TOPICAL NOTES

ELECTRONICS

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ELECTRONICS
Table of Contents
Energy Band Theory
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors Connections
n- type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor Building on….
The p-n Junction
Semiconductor Diode • Cells and Simple circuits –
conductors, insulators and semi-
Applications of Junction Diodes in Rectification
conductors
Revision Exercise
• Current Electricity (II) – effect of
temperature on resistivity
Specific Objectives • Electromagnetic Induction –
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to: transformer outputs
a) state the differences between conductors and insulators
b) define intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors Arriving at……
c) explain doping in semi-conductors
• Types and characteristics of
d) explain the working of a p-n junction diode
semiconductors
e) sketch current-voltage characteristics for a diode
f) explain the application of diodes in rectification. • The p-n junction diode-
characteristics and applications

Looking forward to….

(10 Lessons)
• Electrical and electronic
Content engineering! 👨‍🎓
1. Conductors, semi-conductors, insulators
2. Intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors
3. Doping
4. p-n junction diode
5. Applications of diodes: half wave rectification and full-wave rectification

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ELECTRONICS
The functioning of electronic components such as the diode and integrated circuits (IC), is based on the
behaviour of certain materials called semiconductors. Common examples of semiconductors are silicon and
germanium. The electrical conductivity of conductors, semiconductors and insulators can be explained using
the energy band theory.

The Energy Band Theory

The atomic structure reveals that electrons revolve around the nucleus in energy levels. According to the
energy-band theory, when two or more atoms are brought closer to each other, the energy levels split into
smaller energy levels called bands.

The outermost energy level containing valence electrons splits more easily into many bands than the inner
levels. The most important bands in electronics are the valence (VB) and conduction bands (CB), which
contain valence and conduction electrons respectively. The energy gap between the conduction and valence
bands is called the forbidden energy gap and can be used to distinguish between insulators, conductors and
semiconductors.

Insulators
Insulators are poor conductors of electricity due to the presence of a large energy gap of approximately 3 eV
between an empty conduction band and completely
filled valence band.
Since the gap between the VB and CB is very large in
insulators, very high energy is required for an electron
to jump from the filled VB to the conduction band.
Hardly any electron gains this energy thus the
conduction band remains empty, explaining why
insulators do not conduct electricity.
• Temperature increase or addition of impurities to insulators has no effect on their conductivity.

Conductors
In conductors, the valence and conduction bands overlap.

Electrons move freely from the partly filled valence band to the
conduction band. Many electrons in the conduction band are thus
available (free) for electric conduction. The flow of current in
conductors is by movements of electrons.

• A rise in temperature increases the vibrations of the atoms and this interferes with the electron flow.
Hence, the resistance of a conductor increases with temperature.

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Semiconductors
In a semi-conductor, the forbidden energy gap is small compared to that of insulators. The conduction band
has almost no electrons while the valence band is almost completely filled.

• An increase in temperature increases the chance of an electron moving from the valence band to
conduction band. Conductivity is thus enhanced.
The electrical conductivities of semiconductor materials lie between those of good conductors and
insulators.
• When an electron in the valence band is liberated to cross over to the conduction band, a hole (absence of
an electron and regarded positive) is created in the valence band. Another electron within the valence band
jumps into the hole, thereby creating another hole which is subsequently filled by yet another electron, and
the process continues. A hole is therefore seen to be moving in the valence band, generating hole current
(conventional current).
• The flow of electrons in the conduction band constitutes electron current. Total current flow in
semiconductors is therefore due to the flow of electrons and holes. The electrical resistance of
semiconductors thus reduces with increase in temperature.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductors
An intrinsic semiconductor is an extremely pure semiconductor, e.g., silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge).
Their atoms have four electrons in the outermost shell, which combine
covalently with electrons from the neighboring atoms to form a crystal.
Each atom is thus surrounded by four other atoms.
At absolute zero temperature, the crystal is an insulator.
At room temperature, some electrons in the valence band gain energy and
jump into the conduction band, leaving behind an equal number of holes in
the valence band. The material therefore becomes a conductor.
At higher temperatures, more electron-hole pairs are created, increasing
the conductivity of the material.
• In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons equals the number of holes.
The electrons and holes are known as charge carriers.

Doping
Doping is the process of adding small quantities of impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor to enhance its
conductivity.

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Extrinsic semiconductors
An extrinsic semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor to which some impurities have been added to
enhance conductivity (doped)
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors, namely, the n-type and p-type.

The n-type Semiconductor

The n-type semiconductor is formed by doping an intrinsic
semiconductor with pentavalent atoms like antimony,
phosphorus or arsenic.
A phosphorus atom has five electrons, four of which participate
in forming covalent bonds with four neighbouring atoms of the
pure semiconductor. The remaining electron is thus donated for
electrical conductivity.
The phosphorus atom is thus referred to as donor atom or n-
type impurity.
• The electrons become the majority charge carriers while
holes are the minority charge carriers.

NB: The n-type semiconductor is electrically neutral since the total number of electrons is equal to the total
number of protons in the material.

(ii) The p-type Semiconductor

The p-type semiconductor is obtained by doping intrinsic
semiconductors with trivalent atoms, e.g., boron, gallium or indium.
Boron has three electrons available for bond formation whereas
silicon has four. When boron fits in the silicon crystal lattice, it will
have one electron less to complete the bonding. The vacant place
due to a missing electron is called a hole.
Since a trivalent atom accepts to complete the bonding with one
electron less, it is referred to as acceptor atom.
• The silicon crystal becomes a p-type extrinsic semiconductor
because the holes (which have an effective positive charge) are the majority charge carriers.
The p-type semiconductor is electrically neutral since the impurity introduces equal number of electrons
and protons found in the nucleus.

Fixed Ions, Majority and Minority Charge Carriers

In the p-type semiconductor, holes are majority charge carriers, but as a hole moves away from the parent
atom, the parent atom becomes a negative ion, which is fixed in the crystal. The ion does not take part in
conduction. Electrons (which are thermally generated) exist as minority charge carriers.

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In the n-type semiconductor, an electron moving away from a parent atom generates a fixed positive ion.
The holes are thermally generated while the electrons are a result of doping.

The p-n Junction

The p-n junction is formed when an intrinsic semiconductor is doped simultaneously by trivalent and
pentavalent atoms such that one half of it becomes a p-type and the other half an n-type semi-conductor.

The free electrons and holes near the junction diffuse across the junction, such that the electrons enter the
p-zone as holes move into the n-zone.

Re-combination of the mobile charge carriers takes place

on either side of the junction, thus depleting mobile
charge carriers within a region of about 10–4 to 10–6 m.

A region of uncovered fixed ions is formed on either side of the junction.

The uncovered ions set up a potential difference (potential barrier) which in turn sets up a field that stops
further diffusion of mobile charges. This region occupied by the uncovered fixed ions is called the depletion
layer.

Biasing the p-n Junction

A p-n junction is said to be biased when a potential difference is applied across it.

Forward Biasing
A p-n junction is forward biased when the p-type region is connected to the positive and the n-type region
to the negative terminal of an external cell or battery.

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The applied voltage, VE, which is greater than the internal potential barrier VB, opposes the latter by repelling
holes from the p-type and electrons from the n-type, enabling the fixed ions in the depletion layer to regain
their holes and electrons. This reduces the potential barrier VB and the thickness of the depletion layer
considerably, thereby reducing the forward resistance and more charges flow across the junction with ease.
Thus, a large forward current flows in the circuit.

Reverse Biasing
A p-n junction is reverse biased when the p-region is connected to the negative terminal while the n-region
is connected to the positive terminal of a cell or battery.
The external voltage VE is in the same direction as the potential barrier.

The holes and electrons in their respective regions are attracted away from the junction by the external
voltage. This increases the concentration of the fixed positive and negative ions and increases the thickness
of the depletion layer. The potential barrier increases, hence increasing the resistance of the p-n junction.
However, a small current due to the flow minority charge carriers (leakage current) flows.

Semiconductor Diode (p-n Junction Diode)

This is a one-way conduction device consisting of a p-n junction and having two terminals, the anode and the
cathode. The diode can be forward and reverse biased as shown below.

Diode Characteristics
The circuit below is used to investigate diode characteristics for the reverse and forward bias.

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For each case, the values of current and voltage are recorded as the resistance is varied for in order to obtain
different values. Graphs of current against voltage are then plotted for both the reverse bias and the forward
bias.

Forward biased diode

A graph of current against voltage for a diode in forward bias

is a curve (non-linear) showing that a diode is non-ohmic. The
current increases rapidly when the forward bias voltage is
increased.
As the voltage is increased from zero, a very small current
flows through the diode because forward bias voltage is
insufficient in opposing the potential barrier. Leakage current
due to flow of minority charge carriers flows.
When the potential barrier is completely overcome by the
bias at the cut-in voltage (threshold or breakpoint voltage),
charges easily flow across the junction, giving rise to the
sharp increase in forward current.

Reverse biased diode

For the reverse bias, when the reverse bias voltage is zero, a
small current (leakage current) flows. As reverse bias
voltage is increased, there is no significant change in the
current until a particular voltage (Zener or breakdown
voltage) when a current surge is noted.
When the diode is reverse biased, its resistance is high. The
flow of leakage current results from flow of minority charge
carriers. At breakdown or Zener voltage, some covalent
bonds rapture, liberating electrons. This is called Zener
breakdown.
As the electrons move because of the applied voltage, they collide with some atoms, causing ionisation. This
is called avalanche breakdown.
The two processes produce excess electrons which are responsible for the heavy conduction.
When a diode is reverse biased to its breakdown voltage, it gets damaged. A
damaged diode conducts irrespective of biasing.
Zener diodes, like the one shown alongside, are designed to operate
within the breakdown region.

The combined characteristic of a diode is shown below.

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Worked Examples
Example 1
Find the current flowing through the resistors and voltage
drops in the figure alongside. (Assume the diodes are
ideal)

Solution
Since diode D1 is reverse biased, current does not flow
through the 3 Ω resistor. Hence, there is no voltage drop
across it. D2 is forward biased, hence current flowing
through the 2 Ω and 8 Ω resistors, taken to be in series, is
given by;
V 10
I= =
R 10
=1A
∴ voltage across the 2 Ω resistor = 1 × R =1 × 2 = 2 V

Voltage across 8 Ω resistor is given by 1 × 8 = 8 V

Example 2
In the circuit diagram shown alongside, explain what
happens when:
(a) S1 is open and S2 closed.
(b) S1 is closed and S2 open. The bulbs L1 and L2 are
identical.

Solution
(a) When S1 is open and S2 closed, the diode D2 conducts
heavily, hence short circuits bulb L2. Consequently,
only L1 lights brightly, because most of the voltage
drop is across it.
(b) When S1 is closed and S2 open, D1 is reverse biased,
hence it does not take up any current. The two bulbs
light dimly because they share the voltage supply.

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Applications of Junction Diodes in Rectification

A rectifier is a device used in transforming an alternating voltage into a direct or unidirectional voltage. The
process is called rectification. There are two types of rectification, namely:
(i) half-wave rectification.
(ii) full-wave rectification.
A diode is used in rectification because it offers high resistance when reverse biased and low resistance
when forward biased.

Half-wave Rectification
Half-wave reflection can be achieved by
connecting a single diode in series with the load
cross which a unidirectional voltage is required.
During the first half (positive) cycle, the diode is
forward biased, so it conducts. Current flows
through RL, building a voltage across it which
decreases as the first half-cycle comes to an
end.
On the onset of the second half-cycle (negative),
the diode is reverse biased and so it does not
conduct. The action repeats itself so long as the
input voltage is being supplied.
When a CRO is connected across the points A and B, a trace obtained on the screen is as shown in figure (a)
below.

When connected across points C and D, the trace is as shown in (b).

The process is referred to as half-wave rectification because half of the input cycle is phased out in the
output.
The disadvantage of this rectification is that the output is not smooth and there is much power loss as one
of the half-cycles is eliminated.

Full-wave Rectification
Full-wave rectification can be achieved using:
(i) two diodes and center-tapped transformer.
(ii) four diodes (the bridge rectifier).

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Using Two Diodes

A centre-tapped transformer must be used to split the transformer output. Two diodes are connected in
such a way that each conducts a current through the load resistor during a particular half cycle.
There are two possible circuits for this arrangement as shown below.

During the first half-cycle D1 is

forward biased while D2 is reverse
biased. Hence, the path taken by the
current is A D1 BCA. During the next
half-cycle, D2 is forward biased while
D1 is reverse biased and the path of
the current is DD2 BCD.
During both half-cycles, current flows
through the resistor in the same
direction.

The contribution of each diode to make up the

effective output is illustrated in the figure
alongside.

Bridge Rectifier
The bridge circuit consists of four diodes connected as shown below.

During the first half-cycle, point A is

positive with respect to C, hence D1 and
D3 are forward biased while D2 and D4
are reverse biased. The path of the
current is thus ABDCA.

During the second half-cycle, point A

becomes negative with respect to C and
diodes D2 and D4 become forward
biased while D1 and D3 are reverse
biased. The path of the conventional
current is then CBDAC.

NB: During both half-cycles, current flows through the load resistor RL in the same directions.

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Some advantages of the bridge rectifier

(i) a smaller transformer can be used, because there is no need for centre-tapping.
(ii) it is suitable for high voltage regulation.
In general, the full-wave rectifier gives a stronger and smoother output than the half-wave rectifier.
If a capacitor is connected across the resistor, the rectified output is smoothened.

Review Exercises

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