynamics).

Additional Information

These assumptions drive the regulatory certification requirements

and are validated through in-service experience.

More Details

The certification flight test process examines the entire flight

envelope of the airplane, including that area beyond which the
airline pilot normally operates.
The process even explores how the airplane could possibly be
inappropriately operated; however, the testing assumes
fundamental flying skills are known, understood and that pilots are
not complacent or situationally unaware.

A primary assumption regarding pilot control inputs is that they are the
result of training and experience and not arbitrary deflections in various
axis.

Exaggerated rates and amounts of control deflection (over controlling)

may cause an accelerating divergence of flight path control.

6.1. FLIGHT DYNAMICS

Pilots are expected to make control inputs based on desired airplane

reaction.

Control inputs appropriate at one point in the

flight envelope might not be appropriate in
another part of the flight envelope.
Pilots must have a fundamental understanding
of flight dynamics in order to correctly
determine the control input(s) necessary.

There must be a force, or a combination of forces, imposed on an

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airplane to achieve a desired trajectory. The generation of forces

created by control inputs is the subject of aerodynamics (to be
discussed later).

6.2. ENERGY STATES

A pilot has three sources of energy available to manage or manipulate

the flight path of an airplane.

The term "energy state" describes how much of each kind of energy the
airplane has available at any given time.

Pilots who understand the airplane energy state will be in a position to

know instantly what options they may have to maneuver their airplane
and therefore manage the trajectory.

The three sources of energy are:

a. Kinetic energy, which increases with increasing airspeed.

b. Potential energy, which is proportional to altitude.
c. Chemical energy, from the fuel in the tanks which can be converted
to thrust.

These three types of energy can be traded, or exchanged:

• Airspeed can be traded for altitude (kinetic to potential energy)

• Altitude can be traded for airspeed (potential to kinetic energy)
• Thrust can be converted into airspeed and/or altitude (chemical to
either kinetic or potential energy)

Kinetic energy needs to be replenished (from potential or chemical

energy), as it is continuously expended in the process of generating the
aerodynamic forces acting on the airplane which result in controlled
flight (lift and drag).

This process of consciously controlling the energy state of the airplane

is referred to as "energy management".

The trading of energy must be accomplished with a view toward the

final required energy state.

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The objective of energy management is to keep the desired kinetic,

potential and chemical energy within operating limits.

This objective is especially important during an inadvertent upset and

the ensuing recovery.

The process of controlling forces to produce a new energy state takes

time.

The amount of time required is a function of the mass of the airplane

and the magnitude of the applied forces.

Airplanes of larger mass generally take longer to change orientation

than airplanes of smaller mass. The longer time requires the pilot to
plan ahead more in a large-mass airplane to make sure that the actions
taken will achieve the final desired energy state.

Additionally, the effects of commanded thrust changes on turboprop

airplanes are much more rapid than on large turbofan airplanes.

6.3. OPERATIONAL FLIGHT ENVELOPE

Airplanes are designed to be operated in well-defined envelopes of

airspeed and altitude.

The operational limits for an airplane - stall speeds, placarded

maximum speeds/Mach number and maximum certificated altitudes -
are in the AFM for each individual airplane.

Additional Information

Within these limits, the airplanes have been demonstrated to exhibit

safe flight characteristics.
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More Details

OEM and regulatory test pilots have evaluated the characteristics of

airplanes in conditions that include inadvertent exceedances of
these operational flight envelopes to demonstrate that the airplanes
can be returned safely to the operational flight envelopes.

6.4. AERODYNAMICS

Aside from gravity and thrust forces, the other forces acting on an
airplane are generated as a result of the changing pressures produced
on the surfaces that result in turn from the air flowing over them.

6.4.1. Angle of Attack and Stall

Most force-generating surfaces on modern transport category airplanes

are carefully tailored to generate lifting forces efficiently.

Wings and tail surfaces all produce lift forces in the same way. The
figure below shows a cross section of a lifting surface and the familiar
definition of angle of attack versus lift.

Additional Information

The lift force generated by a surface is a function of the angle of

attack, the dynamic pressure (which is proportional to the air density
and the square of the true airspeed) of the air moving around it and
the size of the surface.

It is important to understand the dependence of lift on angle of attack.

The figure below shows how lift varies with angle of attack for constant
speed and air density.

Additional Information

Important features of this dependency include the fact that at zero

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angle of attack, lift is not zero because most lifting surfaces are
cambered.

As angle of attack is increased, lift increases proportionally and this

increase in lift is generally linear up to a point.

At the critical angle of attack, the air moving over the upper surface can
no longer remain attached to the surface, the flow breaks down and the
surface is considered stalled.

Wing shape influences the lift curve slope as illustrated in the figure
below by the coefficient of lift CL. The steepness of the slope affects the
rate at which lift changes due to angle of attack. Straight wing and
swept wings behave differently at higher angles of attack in turn
affecting stall behavior.

For a straight wing, small differences in angle of attack produce notable

changes in lift and potentially a quicker stall recovery when the angle of
attack is reduced.

Swept wings stall at higher angles of attack and the stall (g break) may
not be so well defined.

Additional Information

Stalls can be very difficult to identify on swept wing surfaces when no

slats, flaps or landing gear are extended.

It is necessary to understand that this breakdown of the flow and

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consequent loss of lift is dependent only on the angle of attack of the

surface.

Exceed the critical angle of attack and the

surface will stall and lift will decrease instead of
increase. This is true regardless of airplane
speed or attitude or wing shape.

To sustain a lifting force on the aerodynamic surfaces, the pilot must

ensure that the surfaces are flown at an angle of attack below the stall
angle.

More Details

Depending on the context in which it is used, aerodynamicists use

the term "angle of attack" in a number of ways.
Angle of attack is always the angle between the oncoming air, or
relative wind, and some reference line on the airplane or wing.
Sometimes it is referenced to the chord line at a particular location
on the wing; sometimes to an "average" chord line on the wing;
other times it is referenced to a convenient reference line on the
airplane, like the body reference x axis.
Regardless of the reference, the concept is the same as are the
consequences: exceed the critical angle of attack and the lifting
surfaces and wind will separate, resulting in a loss of lift on those
surfaces. Frequently the term "airplane angle of attack" is used to
refer to the angle between the relative wind and the longitudinal
axis of the airplane. In flight dynamics, this is frequently reduced to
simply "angle of attack".

There is not typically an angle-of-attack indicator in most commercial

transport airplanes.

The three angles usually referred to in the longitudinal axis are:

• Angle of attack.
• Flight path angle.
• Pitch angle.

These three angles and their relationships to each other are shown in
the below figure.
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Pitch angle is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the airplane
and the horizon.
This angle is displayed on the attitude indicator or artificial horizon.

Angle of attack is the difference between the pitch angle (attitude)

and the flight path angle with no wind component.

Additional Information

The angle of attack determines whether the aerodynamic surfaces on

the airplane are stalled or not.

Flight path angle is the angle between the flight path vector and the
horizon.
This is also the climb (or descent angle).
In Level Flight (FPA=0), the pitch attitude equals the angle of attack.

Additional Information

This angle can be displayed on the PFD or HUD, as depicted in above

figure.

An airplane wing can approach the stall angle of attack at any airspeed
(beware that at airspeeds above design maneuver speed, V A or near
maximum flap speeds VFE, the wing can generate enough lift to cause it
to fail due to structural overload before reaching the stall angle of
attack).

An airplane can be stalled in any attitude.

If the angle of attack is greater than the stall angle, the surface will
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stall.

More Details

The figure below indicates that regardless of the airspeed or pitch

attitude of the airplane, the angle of attack determines whether the
wing is stalled.

A stall is characterized by any or a combination of the following:

a. Buffeting, which could be heavy

b. Lack of pitch authority
c. Lack of roll control
d. Inability to arrest descent rate

These characteristics are usually accompanied by a continuous stall

warning and possibly stick pusher activation (if so equipped).

A stall must not be confused with an approach-to-stall warning that

occurs before the stall and warns of an approaching stall.

Stall speeds are published in the AFM for each transport airplane, giving
the speeds at which the airplane will stall as a function of weight and
flap angle.

More Details

This information is very important to the pilot and it must be

understood that these speeds are very carefully derived:

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b. Forward CG
c. Deceleration rate of 1 kt/s
d. Approximately 1-g flight
e. "Power-off" *
* The stall speeds published in the AFM are "power-off" speeds.
The Indicated Airspeed at stall will decrease with increasing
thrust or power as well as vary with the other stated factors (a-
d).

Turboprop pilots should also be aware that "powered lift" effect can
result in activation of stall warning occurring at indicated airspeeds well
below the published stall speeds, due to an increase in lift from
slipstream flowing over the wing at all angles of attack (including the
angle of attack for stall warning). The effect of thrust or power on stall
speeds cannot be used in considering the minimum acceptable speed
during any phase of flight.

Most upsets are quite dynamic in nature and involve elevated load
factors and large speed-change rates.

Pilots should not expect the airplane to remain unstalled just because
the indicated airspeed is higher than AFM chart speeds, because the
conditions may be different.

All transport category airplane are certified to exhibit adequate warning

of impending stall to give the pilot opportunity to recover by decreasing
the angle of attack.

Whether this warning is by natural aerodynamic buffet or provided by a

stick shaker or other warning devices, it warns the pilot when the angle
of attack is getting close to stall.

Additional Information

The warning is required to be in a form other than visual.

The pilot need not look at a particular instrument, gauge or indicator.

More Details

The warning is tactile or by sound: the pilot is able to feel or hear

the stall warning with enough opportunity to recover promptly.

Pilots need to be especially cognizant

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specific airplanes they fly.

Any stall warning should be taken as an indication to decrease the angle

of attack unless otherwise indicated by an OEM procedure.

The angle of attack at which a wing stalls also reduces with increasing
Mach so that at high Mach (normally, high altitude), an airplane will stall
at an angle of attack that is less than the angle of attack for stalling at
lower Mach numbers.

6.4.2. Lateral and Directional Aerodynamic Considerations

Aerodynamically, anti-symmetric flight, or flight in sideslip, can be quite

complex.

The forces and moments generated by the sideslip can affect motion in
all three axes of the airplane.

Sideslip can generate aerodynamic rolling moments as well as yawing

moments. Inappropriate rudder inputs will aggravate the situation.
Extreme care must be taken whenever a pilot chooses to use rudder to
correct sideslip.

6.4.2.1. Angle of Sideslip

Sideslip angle is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the airplane
and the relative wind (see figure below).

It is a measure of whether the airplane is flying straight into the relative

wind.

With the exception of crosswind landing considerations requiring pilot-

commanded sideslip, transport airplanes are typically flown at or very
near zero sideslip.

Additional Information

This usually results in the lowest cruise drag and is most comfortable
for passengers, as the sideways forces are minimized.
When a sideslip angle is developed, the vertical tail is at an angle of
attack and generates "lift" that points sideways, tending to return the
airplane to zero sideslip.
Airplanes that are certificated to exhibit static directional stability will
return the airplane to zero sideslip when controls are released or
returned to a neutral position.
In order to hold a sideslip condition, the pilot must hold the rudder in
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a deflected position (assuming symmetrical thrust).

6.4.2.2. Wing Dihedral Effects

Additional Information

Dihedral is the positive angle formed between the lateral axis of an

airplane and a line that passes through the center of the wing, as
depicted in the figure below.

Dihedral contributes to the lateral stability of an airplane.

A wing with dihedral will develop stable rolling moments with sideslip.
If the relative wind comes from the side, the wing into the wind is
subject to an increase in lift.
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The wing away from the wind is subject to a decrease in angle of

attack and develops a decrease in lift.
The changes in lift create a rolling moment, tending to raise the
windward wing; hence, dihedral contributes a stable roll due to
sideslip.

More Details

Since wing dihedral is so powerful in producing lateral stability, it is

used as a "common denominator term" of the lateral stability
contribution of other airplane components, such as rudder and wing
sweep.
In other words, the term "dihedral effect" is used when describing
the effects of wing sweep and rudder on lateral stability and control.
Rudder input produces sideslip and contributes to the dihedral
effect. The effect is proportional to the angle of sideslip. (That is,
roll increases with sideslip angle; therefore, roll increases with
increasing rudder input.) Precise control of roll angle using this
technique is very difficult and therefore, not recommended. The
next section discusses this area in more detail.
When an airplane is at a high angle of attack and the airplane is
approaching a stall, the aileron and spoiler roll controls become less
effective. At the stall angle of attack, the rudder is still effective;
therefore, it can produce large sideslip angles, which in turn
produces roll because of the dihedral effect. It is worth recalling
from primary flight training, that this is how an airplane enters a
spin.

6.4.2.3. Pilot-Commanded Sideslip

The rudders on transport airplanes are sized to counter the yawing

moment associated with an engine failure at very low takeoff speeds
and to conduct crosswind takeoffs and landings, using up to maximum
pedal input.

An excessive rudder input can produce a large sideslip angle, which will
generate a rolling moment that requires significant lateral control input
to stop the airplane from rolling.

The rudder should not normally be used to induce roll through sideslip
because the result can be rapid roll rates after significant time delays
from the initial input.
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The overreaction can induce abrupt yawing moments and violent out-of-
phase roll rates, which can lead to successive cyclic rudder deflections,
known as rudder reversals as the pilot tries to control the resulting
motions.

Large aggressive control reversals induce loads that can exceed

structural design limits.

Except in crosswind takeoff and landing, keeping the sideslip as close to

zero as possible will ensure that the maximum amount of lateral control
is available for maneuvering.

Rudder should only be used in combination with ailerons/spoilers to

eliminate sideslip, not create it.

Pilots should develop a feel for the particular airplanes they fly and
understand how to minimize sideslip angle through coordinated use of
flight controls.

6.4.2.4. Crossover Speed - Jet Airplane (JET)

Turbojet

Additional Information

Crossover speed is a term that describes the lateral controllability

of an airplane with the rudder at a fixed (up to maximum)
deflection. -It is the minimum speed (weight and configuration
dependent) in a 1-g flight, where maximum aileron/ spoiler input
(against the stops) is reached and the wings are still level or at an
angle to maintain directional control. Any additional rudder input or
decrease in speed will result in an unstoppable roll into the
direction of the deflected rudder or in an inability to maintain
desired heading.
Crossover speed is very similar in concept to VMCA, except that
instead of being VMCA due to a thrust asymmetry, it is VMCA due to
full rudder input. This crossover speed is weight and configuration
dependent, while also sensitive to angle of attack. With weight and
configuration held constant, the crossover speed will increase with
increased angle of attack and will decrease with decreased angle of
attack.
Thus, in an airplane upset due to rudder deflection with large and
increasing bank angle and the nose rapidly falling below the
horizon, the input of additional nose-up elevator with already
maximum input of aileron/spoilers will only aggravate the situation.
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The correct action in this case is to unload the airplane to reduce

the angle of attack, which will regain aileron/spoiler effectiveness
and allow recovery. This action may not be intuitive and will result
in a loss of altitude.

6.4.2.5. Propeller Effects Turboprop Airplane (PROP)

Turboprop

Propellers provide quick thrust build-up compared to jet engines

which spool up and generate thrust more slowly.
Propeller effects have the positive benefit of allowing the turboprop
pilots to correct airspeed or flight path deviations with less
anticipation and more accuracy than their jet counterpart.
Propeller effects, however, can introduce rolling moments and
unwanted slip or skid in response to power changes that require
pilot compensation and close attention to airplane trim.
Propeller effects will change when changing power or changing
airplane angle of attack and sideslip. Those effects include:

• Asymmetric power effects:

◦ Asymmetric propeller loading effect
◦ Asymmetric lift distribution effect
• Powered lift effect
• Slipstream effect
• Engine torque effect

Knowledge of those effects will ensure pilots control their aircraft in

an effective manner.

More Details

Lacking such effects, jet transports track straighter and require

less attention to rudder for yaw control. In fact, the most-
welcome discovery in the transition from a turboprop to a jet is
the absence of the footwork associated with a prop and the lack
of directional trim change due to speed changes that propeller
effects require. This also is a risk when transitioning to a jet
powered airplane, where rudder inputs could aggravate rather
than assist in certain situations.

6.4.2.5.1. Asymmetric Power Effects (PROP)

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Turboprop

Anytime, asymmetry exists due to power

effects sufficient coordinated rudder and
lateral inputs will be required to maintain the
desired flight path.

6.4.2.5.1.1 Asymmetric Propeller Loading Effect (PROP)

Turboprop

Asymmetric propeller loading is the result of dissimilar thrust from

rotating propeller blades during certain flight conditions.
Downward moving propeller blades have a greater local angle of
attack than upward moving blades when the relative airflow striking
the blades is not aligned with the thrust line.
In conventional engines where the propeller rotates clockwise when
viewed from the rear, asymmetric propeller loading results in the
center of thrust shifting to the right of the propeller's centerline. As
a result, the yaw moment of the right engine is greater than the
corresponding one of the left engine (see figure below).

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The effects of asymmetric propeller loading are most pronounced

when engines are operating at a high power setting and the
airplane is flown at high angles of attack (low speeds).
In the event of an engine failure on any airplane with wing-mounted
engines, there is a yawing motion into the inoperative engine as a
result of asymmetric thrust which must be controlled by an
appropriate rudder deflection.
As a result of asymmetric propeller loading, directional control may
be more difficult when the left engine is suddenly made inoperative
than when the right engine is suddenly made inoperative. In this
case, the left engine is termed the "critical engine".

More Details

Some airplane types are designed to have more rudder deflection

to the right than to the left in order to counter this effect in which
case, neither engine is considered to be critical.

6.4.2.5.1.2 Asymmetric Lift Distribution Effect (PROP)

Turboprop
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At high engine power, the air moving through the propellers is

accelerated in order to produce the thrust. This also increases the
local velocity of air flowing over the parts of the wing behind the
propellers which generate more lift at a given airspeed.
The accelerated flow behind the propeller also causes a rolling
phenomenon that is the result of asymmetric propeller loading. As
shown in the figure below, when the center of thrust shifts right as
the angle of attack is increased, the accelerated air behind the
propeller shifts in a similar fashion.

The center of lift shifts in the direction of the greater accelerated

slipstream, as illustrated in the figure below, as viewed from the
rear of the airplane. The center of each wing produces a rolling
moment around the center of gravity.

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In addition to the yawing moment due to asymmetric propeller

loading, the turboprop airplane also experiences a rolling moment
toward the failed engine which occurs when the wing with the failed
engine experiences a reduction in lift due to the lost accelerated
slipstream. This requires immediate application of lateral control to
maintain wings level flight.

Additional Information

Due to the strong asymmetric lift effects after an engine failure,

minimum control speed is a critical case for the sizing of the lateral
controls for turboprop airplanes.

A propeller normally keeps rotating following an engine failure or

when engine power is reduced to idle and the propeller blades tend
to stay at their low-pitch stops with the propeller being back-driven
by the flow of air through the propeller- a condition known as
"windmilling".
In this condition, the propeller:

• is not producing any forward thrust

• disrupts the airflow over the affected section of the wing,
reducing lift on that wing in the opposite manner to effect of
accelerated slipstream.

In a one-engine inoperative condition during

take-off, airplane controllability and climb
performance capability are based on the
assumption the propeller of the failed engine
is feathered and the airspeed is maintained at
or above the minimum airspeeds defined in
the AFM.

Additional Information

Transport category turboprops have propellers equipped with

automatic feathering systems which are capable of setting the
blades at an angle that minimizes propeller drag and disruption to
the airflow behind the propeller.

6.4.2.5.2 Powered Lift Effects (PROP)

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Turboprop

As described above, at high engine power, the air moving through

the propellers is accelerated in order to produce the thrust. This
also increases the local velocity of air flowing over the parts of the
wing behind the propellers which generate more lift at a given
airspeed.

This can be an important advantage over jet airplane during the

approach phase of flight. Low airspeed or excessive sink rates that
require only a small power increase for quick correction in a
turboprop become more critical in jets where speed control and
engine thrust management require greater anticipation.
Powered lift effect reduces the airplane angle of attack required to
maintain a constant flight path at a given airspeed.
However, turboprop pilots must be aware of some side-effects of
the powered lift effect.
Stall warnings are based on angle of attack thresholds with engine
at idle. At high power settings the enhanced lift generated by the
parts of the wings behind the propellers will reduce the angle of
attack for the same airspeed. This results in an increased margin
above the stall angle of attack.
This can result in stall warning occurring at airspeeds lower than
those published in the AFM when the airplane is operating at hight
power settings.

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The consequence of attempting to fly at airspeeds below AFM

minimum speeds (V2 or VGA) at high power will be reduced control
effectiveness and the potential for a very abrupt stall in the event
the stall angle of attack is exceeded or engine power is lost.
While turboprop airplanes are generally more tolerant to low
airspeed because of powered lift, when combined with an engine
failure, this margin disappears and the airplane can stall and roll
abruptly due to the resulting lift asymmetry.
As a consequence, turboprop pilots must adhere to the applicable
minimum speeds to avoid inadvertently allowing the airplane to
slow to airspeeds below published stall speeds.
In the event of windshear, pitch attitude can be increased, while
respecting the AFM minimum speeds. If these speeds are not
adhered to, the effects of powered lift may result in flying at
airspeeds well below the AFM minimum speed without stick shaker
or stick pusher activation. This is a critical difference between a
turboprop airplane and a jet airplane.
In addition, optimum climb performance occurs near the nominal V 2
or VGA airspeed for the flap configuration [refer to 6.5.1. L/DMAX].
At airspeeds below these values, the airplane will be operating on
the "back side" of the Lift/Drag curve with a significant deterioration
of climb capability. Additionally, the flight controls may not have
sufficient authority to maintain control of the airplane in turbulence.

6.4.2.5.2. Slipstream Effect (PROP)

Turboprop

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Propeller slipstream refers to the accelerated airflow present in the

wake of the propellers.
As a spinning propeller produces thrust, it also imparts a spin and a
lateral displacement to the airflow behind it - referred to as
slipstream "swirl" or "spiraling".
If the propellers rotate clockwise (when viewed from the rear), the
wake from the left propeller is displaced inboard with the result that
the flow immerses the aft portion of the fuselage and tail in
slipstream, as illustrated in figure below.

As the propeller slipstream flows around or near the tail of the

airplane, it affects the horizontal and vertical stabilizers and control
surfaces.

Additional Information

Slipstreams can alter the angle of attack and dynamic pressure16/3/23,

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the horizontal tail changing the magnitude of the lift produced by

the tail - this effect can be particularly strong on "tail low" designs
that are always immersed in the slipstream.

The pilot must counter any change in airplane pitching moment that
results from a power change by adjusting the lift on the tail with
elevator then re-trimming the airplane for the new balanced
condition.
Changes in slipstream with changes to engine power settings also
affect the local angle of sideslip at the vertical stabilizer. This results
in side forces that create overall sideslip for the airplane and may
affect the rudder pedal feel characteristics for airplane with un-
powered rudders.
To compensate for this and return the airplane to a zero sideslip
condition, it is always necessary to make small rudder trim
adjustments whenever large engine power adjustments are made.

6.4.2.5.4. Engine Torque Effect (PROP)

Turboprop

More Details

Torque effect is the reaction to the torque produced by the

engines that imparts a rolling moment to the airplane, in the
opposite direction to the propeller rotation.
If propeller rotation is clockwise when viewed from the rear, the
torque reaction will try to roll the airplane left (see figure below).

Torque effect

6.4.3. Stability

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Positive static stability is defined as the initial tendency to return to an

undisturbed state after a disturbance (Fig. 29).

All transport airplane demonstrate positive static stability in at least

some sense.

Positive Static Stability will cause the airplane to recover from a

divergence without any pilot input; therefore pilots must not arbitrarily
react before analyzing the situation

Additional Information

The concept of stability can apply to a number of different airplane

parameters that will be discussed later in this document.

6.4.4. Maneuvering Flight

It is important that pilots understand their airplane's feel and response

characteristics to flight control inputs.

In straight and level un-accelerated flight, the load factor is 1G. Any
maneuvering in pitch or roll will either increase or decrease the load
factor from 1 g. This increase or decrease will impact maneuver
capability and stall margin.

6.4.4.1. Longitudinal, Lateral and Directional Controls

• Movement about the lateral axis is called "pitch", as depicted in

figure here-above.

The pilot controls pitching motion (and therefore the angle of

attack) by means of the elevator.
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The elevator is the primary control in pitch. The trim system of an

elevator or horizontal stabilizer is the secondary control to reduce
the need for the pilot to hold constant force.

Pitching about the center of gravity changes the airplane angle of

attack.

Maneuvering in pitch, also changes the Load Factor.

Additionally there will be pitch effects from thrust changes when

engines are offset from the center of gravity

• Movement about the longitudinal axis is called "roll".

The ailerons (and roll spoilers) are the primary controls in roll.

The result of increasing bank (rolling) is a re-orientation of the lift

vector from the vertical, which in turn creates a horizontal lift
component as well as a reduced vertical lift component. The result
of this imbalance of forces is a curved descending flight path.

• Movement about the vertical axis is called "yaw".

Airplanes are certified to withstand a full scale rudder deflection

from neutral, in one direction. Reversing the rudder from one
direction to another is not considered in certification and can result
in excessive structural loads, even at slow airspeeds.

It is important to emphasize that rudder limiters do not protect

against the structural loads or excessive sideslip angles that can be
generated from rapid rudder reversals at any airspeed.

The rudder is the primary control in yaw.

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The rudder is intended to be used to control yaw in two ways,

either to minimize the angle of sideslip or to create yaw to correct
for crosswind during take-offs and landings.

The rudder is not intended to be used as a primary roll control.

Pilots should be completely aware that experience on non-transport
category airplane which emphasizes use of rudder input as a means
to maneuver in roll does not apply to transport category airplanes.

However, when all normal means of roll control have been

unsuccessful, careful rudder input in the direction of the desired roll
should be considered to induce or augment a rolling maneuver or to
provide the desired bank angle.

Other than to reduce sideslip, rudder input is never an appropriate

initial response for events such as a wake vortex, windshear, or to
reduce the bank angle during any upset including a stall event

The objective of all maneuvering is to manipulate the forces on the

airplane in order to orient the flight path.

6.4.5. Load Factor

Understanding effects of Load Factor is critical to properly understand

the mechanics and performance of maneuvering Flight.

Load factor (n) is a measure of loads on the airplane structure during

flight. Load factor is referred to in terms of acceleration of gravity or "g"
value.

n = Lift / Weight

When the wing is producing lift equal to 1 times the weight of the
airplane, it is oriented in a direction opposed to the gravity vector and is
referred to as a load factor of 1g.

During maneuvering, the load factor will be either greater or less than
1g.

In a pull-up, the wing generates lift greater than the weight of the
airplane and the load factor is above 1g (see figure below).

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In a turn, the result of increasing bank (rolling) is a re-orientation of the

lift vector from the vertical, which in turn decreases the vertical lift
component.

Acceleration due to gravity still points toward the Earth, therefore an

imbalance in the vertical forces develops.

Unless lift is increased so that its vertical component equals the weight
of the airplane, the airplane will begin to accelerate toward the Earth - it
will begin to descend.

To maintain altitude in a banked turn, the lift produced by the airplane

must be more than the weight of the airplane. The increase of lift
required is a function of bank angle and therefore the load factor will
increase (see figure below).

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6.4.6. High-Altitude Characteristics (JET)

Turbojet

Modern jet transport airplanes are designed to fly at very high

altitudes, and as a purely practical matter, it is useful to identify
high altitude operations as those above FL250. This training aid
therefore uses the same threshold.
While aerodynamic principles and certain hazards apply at all
altitudes, they become particularly significant with respect to loss of
control (or upset) at altitudes above FL250.
It is important to be aware of temperature changes throughout the
operational flight envelope, because the speed of sound
(represented as Mach number) is a function only of temperature.
Temperature decreases with altitude until the tropopause, while
above that, it remains relatively constant.
Aerodynamic characteristics of lifting surfaces and airplanes are
significantly affected by the relationship of airspeed to Mach. At
high altitudes, high Mach numbers exist at relatively low calibrated
airspeeds.
Pilots need to be aware of the Mach number and altitude effects on
the stability and handling qualities of their airplanes, and need to
know that maneuvering an airplane at traffic pattern altitudes is
different than maneuvering at the same calibrated airspeed at
cruise altitude. Resulting forces of flight control inputs at traffic
pattern altitudes are different from the same flight control inputs at
the same calibrated airspeed at high altitudes.

Additional Information

At a constant airspeed (Vc), elevator deflection at 35,000 ft will

result in a higher pitch rate than the same elevator deflection at
5,000 ft because there is less aerodynamic damping.
Therefore, the change in angle of attack is greater, creating more
lift and a higher load factor.
If the control system is designed to provide a fixed ratio of control
force to elevator deflection, it will take less force to generate the
same load factor as altitude increases
For a given pitch attitude, the change in rate of climb or descent is
proportional to the true airspeed.
A pitch attitude at 290 kt EAS at sea level that results in 500 ft per
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minute (fpm) will generate about 900 fpm at 35,000 ft (290 kt EAS
at 35,000 ft is approximatively 490 kt TAS).
This characteristic is true even for small attitude changes, such as
used to hold altitude. It is also why smooth and small control
inputs are required at high altitude, particularly when disconnecting
the autopilot.
Because exceeding operating limits can occur for various reasons,
all modern transport airplanes are tested to determine that only
normal piloting skills are needed to recover back to the normal
operational flight envelope.

As altitude increases, air density decreases, and when this occurs,

natural aerodynamic damping decreases and the airplane becomes
more responsive to control inputs.

Additional Information

Aerodynamic damping is a function of the relative speed of the

airplane to the airstream and of the air density and can be related
back to the true airspeed (TAS) of the airplane. Increasing
indicated airspeed results in a higher TAS and less damping, or, for
a given indicated airspeed , increasing altitude results in a higher
TAS and less damping.

As mentioned above, altitude and Mach number change the

aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane - so it does "feel" and
respond differently at different altitudes. It is imperative to not
over- react with large and abrupt inputs.
Higher Mach numbers may also adversely affect the stability of the
airplane, causing undesirable characteristics to develop or worsen.
As Mach number increases, airflow over parts of the airplane begins
to exceed the speed of sound. Shock waves associated with this
local supersonic flow can interfere with the normally smooth flow
over the lifting surfaces, causing local flow separation and buffet.

6.4.7. High Altitude Turboprop Characteristics (PROP)

Turboprop

Most turboprop airplanes operate at lower maximum altitudes and

speeds than jet transport airplanes.
At higher altitudes, air density decreases to the point where
aerodynamic characteristics 58
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airplanes are significantly affected by the relationship of airspeed to

the speed of sound (Mach effects).
To avoid these effects, the maximum operating altitude and
airspeeds for turboprop transport designs are chosen to ensure that
the effects of altitude on inflight operating characteristics are
minimized.
As a result of their lower ceiling, turboprops will experience little or
no change in stability and flying qualities caused by the reduction in
aerodynamic damping (due to decreased atmospheric density).

6.5. AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE

6.5.1. L/DMAX

The lowest point on the total drag curve (as indicated in figure below) is
known as L/DMAX (or Vmd - minimum drag speed).

The speed range slower than L/DMAX is known as slow flight, which is
sometimes referred to as the "back side of the power-drag curve",
"region of reverse command" or "second regime".

Speed faster than L/DMAX is considered normal flight, or the "front side
of the power-drag curve" or "first regime".

Flight faster than L/DMAX is inherently stable with respect to speed.

When operating in level flight at a constant airspeed with constant

thrust or power setting, any airspeed disturbance (such as turbulence)
will result in the airspeed eventually returning to the original airspeed.

Flight slower than L/DMAX is inherently unstable with respect to speed

and thrust/power settings.

When operating at a constant airspeed with constant thrust/power

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setting, any disturbance in the second regime causing a decrease in

airspeed will result in a further decrease in airspeed unless power is
increased.

Figure 39 shows that lower speed will result in increased drag.

The increase in drag will cause a further decrease in airspeed, which

may ultimately result in a stalled flight condition.

Flight slower than L/DMAX at high altitudes must be avoided.

When operating slower than L/DMAX, and where total drag exceeds total
thrust or power, the airplane will be unable to maintain altitude and the
only remaining option to exit the slow flight regime is to initiate a
descent.

Many factors can cause airspeed decay. These include, changing winds
or temperature increased drag during turns, turbulence, icing, use of
anti-ice, auto-throttle or engine malfunctions etc.

Fuel efficient flight profiles may require high altitude cruise at lower
speed or Mach numbers resulting in less time to recognize and respond
to speed deterioration at high altitude.

Slow reacting auto-throttles, designed for passenger comfort, may not

apply thrust quickly enough to prevent a slowdown below L/D MAX.

Undetected, any speed decay is an undesired airplane state.

Proper flight planning, adherence to published climb profiles, cruise

speeds and a flight crew actively monitoring the flight will ensure that
speeds slower than L/DMAX are avoided.

6.5.2. Optimum Altitude

Optimum altitude for a weight and atmospheric conditions are based

upon air temperature and operating speed margins. Therefore,
temperature must be monitored when operating close to L/D MAX to
ensure performance is maintained.

6.5.3. Optimum Climb Speed Deviations

Airplane manuals and flight management systems provide optimum

climb speeds.

When increased rates of climb are required, the crew must ensure the
speed is not decreased below L/DMAX.
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On some airplane types, minimum climb speeds may be higher when

operating in icing conditions to ensure adequate airspeed margins are
maintained with contamination on the lifting surfaces.

Inappropriate use of the autoflight system V/S mode causes many slow
speed events during high altitude climbs.

Pilots must be aware that when using V/S mode, the selected V/S takes
precedence over selected Airspeed/Mach, hence an excessive V/S climb
will result in a speed decay that will not be stopped until the pilot or
autoflight system intervenes.

6.5.4.Maximum Altitude

Maximum altitude is the highest altitude at which an airplane can be

operated.

Additional Information

It is determined by three basic characteristics which are unique to

each airplane model. It is the lowest of:

• Maximum Certified Altitude - the maximum altitude due to

structural considerations or other certification requirements.
• Thrust or Power Limited Altitude - the altitude at which sufficient
thrust/power is available to provide a specific minimum rate of
climb.
• Buffet or Maneuver Limited Altitude (jet airplane) - the altitude at
which a specific maneuver margin exists prior to buffet onset.

When operating at Maximum Altitude for an airplane type, the margins

are at the minimum required by regulation resulting in reduced bank
angle capability; therefore, autopilot or crew inputs must be kept below
buffet thresholds.

Additional Information

The airplane that is initially within the buffet limits could end up with
insufficient thrust to maintain the necessary airspeed due to
environmental or maneuvering changes. This is a common item in
many high altitude situations where airplanes slow down to the lower
buffet limits.

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When operating near the maximum altitude in unstable atmospheric

conditions, speed and angle of attack have minimum margin to cope
with environmental changes. This could lead to a slowdown or stall and
subsequent high altitude upset.

Additional Information

When temperature increases, the maximum altitude capability

decreases significantly. This is a situation where maneuver buffet
margins are adequate but temperature is affecting thrust capability to
sustain airspeed at the higher altitudes.

In the event of a thrust/power loss, the airplane may suddenly change

from a condition of sufficient thrust/power for the operating altitude to a
condition of flying above the Thrust or Power Limited altitude. If a "drift
down" is not initiated, the airspeed will decrease and the airplane will
enter an upset.

6.5.5. Weight & Balance Effects on Handling Characteristics

Pilots must be aware of the effects on handling qualities resulting from

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different center of gravity. An airplane loaded toward the forward center

of gravity limits will be more stable, while an airplane loaded toward the
aft center of gravity limits will be less stable.

The more stable an airplane becomes, the less maneuverable it will be.
Conversely, the less stable an airplane becomes, the more
maneuverable it will be. This is most noticeable the closer the airplane
is loaded to the center of gravity limits.

With an aft center of gravity, less force is required by the tail to

counteract the nose down pitching moment of the wing. This results in
less induced drag and more efficient flight. For this reason, aft center of
gravity loadings are usually planned to achieve less fuel burn. An aft
center of gravity loaded airplane will be more responsive and
consequently more sensitive to pitch control inputs.

With a forward center of gravity, the elevator control authority to raise

the nose of the airplane is reduced. airplane without a trimmable
horizontal stabilizer and loaded at forward center of gravity will require
more pilot force to produce nose up pitch. This is particularly noticeable
at take-off and landing.

An airplane that is outside the weight and balance envelope can result
in airplane handling that can be unpredictable. The problem may be
exacerbated at high altitude.

6.5.6. Maximum Speeds

MMO and/or VMO define the maximum operating speed for each airplane
type.

VMO is defined by the maximum loads that the airframe is designed to

withstand in response to atmospheric gusts, turbulence or maneuvering
by the pilot.

Exceeding VMO or MMO can occur for various reasons and all transport
airplane are designed to allow for minor exceedances and the use of
normal piloting skill to recover back to the normal operational flight
envelope.

It is imperative to not over-react to an airspeed exceedance with large

and drastic inputs in order to avoid placing large maneuvering loads on
the airframe.

Pilots should smoothly adjust pitch and/or power to reduce speed

should an overspeed occur.
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There is no need to immediately disconnect a correctly functioning

autopilot if the AFS is commanding a return back to the normal flight
envelope (unless OEM procedures dictate otherwise).

Inadvertent airspeed excursions above VMO/MMO should be treated very

seriously.

The airspeed must be reduced to within the operational flight envelope

for the following reasons:

• Flight at very high airspeeds puts the airplane in a region of

reduced protection from gusts, turbulence or structural loads.
• Flight at very high Mach numbers puts jet airplanes in a region of
reduced maneuvering envelope.

Additional Information

During certification, all transport airplanes have been shown to

exhibit safe operating characteristics during specified exceedances of
airspeed or Mach envelopes.
This means that the controls will operate normally and airplane
responses are positive and predictable for these conditions.

At very high airspeeds, very high control power exists. The airplane
reaction to a fixed control deflection is significantly greater at high
speeds than at low speeds. Care must be taken to remain inside the
maneuvering envelope to avoid exceeding structural limits.

At any speed, large aggressive control

deflection reversals can lead to loads that can
exceed structural design limits.

6.6. ICING

In-flight icing is a serious hazard. By disturbing the smooth flow of air

on the airplane, icing will increase drag, decrease the ability of an airfoil
to produce lift and degrade control authority.

The lift distribution characteristics along the wing may be affected by

even trace amounts of ice contamination. During the progression of a
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stall condition, flow separation on the contaminated aerofoil may be

affected and the pitch and/or roll characteristics may be different from
those of an uncontaminated wing. Until the angle of attack is reduced
below the stall angle, pitch and roll excursions could be extreme.

Transport category airplane are certified to operate in a wide range of

icing conditions. Pilots must understand, however, that any amount of
ice accretion on the lifting surfaces has a detrimental effect on the
airplane. When operating in icing conditions, they must use ice
protection systems as required by the procedures contained in the
airplane Flight Manual and adhere to minimum airspeeds (if applicable)
to ensure the airplane remains in the demonstrated operational flight
envelope.

Ice protection systems on transport category airplane generally operate

on one of two principles - de-icing or anti-icing.

De-icing systems are designed to remove ice after it has begun to

accumulate on the airplane. Because some residual ice continues to
adhere between system cycles, the surface is never entirely
aerodynamically "clean". The effects of the residual ice are evaluated
during certification and AFM procedures published to ensure acceptable
handling and performance characteristics are retained.

Anti-icing systems are designed to keep the protected areas of a

surface entirely free of ice during an icing encounter. Anti-icing systems
can be evaporative or "running wet". On a running wet anti-icing
system, liquid water may run back to colder areas behind the protected
areas and re-freeze - commonly referred to as "run back" ice. The
effects of these accretions are evaluated for certification. Note that
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runback ice can serve as accretion sites for additional accumulations in

an extended icing encounter, and these accumulations may exceed the
amount and position of ice demonstrated during certification.

Additional Information

Melting ice particles can also be a source for runback ice on surfaces
protected by thermal anti-ice systems or can result from
aerodynamic heating on the leading edge for an airplane operating at
high airspeeds. If the temperature at the stagnation point on the
leading edge is high enough, impinging ice particles may melt upon
impact and then run back to colder areas behind the protected areas
and refreeze.

"Run back" ice will continue to affect the airplane after the protected
surface ahead of the ice formation is clear of ice. The only way to
remove "runback" ice is to find warm air conditions significantly above
freezing to allow the ice to melt.

While transport category airplane are certified to operate in icing

conditions defined by the certification process, there are icing conditions
that may exceed the certification criteria.

Flights in freezing rain, freezing drizzle or certain mixed icing conditions

may encounter water droplets that are larger than those defined in
certification criteria and are referred to as super-cooled large water
droplets (SLD).

An SLD encounter may rapidly exceed the capability of the ice

protection system and lead to ice build-up on protected surfaces or run
back ice forming aft of the protected surfaces. Ice encountered in SLD
conditions may seriously degrade the performance and controllability of
the airplane.

Additional Information

Super-cooled Large Droplet icing may be identified by unusually

extensive ice accreted on the airframe in areas not normally observed
to collect ice such as the aft portion of an un-heated engine or
propeller spinner, wing surfaces aft of the protected area or ice
accreted on the aft portions of the side windows of the flight
compartment.

Flight crew should be vigilant for the ice accretions listed above
when the following are observed:
• Visible rain or drizzle at temperatures below +5°C outside air
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temperature
• Droplets that splash or splatter on impact at temperatures below
+5°C outside air temperature.

Flight crews encountering SLD icing must immediately follow any special
procedures published in the AFM to ensure the airplane is operated in
the correct configuration and alter their flight path to exit those
conditions.

Flight crews must also be especially wary of automation during icing

encounters. Autopilots can mask the effects of airframe icing and
consequent changes in performance and handling qualities which can
contribute to ultimate loss of control.

6.6.1. Flight In Icing Conditions (PROP)

Turboprop

Transport category turboprop airplanes are certified to be safely

operated in icing conditions. They are equipped with anti-icing and
de-icing systems that provide protection against the effects of icing.

Additional Information

The Turbo-prop transport airplanes generally employ pneumatic

boots to de-ice the airplane wings and tail surfaces which allow for
the collection of ice between inflation cycles of the boots to remove
the accumulation.
This accumulation of ice consists of "inter-cycle" ice which is the ice
that collects on the surface between boot inflation cycles and
"residual" ice which is the ice that is not completely removed after
the boot inflates.
It was believed to be necessary to delay operation of pneumatic
boots until a significant accumulation of ice was noted on the
airframe - in some cases it was common practice to wait until the
airplane had accumulated 1/4 to 1/2 inch of ice. This was intended
to prevent the phenomenon of "ice bridging" where ice would
continue to collect while the boot was inflated. It has been
demonstrated in flight test trials that Transport Category airplane
pneumatic boot designs certified to current requirements, are not
susceptible to ice bridging and may be turned on and allowed to
cycle even before the first signs of ice accumulation are evident.

Environmental conditions may exist in which the ice accretion rate

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or extent of the ice formation exceeds the performance capabilities

of the airplane. In such cases, the performance and flying
characteristics of the airplane may not be maintained e.g the
airspeed in cruise or the vertical speed in climb cannot be controlled
and keeps decreasing. The flight crew must follow the AFM specific
guidance and leave those conditions immediately.

Additional Information

As a general rule and based on experience, such environmental

conditions have limited vertical extension. By descending several
hundred or a few thousand feet, it is generally possible to exit such
conditions.
Performing a descent combines three positive effects:

• it allows the flight crew to trade altitude for airspeed increase

while reducing the angle of attack
• the outside temperature will generally increase and
• the engines will provide more power.

The first effect of ice accretion on the airplane consists of an

increase in drag. In turn, this will result in either a loss of climb rate
in a constant airspeed climb or a loss of airspeed in level flight with
a given power (or during any attempt to climb at a constant vertical
speed or fixed pitch attitude).
The rate of ice accretion depends on many parameters and the
resultant drag increase can be very slow and progressive or, at
other times, build quickly. The lower the airspeed, such as in a
climb or in a hold, the faster and more detrimental the performance
decrease can be, which highlights the importance of early
identification of airplane performance loss.

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Additional Information

In addition to the effect of ice accumulation on the airframe, ice on

the propeller blades will interfere with the aerodynamics of the
blades reducing their efficiency and thereby reducing available
thrust leading to a further reduction in climb rate or airspeed.
A degree of propeller performance can be regained by increasing
the propeller speed setting. First, this causes the propeller blades
to operate at a lower angle of attack relative to the on-coming
airflow which can increase thrust. Second, higher propeller speed
may improve shedding of the ice from the propeller due to higher
centrifugal forces on the blades.

Even with ice protection systems operating properly, inter-cycle and

residual ice accretion on the airplane may also significantly reduce
the maximum lift available. The airplane may stall at higher speeds
and lower angles of attack than normal.
Manufacturers provide modified minimum airspeeds in icing
conditions to ensure that the same flying qualities and margin
above stall as with a clean airplane are maintained when flying the
airplane with the ice protection systems operating in the certified
icing envelope.
When icing conditions are forecasted, the effect on airplane
performance must be anticipated both in flight planning and during
the flight. Flight crews must anticipate the impact on airplane
performance and target flight levels for the cruise which will ensure
adequate margins above minimum icing speeds.
It is important to always operate the ice protection systems
according to the procedures in the AFM. After encountering icing,
failure to operate the boots in accordance with the AFM may lead to
ice accumulations in excess of the design criteria and negate
airplane handling and performance margins even when operating at
the higher prescribed airspeeds.
With ice accumulated on airplane lifting surfaces, an airplane may
exhibit stall onset characteristics before stall warning activation.
Low speed cues such as buffet or instability in roll could likely
precede an impending stall and must be interpreted as approaching
the stalling angle of attack even if it occurs before stall warning
devices have activated.
To provide increased protection from impending stall in icing
conditions, certification regulations have been amended to require
recent turboprop designs to modify the stall warning when the
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airplane is being operated in icing conditions.

Additional Information

Modified stall warning settings are implemented on airplane by

defining a "representative" stalling angle of attack for airplane
operations in the certified icing envelope with ice protection
systems operating normally. The airplane is assumed to have
"inter-cycle" ice as well as "residual" ice on the airframe. The
activation angle for stall warning is then decreased by a
proportionate amount to provide the necessary margin above the
predicted stall through the activation of an "icing mode".
The effect of selecting this function is to cause stall warning to
activate at a higher airspeed (lower angle of attack) to provide the
necessary margin above stall for low speed flight operations. As a
result, AFM minimum airspeeds increase accordingly whenever the
"icing mode" function is active. A consequence of this function,
however, is that the airplane must be flown at higher minimum
airspeeds regardless of whether the airplane has contamination on
the leading edges or not in order to avoid inadvertent activation of
stall warning.

Click here to see this In-Flight Stall Simulator with instructions

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As long as there is any visible ice on the airframe or any surfaces,

the airplane must be still considered to be contaminated with ice
and the appropriate minimum icing speeds and performance
penalties remain applicable to the airplane.
Note that ice accumulations on un-protected surfaces will continue
to affect the airplane even after the protected surfaces are clear of
ice. These ice formations will only be cleared from the airplane if
the airplane flies into warm air conditions significantly above
freezing to allow the ice to melt or the ice sublimates from the
airframe over the course of a long flight in dry air conditions.
The airplane can only be considered aerodynamically clean when all
ice is removed from visible areas of the airplane. Only then can the
appropriate minimum airspeed be reverted to "clean" airplane
values.
It is often necessary to land the airplane with visible contamination
still on the airframe despite arriving at destination in clear dry air
conditions after the icing encounter. In these situations, the
appropriate approach and reference speeds for operations in icing
conditions must continue to be adhered to throughout the
approach, landing or potential go-around.

6.6.1.1. Effects of SLD Icing on Un-Powered Aileron Controls (PROP)

Turboprop

In the case of an encounter with super-cooled large droplet icing

(e.g. rain and droplets that splash with SAT below +5°C), airplane
types with un-powered aileron controls may be susceptible to un-
commanded and possibly uncontrollable rolling motions where
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water droplets have flowed back behind the protected surfaces

before freezing and formed ridges that cannot be removed by de-
icing equipment.
As ice accumulates behind the protected area in front of the
ailerons, the distribution of pressure on the upper surface of the
wing and aileron is affected. This may result in an increase or
decrease in control forces as the control wheel is deflected or
unusual buffeting felt in the control wheel.
Should airflow completely separate in front of the aileron, the
control wheel can be suddenly deflected to full travel with no pilot
input and control forces may be physically beyond the pilot's ability
to overcome.
If any of these effects are encountered, immediately reduce the
airplane angle of attack to restore control, and then follow the AFM
recommended procedures.
Ice accumulated behind the protected surface of the aerofoil will
continue to affect the handling characteristics of the airplane even
after the area ahead of the accumulation is clear of ice. The only
way to remove this type of ice formation is to find warm air
conditions significantly above freezing to allow the ice to melt.

6.7. AUTOMATION

The purpose of an automated flight system (AFS) is to assist the pilot

and not replace them. An AFS will do what it has been programmed to
do within the capabilities of its certified envelope.

By design, an AFS has sufficient authority to adjust for unusual

conditions until the commands reach full authority of the system, or
cannot be sustained.

Approaching the limits of an AFS can mask the actual airplane trim
state as well as resultant changes in performance and handling
qualities.

If such conditions go unnoticed, the airplane state may deteriorate

leading to an undesired airplane state unless the pilot properly
recognizes the compromised condition and initiates recovery.

If the auto trim system has been adjusting longitudinal trim as the
airplane slows down, a large push force may be required to lower the
airplane nose and regain airspeed when the autopilot is disengaged (or
automatically disengages).
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Additional Information

An autopilot can also disconnect unexpectedly because of excessive

roll or pitch rates, roll or pitch angles, control surface deflection
rates, or forces that are not normal. These autopilots could be
working exactly as designed within the limits of their envelope.

During cruise at high altitude, the autopilot will be engaged with the
pitch in an altitude hold mode and the auto throttles in a speed mode (if
equipped).

Changing atmospheric conditions can exceed the limits of thrust or

power available and if that is the case, the crew will be required to
descend to a lower cruise altitude.

The primary target parameter of the vertical speed (V/S) mode of the
AFS is the selected vertical climb or descent rate with airspeed normally
controlled by thrust through thrust adjustment. However the speed will
not be maintained if the descent or climb rate is excessive.

When an excessive vertical descent rate is selected, idle thrust may not
be low enough to hold the selected airspeed and the airplane will speed
up. The AFS would be doing exactly what it was commanded to do even
though the command was inappropriate.

Conversely, if an excessive climb rate is selected, the thrust available

can be less than the thrust required for that selected vertical speed
rate. Because the AFS primary parameter in V/S is the target vertical
speed the selected airspeed must be sacrificed when maximum
available thrust is less than what would be needed to respect the
commanded V/S, the result will be airspeed decay.

At lower altitudes, thrust/power available might be sufficient to allow

both the selected V/S climb rate and command airspeed to be
maintained, but as altitude increases, the thrust available decreases
which can eventually result in airspeed decay while the AFS maintains
the target vertical climb rate.

As a general guideline, V/S should not be used for climbing at high

altitudes in sweptwing jet airplane or at any altitude in straight wing
turboprop airplane.

More Details

If V/S is the chosen climb mode by the pilot, constant monitoring

and adjusting will be necessary.
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Improper use of V/S can result in airspeed loss and eventually a

stall, although many airplane have envelope protection modes
where AFS reverts to a mode that is designed to prevent stall.

Manual throttle systems, or inadvertent auto throttle disengagement at

or near idle during a descent will also result in speed decay at level off if
the thrust or power is not advanced to arrest the decay in airspeed as
the autopilot commands the airplane nose up to maintain the
programmed vertical flight path. The airplane can quickly enter a low
energy situation causing an undesirable airplane state which can result
in a stall.

Pilots must understand the performance of their airplanes when

selecting vertical modes.

V/S can be used for descent; however, selecting excessive vertical

speeds can result in airspeed increases into an overspeed condition.

6.8. ENGINE FLAMEOUT

An upset can result in an engine flameout, and conversely an

inappropriate response to an engine flameout can lead to an upset.

Undesired airplane states that result in very low airspeed, stall

conditions, large sideslip angles or other occurrences that reduce or
distort the flow of air into the engine intakes, may lead to thrust or
power fluctuations or even to engine flameout(s).

At higher thrust/power settings an engine flameout should be quite

obvious to detect however at thrust/power settings near idle it will be
less obvious. The first indication to a flight crew of an engine anomaly
may be a lack of thrust response, or yawing and/or rolling moments due
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to asymmetric thrust, when the thrust or power levers are advanced.

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7. RECOVERY FROM AIRPLANE UPSETS

Previous sections have reviewed causes of airplane upsets to emphasize

awareness and avoidance of airplane upsets.

Basic aerodynamic information indicates how and why transport

airplanes fly.

The information provides the foundation of knowledge necessary for

intervention in order to recover an airplane that is diverging from
desired flight conditions.

This section highlights several issues associated with airplane upset

recovery and presents basic recommended airplane recovery techniques
and training scenarios for pilots.

There is an infinite number of situations that pilots can experience while

flying an airplane.

The techniques that are presented in this section are applicable for most
situations.

It must be emphasized that the degree of upset will define how prompt
or aggressive the required control inputs will be to recover from the
event.

In all cases the pilot response to an upset must be appropriate to arrest

and recover the condition.

Up to full-scale control deflections may be necessary. However, initiating

recovery with arbitrary full-scale control deflections could actually
aggravate the situation.

An excessive or inappropriate control input that overshoots the desired

response can startle the pilot and cause one upset to lead to another.

Pilots must be or become situationally aware

before they are able to take appropriate
actions.

An overview of actions to recover from an upset would encompass three

basic activities:

1. Assess the energy (become situationally aware)

2. Arrest the flight path divergence
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3. Recover to a stabilized flight path

These three activities must be part of every recovery from an upset.

7.1. SITUATIONAL AWARENESS OF AN AIRPLANE UPSET

A pilot actively monitoring is an engaged pilot who has a wealth of

information available to them in modern cockpits. Consequently, they
are more situationally aware than all previous generations of pilots.

An engaged pilot will be ready to intercept an unintentional airplane

divergence which is the overwhelming goal: avoid an upset from
developing in the first place.

The first actions for recovering from an airplane upset must be correct
and timely.

It is very important for the crew to realize the differences in airplane

handling at high altitude, versus low altitude (less thrust/power
available and more sensitive flight controls).

Managing startle is imperative all the time, but particularly in high

altitude conditions where the pilot has the least amount of hands on
experience to manipulate the airplane.

The key point is to use gentle control inputs and not arbitrary open loop
inputs.

Exaggerated control inputs through reflex responses must be avoided.

An excessive or inappropriate control input that overshoots the desired

response can startle the pilot and cause one upset to lead to another.

Troubleshooting the cause of the upset is

secondary to initiating the recovery. However,
the pilot still must recognize and confirm the
situation before a recovery can be initiated.
Regaining and then maintaining control of the
airplane is paramount.

Communication between crew members will assist in the recovery

actions.

At the first indication of a flight path divergence, both pilots should

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announce what is being observed.

It is necessary to use the primary flight instruments and the airplane

performance instruments when analyzing the upset situation.

Visual meteorological conditions may allow the use of references outside

the airplane; however, it can be difficult to see the horizon if the field of
view is restricted due to window geometry and overhead panel
placement during both high and low pitch attitudes.

Pilots must be prepared to analyze the situation during darkness and

when instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) exist.

The PFD or Attitude Indicator is a primary reference for recovery.

For a nose low upset, normally the airspeed is increasing, altitude is

decreasing and the vertical speed indicator (VSI) indicates a descent.

For a nose high upset, the airspeed normally is decreasing, altitude is

increasing and the VSI indicates a climb.

Other attitude sources must be cross checked for accuracy of

interpretation of the situation. These sources include, but are not
limited to the Standby Attitude Indicator and the pilot monitoring (PM)
instruments.

Pitch attitude is determined from the PFD or Attitude Indicator pitch

reference scales.

Additional Information

Most modern displays also use colors (blue for sky, brown for ground)
or ground perspective lines to assist in determining whether the
airplane pitch is above or below the horizon.

More Details

Even in extreme attitudes, some portion of the sky or ground

indications is usually present to assist the pilot in analyzing the
situation.

The bank indicator on the PFD/Attitude Indicator should be used to

determine the airplane bank.

The situation analysis process is to:

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• Assess the energy

• Confirm the airplane attitude (pitch and bank angle)
• Communicate with other crew member(s).

Recovery techniques presented later in this section include the phrase,

"Recognize and confirm the situation". This situation analysis process is
used to accomplish that technique.

7.2. MISCELLANEOUS ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH UPSET RECOVERY

There are issues associated with differences between simulator training

and on-airplane recoveries.

A simulator can provide the basic fundamentals for upset recovery, but
some realities such as positive, negative and lateral g's, startle factor
and environmental conditions are difficult or impossible to replicate.

The physical and psychological effects and the airplane response during
recovery can be significantly different from that experienced during
simulator training.

Simulator limitations at the edges of the flight envelope can also cause
fidelity issues because the simulator recovery may not have the same
response characteristics as the airplane.

Additional Information

However, provided the simulator valid training envelope limits are not
exceeded, the control loading responses and instrument indications of
the simulator should accurately replicate airplane responses.

More Details

The reaction of the simulator is based on given parameters (CG,

weight, speeds, etc.).
An actual encounter at greatly different parameters than those
practiced in the simulator may result in a different airplane
response. For example, flight controls are more effective at 250 kt
than at 150 kt.

7.2.1. Startle Factor

It has already been stated that airplane upsets do not occur very often
and that there are multiple causes for these unpredictable events.

An engaged pilot will be ready 79todeintercept

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divergence which is the overwhelming goal to avoid an undesired

airplane state from developing in the first place.

Additional Information

An engaged pilot has a wealth of information available to them in

modern cockpits that allows them to be more situationally aware
than all previous generations of pilots.

Unexpected low airspeed, stall warnings, buffeting and large changes in

airplane attitude (design dependent) when the airplane is on autopilot
can startle an un-engaged flight crew.

Pilots are usually surprised or startled when a dynamic upset does

occur, even if they are engaged through actively monitoring, but they
will be better situationally aware to adapt to the situation.

An un-engaged pilot will need to regain situational awareness in order

to identify the situation. Only an engaged (and therefore situationally
aware) pilot/crew can effectively recover from an upset.

The pilot must overcome the surprise and quickly shift into analysis of
what the airplane is doing and then implement the proper recovery.

Pilots must avoid reacting before analyzing what is happening and avoid
fixating on one indication instead of diagnosing the situation.

Effective training and crew engagement (active monitoring) during all

cockpit activity is the best insurance to deal with startle factor.

Troubleshooting the cause of the upset is

secondary to initiating the recovery and
regaining control of the airplane.

7.2.2. Force less than 1 G

Pilots are normally uncomfortable with unloading g forces to less than

1 g on passenger airplanes.

They must overcome this reluctance if faced with a situation that

requires unloading the airplane to less than 1 g by pushing forward on
the pitch controls.

While flight simulators can replicate normal flight profiles, they cannot
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replicate sustained g forces, other than 1 g.

Pilots must anticipate a significantly different feeling in flight during less

than 1 g situations.

More Details

Unsecured items may be floating about the cockpit in extreme

cases.

7.2.3. Use of Full Control Inputs

Utilizing up to full flight control inputs is not a part of routine airline

flying.

Pilots must be prepared to use full flight control authority if the situation
warrants it.

Flight control inputs are more effective at increased speed/reduced

angle of attack.

Conversely, at low airspeeds or approaching the critical angle of attack,

larger control inputs are needed for the same airplane response.

Attitude and flight path changes can be very rapid during an upset,
which could require large or even full scale control inputs.

It is critical to guard against control reversals.

There is NO situation that will require rapid full-scale control deflections

from one side to the other.

7.2.4. Counter-Intuitive Factors

It may be counter-intuitive to use forward pitch control deflections near

the ground when recovering from a high angle of attack. However, if the
airplane is stalled while already in a nose down attitude, the pilot must
still push the nose down in order to reduce the angle of attack.

Altitude cannot be maintained and should be of

secondary importance.

7.2.5. Previous Training in Non-similar airplanes

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A large risk exists for pilots to revert to previous experiences and/or

training appropriate to Non-similar airplanes, especially if confronted
with an unexpected upset event.

• Aerodynamic principles do not change, but airplane design may

create different flight characteristics.
• Training and experience gained in one model or type of airplane
may or may not be transferable.
• Inertia effects, roll and pitch rate responses, stability and
maneuverability, the requirement to use rudder, straight wing
versus swept wing, cockpit visibility and flight control systems are
several critically important distinctions between airplane types.

Additional Information

Airplanes with electronic flight control systems provide additional

protection against entering into many upset situations.
These systems also assist the airplane to return to normal flight, if
necessary.
However, when fly-by-wire airplanes operate in a degraded mode,
flight control inputs and the responses can be similar to non fly-by-
wire airplanes.

7.2.6. Post Upset Conditions

There could be confusion on the flight deck as to what exactly happened

to cause the original upset.

Care should be taken not to take action that could cause a repeat of the
previous upset or let the airplane progress into a different kind of upset.

Additional Information

Pilots may not be able to recall the forces experienced or the extent
of the maneuvers performed to any great detail.
If large g-forces (vertical and/or large side-slip angles) are
experienced, an airplane inspection would be required.

7.3. AIRPLANE UPSET RECOVERY TECHNIQUES

Training related to upset and/or stalls should

emphasize awareness and avoidance.

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Situationally aware flight crews are those who

actively monitor their flight.

As such, they are able to assess the energy,

arrest any flight path divergence and recover to
a stabilized flight path before an extreme upset
ever occurs.

Upset recovery techniques can be refined into either:

• Nose high
• Nose low.

This provides the basis for relating the aerodynamic information and
techniques to specific situations.

Consolidation of recovery techniques into these two situations is done

for simplification and ease of retention.

Additional Information

Airplanes with electronic flight control systems (fly-by-wire, FBW),

have features that should minimize the possibility of an upset and
assist the pilot in recovery, if it becomes necessary.
When FBW airplanes are in a degraded flight control mode, the
recovery techniques and aerodynamic principles discussed in this
training aid are appropriate.
Principles of recognition and recovery techniques still apply
independent of flight control architecture.

Autopilots (A/P) and autothrottles (A/THR) are generally intended to be

used when the airplane is within its normal flight envelope.

If the A/P and/or A/THR are responding correctly to a flight path and/or
energy divergence, it may not be appropriate to decrease the level of
automation. Adhere to OEM guidance.

The following animation illustrates an overlay of what the airplane

reaction would have been with autoflight system remaining engaged
(red track) compared to disengaged with pilot inputs (blue track).

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0:00 / 0:18

If the A/P and A/THR are not responding correctly they must be
disconnected.

Analysis of the energy state of the airplane is required. This analysis

assesses the energy and trend.

Additional Information

This includes but is not limited to altitude, airspeed, attitude, load

factor, power setting, position of flight controls, position of drag and
high-lift devices and the rate of change of those conditions.

More Details

This analysis should allow the crew to make appropriate changes,

such as use of speed brakes or lowering the landing gear for drag
as necessary to aid in the recovery. In other words, manage the
energy.

7.3.1. Stall

The recovery techniques assume the airplane is

not stalled.

If the airplane is stalled, it is necessary to first

recover from the stalled condition before
initiating upset recovery techniques.
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Follow your OEM procedure for stall recovery.

Regardless of attitude, a wing can be stalled at any airspeed and

altitude, if the critical angle of attack is exceeded. It is important to
understand that at high speeds, although it is possible to stall the wing,
the structural design limits could be exceeded well before the stall
actually occurs.

Previously, pilots were improperly trained and evaluated to recover from

an approach to stall with emphasis on minimum loss of altitude while
"powering" out of the near-stalled condition.

The only way to recover from a stall is to reduce the Angle of Attack.

Regardless of how close the airplane is to the ground, it is impossible to

recover from a stalled condition without reducing the angle of attack
and that will certainly result in a loss of altitude.

Although the thrust or power may supplement the recovery, it is not the
primary control.

At stall angles of attack, the drag is very high and excess thrust
available to overcome this drag may be marginal.

If the engines are at idle, the engine acceleration could be very slow,
thus extending the recovery.

At high altitudes, available thrust is reduced.

The elevator is the primary control to recover from a stalled condition

because, without reducing the angle of attack, the airplane will remain
in a stalled condition until ground impact, regardless of the altitude at
which it started.

Stall recovery requires a deliberate and smooth reduction in angle of

attack.

Thrust/power can supplement the recovery only after the angle of

attack has been reduced below the critical angle of attack.

Although stall angle of attack is normally constant for a given

configuration, at high altitudes swept wing airplanes will stall at a
reduced angle of attack due to Mach effects.

The pitch attitude for recovery will also be significantly lower than what
is experienced at lower altitudes.
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Buffet will likely precede an impending stall on swept wing airplanes and
may even occur before the activation of stall warning devices.

Recovery from the stall is the primary objective, and altitude loss must
be accepted. Flight crews must exchange altitude for energy.

Unlike low altitude recovery from stall, at high altitude, considerable

altitude will be lost.

If altitude recovery is attempted prematurely, a secondary stall will

likely occur.

If landing gear and/or slats and flaps are already extended, it is

important to not change the airplane configuration until the airplane
vertical flight path has been brought back under control.

While it is routine to reduce the flap setting on a standard go around as

a means of reducing airplane drag, in a high angle of attack situation,
the increase in angle of attack that occurs as the flap transitions may
place the airplane deeper into the stalled condition resulting a delayed
recovery and increased loss of altitude.

In a similar fashion, selection of landing gear up results in a substantial

increase in airplane drag for the period the landing gear doors are open
on many airplane types. In a critical recovery situation, the increase in
drag would result in a further unanticipated loss of airspeed.

Follow your OEM specific procedures for a stall event with respect to
changing airplane configuration during the recovery back to normal
flight conditions.

0:00 / 7:08

7.3.2. Consolidated Summary of airplane Recovery Techniques

The following techniques represent a logical progression for recovering

the airplane.

They are not necessarily procedural.

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The sequence of actions is for guidance only and represents a series of

options for the pilot to consider and to use depending on the situation.

Not all actions may, or should, be necessary once recovery is underway.

If needed, use pitch trim sparingly.

Careful use of rudder to aid roll control should be attempted only if roll
control is ineffective and the airplane is not stalled.

These techniques assume the airplane is not stalled. A stalled condition

can exist at any attitude and may be recognized by continuous stall
warning activation accompanied by one or more of the following:

i. buffeting, which could be heavy at times;

ii. lack of pitch authority and/or roll control; and
iii. inability to arrest the descent rate.

It is not appropriate to wait until several stall cues are experienced prior
to initiating the recovery.

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7.3.3. Nose High Recovery Techniques

Note: Follow the guidance published by your aircraft OEM.

OEM Nose High Recommendation

Recognize and confirm the developing situation.

ANNOUNCE: "NOSE HIGH"

PF PM

A/P 1,2 DISCONNECT (if required)

A/THR 1 OFF (if required)

PITCH APPLY NOSE-DOWN

Apply as much nose-down control

input as required to obtain a nose-
down pitch rate. Monitor Airspeed and
Attitude throughout
THRUST ADJUST (if required) the recovery and
announce any
continued divergence.
ROLL ADJUST (if required)

Adjust bank angle not to exceed 60

degrees.

When Airspeed is sufficiently increasing:

RECOVER TO LEVEL FLIGHT 3

Notes:

1 If the A/P and/or A/THR are responding correctly to arrest the

divergence, it may be appropriate to keep the current level of
automation.
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2 A large out-of-trim condition could be encountered when the A/P

is disconnected.

3 This may require use of pitch trim to manage control forces

during large airspeed changes.

Avoid entering a stall due to premature recovery at low speed or

excessive g-loading at high speed.

Warning: excessive use of pitch trim or

rudder may aggravate the upset
situation or may result in high
structural loads.

Additional Information

Either Pilot: Recognize and confirm the developing situation.

Announce: "Nose High"
Explanation: A critical element in recognition and confirmation is to
clearly understand the airplane energy state and the rate at which it
is changing because this will have an effect on how the recovery is
handled. This is done by referring to pitch attitude and/or flight path
vector, airspeed and airspeed trend, altitude and vertical speed from
the PFD (or ADI). This is because the FD system could be providing
incorrect guidance.
A/P Disconnect (if required)
A/THR Off (if required)
Explanation: The A/P and/or A/THR must be disconnected if they
are not arresting the divergence. However, if the A/P and/or A/THR
are responding correctly to arrest the divergence, it may be
appropriate to keep the current level of automation.
A large out of trim condition could be encountered when the A/P is
disconnected.
PITCH: Apply as much nose-down pitch control and
incremental trim input(s) as required to obtain a nose-down
pitch rate.
Explanation: This may require as much as full nose-down pitch
control input. Incremental nose down trim inputs may improve
elevator control effectiveness and reduce high pitch control forces.
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Excessive use of pitch down trim can make the recovery phase of the
upset more difficult.
THRUST/POWER: Adjust (as required)
Explanation: Select up to maximum thrust/power available while
ensuring adequate pitch control.
For airplanes with underwing mounted engines, increasing thrust may
reduce the effectiveness of nose down pitch control. It may be
necessary to limit or reduce thrust to the point where control of the
pitch is achieved.
ROLL: Adjust (as required) not to exceed 60 degrees
Explanation: If the previous pitch and thrust inputs have been
unsuccessful, banking the airplane to allow the nose to drop toward
the horizon will be necessary.
The bank angle applied should be the least possible to start the nose
down and never exceed approximately 60 degrees.
If the bank angle is already greater than 60 degrees, it should be
reduced to an amount less than 60 degrees.
The least difficult piloting task is with wings level or near level.
Use of bank increases the piloting workload in an already high
workload condition of flight.
Although the rolling maneuver changes the pitch rate into a turning
maneuver, sideslip build up is a large risk at low airspeeds and high
AOA.
If full pitch and roll control are ineffective, rudder input may be
required to induce a bank angle for recovery.

Only a small amount of rudder input is needed.

Too much rudder applied too quickly or held too
long may result in loss of lateral and directional
control and cause structural damage.

Recover to level flight:

Explanation: Recover to level flight while avoiding a stall due to
premature recovery at low speed or excessive g-loading at high
speed.
This may require use of pitch trim to manage control forces during
large airspeed changes.
Confirm desired airspeed and adjust thrust to establish the required
flight path.
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7.3.4. Nose Low Recovery Techniques

Note: Follow the guidance published by your aircraft OEM.

OEM Nose Low Recommendation

Recognize and confirm the developing situation.

ANNOUNCE: "NOSE LOW"

PF PM

A/P 1,2 DISCONNECT (if required)

A/THR 1 OFF (if required)

Monitor Airspeed and

RECOVER FROM STALL (if required) Attitude throughout
the recovery and
ROLL 3 announce any
ADJUST (if required)
continued divergence.
Adjust bank angle in the shortest
direction to wings level.

THRUST and DRAG ADJUST (if required)

RECOVER TO LEVEL FLIGHT 4

Notes:

1 If the A/P and/or A/THR are responding correctly to arrest the

divergence, it may be appropriate to keep the current level of
automation

2 A large out-of-trim condition could be encountered when the A/P

is disconnected.

3 It is important to reduce g-loading while attempting to roll to

wings level because it increases the roll effectiveness while
decreasing the asymmetric loads
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4 This may require use of pitch trim to manage control forces

during large airspeed changes.

Avoid entering a stall due to premature recovery at low speed or

excessive g-loading at high speed.

Warning: excessive use of pitch trim or

rudder may aggravate the upset situation or
may result in high structural loads.

Additional Information

Recognize and confirm the situation

Either Pilot: Recognize and confirm the situation. Announce:
"Nose Low"
Explanation: A critical element in recognition and confirmation is to
clearly understand the airplane energy state and the rate at which it
is changing because this will have an effect on how the recovery is
handled. This is done by referring to pitch attitude and/or flight path
vector, airspeed and airspeed trend, altitude and vertical speed from
the PFD (or ADI). This is because the FD system could be providing
incorrect guidance.
A/P Disconnect (if required)
A/THR Off (if required)
Explanation: The A/P and/or A/THR must be disconnected if they
are not arresting the divergence. However, if the A/P and/or A/THR
are responding correctly to arrest the divergence, it may be
appropriate to keep the current level of automation.
A large out of trim condition could be encountered when the A/P is
disconnected.
Recover from Stall (if required)
Explanation: Even in a nose low situation, the airplane may be
stalled and it would be necessary to recover from a stall first.

Roll, in the shortest direction to wings level.

Explanation: In general, a nose low, high-angle-of-bank requires
prompt action, because decreasing
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exchanged for increasing airspeed. The consequence of the

increasing airspeed is rapid g-load build up from the original 1-g
trimmed condition.
It is important to reduce g-loading while attempting to roll to wings
level because it increases the roll effectiveness while decreasing the
asymmetric loads on the airplane.
Decreasing the g-load will be achieved by applying forward pitch
control toward 1-g. This is counter-intuitive while in a dive
condition, even though it is of critical importance.
If roll control is ineffective after unloading, rudder input may be
required to reduce bank angle for recovery.

Only a small amount of rudder input is needed.

Too much rudder applied too quickly or held too
long may result in loss of lateral and directional
control and cause structural damage.

Thrust and Drag: Adjust (if required)

Explanation: Use Thrust or Speed brakes to control the airspeed.
Recover to level flight.
Explanation: Recover to level flight while avoiding a stall due to
premature recovery at low speed or excessive g-loading at high
speed.
This may require use of pitch trim to manage control forces during
large airspeed changes.
Confirm desired airspeed and adjust thrust and/or speed brakes to
establish the required flight path.

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8. OEM RECOMMENDED TRAINING SEQUENCES

Upset Prevention and Recovery Training – FSTD Scenarios

Note:
Training assumption: All scenarios will be demonstrated to effectively
teach the trainee when (or if it is necessary) to disconnect the autoflight
system.
For example, if transitioning a wake encounter, it may be best to leave
the autoflight system engaged rather than disconnecting it as long as
the autoflight system is performing adequately.

8.1. AIRCRAFT HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS

8.1.1 Pitch Capabilities

Pitch response to pitch controller input

Condition
Demonstrate pitch rate performance of the airplane at
different speeds and different configurations and with flaps
retracted/extended. Also, show pitch rate performance at an
aft CG versus a forward CG if flight qualities are significantly
different.

Training
Demonstrate pitch response for a given controller deflection
at VREF versus clean configuration speed, and at 250 kt IAS,
VMO and MMO.

Rationale
Demonstrate the pitch responses of the airplane at different
speeds and altitudes.

For underwing mounted engines: pitch coupling when changing thrust

Condition
Demonstrate pitch coupling of the airplane when a large
thrust change occurs, at low and high speeds, and low and
high altitude.

Training
Demonstrate pitch response (coupling) for a large thrust
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increase (idle to go-around thrust), starting in trim at low

altitude (2 000 feet) and low speed (in landing configuration
at 1.1 VS) versus at VREF, in clean configuration at 250 kt
IAS, VMO or MMO. Repeat in clean configuration at 1.1 VS and
MMO at high altitude (cruising altitude).
Note: For airplanes that automatically trim or control the
attitude when adjusting thrust (e.g. most fly-by-wire
airplanes), the automatic pitch compensation system should
be disabled for this exercise (e.g. direct law).

Rationale
Experience the pitch coupling of the airplane with thrust
changes of underwing mounted engines, at different speeds
and altitudes, including situations with marginal pitch control
capability.

8.1.2 Roll Capabilities

Condition
Demonstrate roll rate performance of the airplane at different
speeds and different configurations and with flight spoilers
retracted/extended if a difference exists

Training
Demonstrate roll response at VREF versus clean configuration
speed, and at 250 kt IAS (below VA)

Rationale
Demonstrate what the full roll capabilities of the airplane are.

8.1.3 Use of Rudder Demonstration

This is not to develop skills in maneuvering with

rudder. Rather it is intended to highlight
airplane reaction to rudder input, and the risk
of over control or untimely rudder input
(deflection when not needed).

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Condition
If airplane roll is required, and if normal roll control is totally
lost, there would be a requirement to use rudder in a manner
it is not normally intended to be used.

Training
Use rudder to achieve desired bank angles to maneuver at
various altitudes.

Rationale
Pilots need to clearly understand the risks of inputting rudder
when it is not needed. This demonstration is to illustrate that
with extremely careful rudder inputs, very small bank angles
can be achieved.

However, the objective of the demonstration is to highlight

that too much rudder applied too quickly or held too long
may result in loss of lateral and directional control and cause
structural damage.

8.1.4 Energy Management

Engine performance/power

Condition
Demonstrate acceleration between two speeds of which the
airplane is capable at low, medium and high altitude. For
example, 200 to 250 knots at low, medium and high altitude
(where those speeds correspond to Mach numbers at high
altitude).

Training
Observe time to reach target speed in level flight and in
descending flight.

Rationale
Demonstrate and highlight the reduced thrust/power
available at higher altitudes.

Airplane Acceleration
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Condition
Demonstrate acceleration performance from the second
regime (back side of the power curve) at low altitude and
high altitude.

Training
Observe capability with the thrust available (if available
thrust will not permit acceleration, the only option will be to
accelerate by descending).

Rationale
Demonstrate the potentially different recovery technique
from flight in the second regime at low altitude versus high
altitude.

High altitude engine power management

Condition
Demonstrate the relationship between maximum cruise/climb
/continuous thrust and take-off/go-around (TOGA) thrust at
high altitude.

Training
Highlight to the pilot, the practical relationship between
available engine power modes at high altitude.

Rationale
Teach the pilot that TOGA is not likely to produce more thrust
at maximum altitude than cruise thrust, for example.

High altitude energy management

Condition
Demonstrate acceleration capabilities through descent versus
power application.

Training
The objective is to understand the advantage of using
elevator instead of thrust levers to regain the desired energy
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state (observe a rapid acceleration during descent versus the

slow acceleration previously demonstrated with only use of
power).

Rationale
Demonstrate the inability of the airplane to power out of a
high-altitude slow-down.

8.1.5 Buffet

Condition
Demonstrate high-speed buffet (if applicable) and low-speed
buffet.

Training
Demonstrate the airplane behavior at the low and high-speed
buffet entry. Highlight how loading the airplane in a high-
speed buffet will aggravate the condition. With A/P off at high
altitude, demonstrate buffet onset with increased bank angle
during level flight.

Rationale
Teach the pilot to correctly identify the low- and high-speed
buffet with corresponding recovery techniques.

8.2. UPSET RECOGNITION AND RECOVERY

8.2.1 Nose High / Nose Low

Note
This training needs not be completed in simulators, however,
if the choice is to use simulators, extreme care must be taken
to ensure negative transfer of training does not result.
Current simulators are not capable of generating sustained G
loading, therefore any dynamic maneuvering will not be
correctly simulated.

Condition
During upset recognition and recovery practice, the trainee
will experience nose-high and nose-low, high and low speed,
high and low bank angle airplane upsets. Each of these
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maneuvers requires the pilot to return the airplane to a

normal flight condition.
Display the PFD parameters (attitude, airspeed and altitude)
when upset so that the trainee interprets the situation and
demonstrates appropriate recovery control inputs (pitch, roll,
thrust and speedbrake controls).

Training
The expectation is that the trainee analyze the situation and
demonstrate initial control inputs direction appropriate to the
situation to recover from an upset and learns to manage the
energy, arrest the flight path divergence and recover to a
stabilized flight path.

Rationale
When faced with an upset and a rapidly evolving energy
state, the trainee should be able to recognize the attitude
and timely apply initial control inputs in the correct direction
for the recovery procedure.

8.2.2 Spiral Dive

Condition
Loss of pilot situation awareness leading to a spiral dive. A
spiral dive can be defined as "a steep descending turn with
the airplane in an excessively nose-down attitude and with
the airspeed and g-load increasing rapidly".

Training
Highlight how a loss of situation awareness can allow a flight
path degradation leading to a spiral dive. Demonstrate the
characteristics of airplane longitudinal and lateral-directional
stability. Show that controlling the spiral is easily achieved by
unloading the rapidly increasing g-loads while rolling the
wings level, reducing power and NOT pulling back on the stick
or yoke until approaching wings level. Point out how spirals
tighten if an attempt is made to raise the nose before
approaching wings level and note the rapid loss of height and
rapid increase in airspeed.

Rationale
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A spiral dive requires prompt action, because altitude is

rapidly being exchanged for airspeed. Rapidly increasing
g-loading will reduce roll effectiveness and it will be
necessary to reduce the g-load to regain roll effectiveness.
This is counter-intuitive while in a dive condition, even
though it is of critical importance. It is also important that g
forces are properly controlled during the recovery to avoid
accelerated stall or overstress to the airplane. Getting
trapped in a spiral dive can happen very easily if you get
caught inadvertently flying into poor weather condition
(unexpected transition from VMC to IMC) or flying at
nighttime where no horizon exists to provide visual correction
for misleading inner-ear cues. Airplane speed limitations can
be rapidly exceeded in a spiral dive. Care must be taken to
ensure that pilots fully understand the associated dangers
and how to carry out effective recovery action.

8.3. STALL

These stall training scenarios are based upon the FAA AC for Stall and
Stick-Pusher Training, and the Stick-Pusher and Adverse Weather Event
Training Aviation Rulemaking Committee recommendations.

Condition 1
Clean configuration stall events (high altitude).

Training
In level flight with the autopilot on, introduce an event or
reduce thrust to less than adequate for maneuvering flight.
Simulator capabilities to induce stall events may include use
of: airspeed slewing; attitude changes; airplane weight and
CG changes; environmental changes; systems malfunctions
(e.g. full or partial pitot/static blockage, artificial thrust
reduction, disabling of automation).

Rationale
Pilots must be able to recognize the stall warning and
immediately perform the stall recovery procedure.
Demonstrate willingness to trade altitude for airspeed to
accomplish an expeditious recovery from a stall event.

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Condition 2
Take-off or departure stall event with partial flaps.

Training
The scenario should be conducted during take-off and/or
departure, at an altitude that will allow for a recovery. For an
unexpected stall event on departure prior to flaps being fully
retracted crew distractions may be used as per condition 1.

Rationale
Due to incorrect previous regulatory guidance and testing
criteria, pilots would attempt recovery with no loss of altitude
and without recognizing the importance of pitch control and
AOA.

Condition 3
Landing configuration stall event.

Training
Implement scenarios that result in stall events during an
approach.

Rationale
Pilots must be able to recognize the stall warning and
immediately perform the stall recovery procedure,
demonstrate a deliberate and smooth reduction of AOA.
Positive recovery from the stall event takes precedence over
minimizing altitude loss.

Condition 4
Stick pusher demonstration (if equipped)

Training
In level flight at idle thrust with the autoflight system set up
to maintain altitude, introduce an event or reduce airspeed to
less than adequate for maneuvering flight allowing the stick
pusher to activate.
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Rationale
Often pilots attempt recovery by suddenly applying
immediate back pressure to overcome the lift-saving nose-
down elevator force being applied by the stick pusher.

8.4. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

8.4.1 Mountain Wave, Rotor Cloud, Horizontal and Vertical Windshear

Condition
E.g. mountain wave, rotor cloud, horizontal and vertical
windshear.

Training
Demonstrate how a rapid windshear can alter the flightpath
of a high-altitude airplane.

Rationale
High altitude upset with environmental factors as a causal
factor.

8.4.2 Effect on Icing on Turboprop Airplane Performance (PROP)

Condition
Entry into an unintended low energy situation as the result of
failure to adequately monitor airplane performance in icing
conditions.

Training
Demonstrate the correct use of airplane SOP's to monitor the
airplane energy state, detect an unsustainable decrease in
airplane performance and initiate the necessary change to
the airplane flight profile to return to an acceptable energy
state.

Rationale
Flight crews must consider atmospheric icing conditions to
exist when visible moisture in any form is present (such as
clouds, fog with visibility of one mile or less, rain, snow sleet
and ice crystals) and air temperature is colder than that
specified in the applicable
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Close monitoring of the rate of climb and the airspeed should

be performed to allow detection of icing conditions that may
not be obvious from a visual standpoint (such as clear ice
accretion, for instance).

Therefore, as soon as a loss of performance is detected and

even though icing may not be identified or considered as the
cause for such loss of performance, descending without delay
from the current altitude should always be considered as a
possible course of action to regain or prevent further loss of
performance.

As a general rule and based on experience, such

environmental conditions have limited vertical extension. By
descending several hundred or a few thousand feet, it is
generally possible to exit such conditions. Descending
combines three positive effects: it allows the flight crew to
trade altitude for airspeed increase while reducing the angle
of attack, the outside temperature will generally increase and
the engines would provide more power.

In climb, the autopilot mode must be used in IAS mode or

equivalent which protects the airplane against possible loss of
performance (wind gradients, icing). The target IAS is
recommended to be set to provide an airspeed margin above
minimum icing speed for climb.

Given the factors that influence the rate of climb (weight,

temperature, etc.), it may not be easy for the crew to detect
a climb performance lower than normal. However the value of
the rate of climb itself provides the crew with an essential cue
of what the absolute performance of the airplane is. At any
time a decrease in performance is detected, the flight crew
must consider if it will be necessary to stop the climb and
choose a cruise level below the initial target until the airplane
regains performance.

At the latest, an average rate of climb that decreases below a

predetermined minimum value must result in the climb being
stopped (e.g. 100 ft/min or less is an indication that the
airplane has reached its operational ceiling). Leveling off the
airplane may not be enough to gain sufficient airspeed, which
should lead the crew to descend to a lower level.

In cruise, the power is generally fixed. Depending on the

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airplane to a specific cruise IAS. This target airspeed must be

known and anticipated by the flight crew so that a deviation
from this value could be easily identified.

As soon as a loss of airspeed is identified, the crew should

assess whether the airspeed decay can be controlled or not.
In case the target airspeed cannot be maintained, the crew
should take all necessary actions to maintain airspeed with a
sufficient margin above minimum speed for cruise flight.

To regain or maintain airspeed, a first action can be to

increase the power up to the maximum power available. If
this is not enough and the IAS continues to decrease, the
crew should prepare a descent strategy (MSA available,
escape route, coordination with ATC, PAN or Mayday message
if necessary to execute an immediate descent).

The time available to the crew between the moment they

identify the loss of airspeed and the moment they need to
take an action depends on the margin that is available above
the minimum speed and the rate of ice accretion. For this
reason it is recommended, if icing conditions are likely on the
planned route, to choose a flight level that provides a cruise
speed a predetermined value above the minimum icing speed
for cruise flight. To provide such a buffer adhere to OEM
guidance for the specific airplane type.

At the latest when the airspeed, after having decreased,

approaches the minimum icing speed, the crew shall
immediately apply the applicable AFM procedure and initiate
a descent.

8.5. WAKE VORTEX

Condition
Take-off and approach configuration-behind a heavy airplane.

Training
Demonstrate how a prompt roll can alter the flight path of an
airplane.

Rationale
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Awareness of how a vortex can affect the airplane, i.e.

understanding that different roll capabilities and mass of the
airplane would affect how a pilot would respond to a wake
encounter. Particular emphasis must be placed on time to
transition through the vortex and effective mitigation
strategies.

8.6. MECHANICAL / SYSTEM-INDUCED

Condition
Upset as a function of roll, yaw and pitch path failures.

Training
Demonstrate how a failure or degradation of flight controls
affecting each axis can create an upset. Training has to be
airplane-specific to correctly reflect failure mode of that
airplane (for example, hydraulics/fly-by-wire/autopilot
failure).

Rationale
Airplane-specific training to illustrate how a flight control
failure can create an upset and how to mitigate the effect (for
example, a rudder hard over/runaway or limited or
uncontrollable flight control surfaces).

8.7. PILOT FACTORS

8.7.1 Loss of Situation awareness

Condition
Loss of pilot situation awareness leading to loss of control
(LOC).

Training
Highlight how a loss of situation awareness can allow a flight
path degradation leading to LOC (for example, loss of
autothrottles; misusing pitch, roll or yaw trim; thrust
asymmetry, airspeed loss from changes to the temperature
when operating at too high an altitude, forgetting to
reengage autothrottle after making an entry in an engine
monitoring log).
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Rationale
Recent accidents have shown a failure of the crews to
effectively and actively monitor their airplane energy state
and/or understand system logic.

8.7.2 Autoflight System Induced

Condition
Entry into an inadvertent low energy situation or stall as the
result of misuse of or failure to adequately monitor autoflight
systems.

Training
Demonstrate how the autoflight system could be misused to
cause the airplane to unintentionally lose airspeed and/or
achieve an excessive nose high attitude. Training to be
airplane specific to correctly reflect the modes and indications
available to the flight crew (for example, using vertical speed
mode during climb/inadvertent disconnect of autothrust).

Rationale
Airplane-specific training to illustrate how the autoflight
systems can create low energy situations leading to upset
and how to avoid this by proper use of and monitoring those
systems.

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9. KEY POINTS HIGHLIGHTED THROUGHOUT THE TRAINING AID

A pilot who is aware of the energy and flight

path is less likely to be startled and therefore,
more likely to deal with the situation with
controlled inputs versus reactive responses.
See in context

Control inputs appropriate at one point in the

flight envelope might not be appropriate in
another part of the flight envelope.
Pilots must have a fundamental understanding
of flight dynamics in order to correctly
determine the control input(s) necessary.
See in context

Exceed the critical angle of attack and the

surface will stall, and lift will decrease instead
of increase. This is true regardless of airplane
speed or attitude or wing shape.
See in context

Turboprop Anytime, asymmetry exists due to

power effects sufficient coordinated rudder and
lateral inputs will be required to maintain the
desired flight path.
See in context

Turboprop In a one-engine inoperative

condition, airplane controllability and climb
performance capability are based on the
assumption the propeller of the failed engine is
feathered and the airspeed is maintained at or
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above the minimum airspeeds defined in the

AFM.
See in context

At any speed, large aggressive control

deflection reversals can lead to loads that can
exceed structural design limits.
See in context

Pilots must be or become situationally aware

before they are able to take appropriate
actions.
See in context

Troubleshooting the cause of the upset is

secondary to initiating the recovery. However,
the pilot still must recognize and confirm the
situation before a recovery can be initiated.
Regaining and then maintaining control of the
airplane is paramount.
See in context

Troubleshooting the cause of the upset is

secondary to initiating the recovery and
regaining control of the airplane.
See in context

It is critical to guard against control reversals.

See in context

Altitude cannot be maintained

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secondary importance.
See in context

Training related to upset and/or stalls should

emphasize awareness and avoidance.

Situationally aware flight crews are those who

actively monitor their flight.

As such, they are able to assess the energy,

arrest any flight path divergence and recover to
a stabilized flight path before an extreme upset
ever occurs.
See in context

The recovery techniques assume the airplane is

not stalled.

If the airplane is stalled, it is necessary to first

recover from the stalled condition before
initiating upset recovery techniques.

Follow your OEM procedure for stall recovery.

See in context

Warning: excessive use of pitch trim or rudder

may aggravate the upset situation or may result
in high structural loads.
See in context

Only a small amount of rudder input is needed.

Too much rudder applied too quickly or held too
long may result in loss of lateral and directional
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control and cause structural damage.

See in context

Warning: excessive use of pitch trim or rudder

may aggravate the upset situation or may result
in high structural loads.
See in context

Only a small amount of rudder input is needed.

Too much rudder applied too quickly or held too
long may result in loss of lateral and directional
control and cause structural damage.
See in context

This is not to develop skills in maneuvering with

rudder. Rather it is intended to highlight
airplane reaction to rudder input, and the risk
of over control or untimely rudder input
(deflection when not needed).
See in context

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10. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

This table lists the acronyms and abbreviations used in this document.

ACRONYM DEFINITION
A/P Auto Pilot
A/THR Auto Throttle; Auto Thrust
AC Advisory Circular
ADI Attitude Director Indicator
AFM Airplane Flight Manual
AFS AutoFlight System
AOA Angle Of Attack
APC Airplane-Pilot Coupling
ASRS Aviation Safety Reporting System
ATC Air Traffic Control
AUPRTA Airplane Upset Prevention and Recovery Training Aid
AURTA Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid
CAT Clear Air Turbulence
CG Center of Gravity
CL Coefficient of Lift
EAS Equivalent Air Speed
FAA Federal Aviation Agency
FBW Fly-By-Wire
FD Flight Director
FPA Flight Path Angle
FSTD Flight Simulation Training Device
G Gravity of Earth
HUD Head-Up Display
IAS Indicated Air Speed
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
IMC Instrument Meteorological Conditions
L/D MAX Lift to Drag ratio (max lift over min drag)
LOC Loss Of Control
LOSA Line Operations Safety Audit
MMO Maximum Operating Mach
MSA Minimum Safe Altitude
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NM Nautical Mile
NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
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OAT Outside Air Temperature

OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
PAN Radio call to express urgency of a situation
PF Pilot Flying
PFD Primary Flight Display
PIO Pilot-Induced Oscillations
PM Pilot Monitoring
SAT Static Air Temperature
SLD Super-cooled Large water Droplet
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
TAS True Air Speed
TAT Total Air Temperature
TEM Threat and Error Management
TOGA Take Off / Go Around
V/S Vertical Speed
VA Maneuvering Speed
VFE Maximum Speed with Flaps Extended
VGA Go Around Target Speed
VMC Minimum Control Speed
VMCA Minimum Control Airspeed in Flight
VMD Minimum Drag Speed
VMO Maximum Operating Speed
VREF Reference Speed, Landing Configuration
VS V Stall
VSI Vertical Speed Indicator

AUPRTA Rev 3.0 – February 2017

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