Department of Environmental Studies,

Geography and Agriculture

URP 3124-1: INTRODUCTION TO REMOTE

SENSING

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Topic 1 – Introduction REMOTE SENSING

Definition
Science and art of obtaining information about an object, area or
phenomenon through an analysis of data acquired by a device
that is not in direct contact with the area, object or phenomenon
under investigation.

Lillesand, Thomas M. and Ralph W. Kiefer, “Remote Sensing and Image

Interpretation” John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 1979, p. 1

What are some common examples of remote sensors?

 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Topic 1 – Introduction REMOTE SENSING

Remote Sensing
“the art, science, and technology of obtaining
reliable information about physical objects and
the environment, through the process of
recording, measuring and interpreting imagery
and digital representations of energy patterns
derived from noncontact sensor systems”
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

REMOTE SENSING

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Remote Sensing
vRemote sensing is the process of detecting
and monitoring the physical characteristics of
an area by measuring its reflected and
emitted radiation at a distance (typically from
satellite or aircraft).

vSpecial cameras collect remotely sensed Special cameras on a

images, which help researchers "sense" things satellite
about the Earth

vRemote Sensing imagery and data collected

from space- or airborne camera and sensor An image of Kenya
from a satellite
platforms now offer images showing details
of one-meter or smaller, making these images
appropriate for monitoring the Earth
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Satellite in Space The Remote Sensing

Process

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Remote Sensing
vRemote sensing includes aerial, satellite, and
spacecraft observations of the surfaces and
atmospheres of the planets in our solar system, though
the Earth is obviously the most frequent target of study.
vThe term is customarily restricted to methods that
detect and measure electromagnetic energy,
including visible light, that has interacted with surface
materials and the atmosphere.
vRemote sensing of the Earth has many purposes,
including making maps, weather forecasting, and
gathering military intelligence.
vOur focus in this course will be on remote sensing of
the environment and resources of Earth’s surface.
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CATEGORIES OF
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

SATELLITES
Earth-orbiting satellites are divided into three
categories in accordance with their missions
1.Transferring information : Communication
technology - Communication satellites,
Broadcasting satellites
2.Defining positions : Navigation technology -
Navigation satellites, Global positioning
satellites
3.Measuring objects : Remote sensing
technology - Earth observation satellites,
weather satellites
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 Department of Environmental Studies,
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Remote Sensing Satellites in Space: How do they

get there?

http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/viewrecord?492

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VIrW4D4IfyY
Top 20 countries with the most SATELLITEs (1957-2020)

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Launch Vehicles
Lockheed Martin’s Titan II
• Lockheed Martin refurbishes
deactivated Titan II
intercontinental ballistic
missiles (ICBMs) for use as
space launch vehicles
• Able to lift approximately
4,200 lb (1905 kgs) into a
polar low-Earth orbit

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 Department of Environmental Studies,
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Launch Vehicles
Arianespace’s Ariane 5

Payload capability
of 7,300 kg in a
dual-payload
mission to
geostationary
transfer orbit or
8,000 kg in a
single-satellite
launch
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 MODIS Terra
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Launches

http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/viewrecord?135

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Geostationary Orbit

36,000 km

Geostationary Orbit Polar Orbit 715 km Polar Orbit

Geostationary satellites Polar satellites (also
orbit the Earth's axis as
know as sun
fast as the Earth spins.
They hover over a single synchronous satellites)
point above the Earth at orbit above the Earth
an altitude of about at about 715
36,000 kilometers (22,300 kilometers (445 miles).
miles). This orbit allows Polar satellites monitor
these satellites to strong storms that
continuously look at the move across the poles
same spot on the earth –
(regions of the Earth
important for locating the
position of hurricanes that Geostationary
and monitoring satellites cannot view).
developing severe storms. BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING
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Types of satellite orbits

Geostationary Polar

700-900 km
35,800 km

It is a special orbit for which any satellite in

that orbit will appear to hover stationary
over a point on the earth's surface

A geosynchronous orbit is a high Earth orbit

that allows satellites to match Earth's
rotation

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Introduction to Remote Sensing

Definition
History
EMR
EMS
Radiation Characteristics
Spectral Signatures

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History
1839 - first photograph
1858 - first photo from a balloon
1903 - first plane
◦ 1909 first photo from a plane

1903-4 -B/W infrared film

WW I and WW II
1960 - space

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1858 - Gasper Felix

Tournachon “Nadar"
takes the first aerial
photograph from a
captive balloon from an
altitude of 1,200 feet
over Paris.
Gaspar Felix Tournachon, more commonly
known as “Nadar,” is credited with taking
the first successful aerial photograph in
1858 from a hot air balloon over Petit-
Bicêtre (now Petit-Clamart), just outside
Paris;
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1860's - Aerial
observations, and
possible photography,
for military purposes
were acquired from
balloons in the Civil
War. Balloons were used
to map forest in 1862,
but not used to acquire
aerial photographs as far
as scholars can tell
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1899 - George Eastman produced a

nitro-cellulose based film type that
retained the clarity of the glass
plates which were in use at the time
and introduced the first Kodak
camera.

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1903 - The Bavarian Pigeon

Corps uses pigeons to
transmit messages and take
aerial photos.

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1914 - WWI provided a boost in the use of aerial
Geography and Agriculture

photography, but after the war, enthusiasm

waned

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Remote Sensing - Definition

A technique of obtaining information about
objects through the analysis of data collected
by special instruments that are not in physical
contact with the objects of investigation.

Reconnaissance from a distance

The scanning of the earth by satellite or high-

flying aircraft in order to obtain information
about it
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Remote Sensing – Definition (cont.…)

Collecting and interpreting information about the
environment and the surface of the earth from a
distance, primarily by sensing radiation that is naturally
emitted or reflected by the earth's surface or from the
atmosphere, or by sensing signals transmitted from a
device and reflected back to it.

Typically from aircraft or satellites

Examples of remote-sensing methods include aerial

photography, radar, and satellite imaging.
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Remote Sensing – Definition (cont.…)

Remote sensors collect data by detecting the energy
that is reflected from Earth. These sensors can be on
satellites or mounted on aircraft
Remote sensors can be either passive or active.
◦ Passive sensors record natural energy that is reflected or
emitted from the Earth's surface. The most common source
of radiation detected by passive sensors is reflected
sunlight.

◦ Active sensors provide their own energy source for

illumination. For example, a laser-beam remote sensing
system projects a laser onto the surface of Earth and
measures the time that it takes for the laser to reflect back
to its sensor.

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Principles of electromagnetic radiation

§ The field of remote sensing
began with aerial
photography, using visible
light from the sun as the
energy source.
§ But visible light makes up only
a small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, a
continuum that ranges from
high energy, short
wavelength gamma rays, to
lower energy, long wavelength
radio waves.
§ Only a portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum is
useful in remote sensing of
the Earth’s surface.
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EMR and the Sun-atmosphere system

lAbout 50% of incoming solar radiation is
lost by the atmosphere: scattered (30%) and
absorbed (20%)
involves the absorption and re-
emission of energy by particles
(unlike scattering) involves
energy exchange

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EMR and the Sun-atmosphere system

The human eye cannot see infrared
radiation
Infrared radiation is absorbed by water
vapour and carbon dioxide in the
troposphere
The atmosphere’s relative transparency to
incoming solar (SW) radiation, and ability to
absorb/re-emit outgoing infrared (LW)
radiation is the natural greenhouse effect
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Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)

◦ Energy traveling through space
◦ Electromagnetic radiation behaves in part as wavelike energy
fluctuations traveling at the speed of light. The wave is actually
composite, involving electric and magnetic fields

Characteristics of Waves
Wavelength (l):
◦ Distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave

Frequency (n):
◦ How many waves pass a given point per second/number of
wavelengths passing a fixed point in space in one second

Velocity (Speed) (c):

◦ How fast a given peak moves through space

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Principles of electromagnetic radiation

(cont….)

EMR
L ig h t - can b e th o u g h t o f as a w av e in th e 'electro m ag n etic field ' o f th e u n iv erse

W avelength

Frequency
(how m any tim es peak
passes per second)

A w a ve c a n b e c h a ra c te riz e d b y its w a ve le n g th o r its fre q u e n c y

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Principles of electromagnetic radiation (cont….)

The electromagnetic radiation covers a vast spectrum of frequencies

and wavelengths.
This includes the very energetic gamma-rays radiation to radio
waves in the wavelength range up to meters (exceedingly low
energy).

However, the region of interest to us in this course is rather a very

limited range.

This limited range covers both visible radiation, infrared and

microwave.

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Principles of electromagnetic radiation (cont….)

EMR

Source of the Sun's Energy

◦ Fusion process: Nuclear reactions where lightweight chemical elements
(like hydrogen) form heavier elements (such as helium and carbon). This
process converts matter (i.e. mass of an atom) to energy.
◦ This electromagnetic radiation created, propagates through space, and
interacts with other matter

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EMR
Remote sensing is concerned with
the measurement of EMR returned
by the earth’s natural and cultural
features that first receive energy
from the sun or an artificial source
such as a radar transmitter.

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EMR
Because different objects return different
types and amounts of EMR, the objective
in remote sensing is to detect these
differences with the appropriate
instruments.
This, in turn, makes it possible for us to
identify and assess a broad range of
surficial features and their conditions.

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What is the Electromagnetic Spectrum?

lAll types of EMR are transmitted, or propagated,
as
lIn common with all waves, the two most
fundamental properties of electromagnetic
waves are and
lThe longer the wavelength the lower the
frequency and vice versa
lIn order to understand how we can measure the
physical environment with remote sensing, we
must first understand solar radiation

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The concept of wavelength

Wavelength is usually measured in (the SI unit

of length), micrometres (1µm=10-6m) and nanometres
(1nm=10-9m)
The SI unit of frequency is (cycles per second)
The electromagnetic spectrum may be defined as the
entire range of radiation wavelengths

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Properties of EMR radiation

lTransfer energy from place to place
lCan be emitted and absorbed by matter
lDo not need a material medium to travel
through
lTravel at 3 X 108 metres per second in a vacuum
lCan be reflected and refracted
lCan be diffracted (e.g. using a prism)
lCarry no electric charge

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Electromagnetic Spectrum
Ranges From:
◦ Gamma rays (short wavelength, high frequency and high energy
content)

To:
◦ Passive radio waves (long wavelength, low frequencies, and low
energy content).

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EMR
Wavelengths less than and greater than 0.8µm
(800nm) are often referred to as and
radiation respectively
The shortwave solar radiation consists of
and
The terrestrial longwave component is known as

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p centimeter = .01 meters

p millimeter = .001 meters
p micrometer = .000,000,1 meters
p nanometer = .000,000,000,1 meters
p angstrom = .000,000,000,01 meters

Electromagnetic spectrum with

enhanced detail for visible region of
the spectrum

Note the large range of wavelengths

encompassed in the spectrum - it is
over twenty orders of magnitude!

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Remote Sensing and EMR

lRemote sensing exploits the different
characteristics of the electromagnetic
spectrum
lSatellites use - a channel
corresponds to a specific waveband, or
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum

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EMS
Largely for convenience the continuum is
divided into several named divisions called
spectral bands, which share similar
characteristics.

A spectral band is composed of some defined

group of continuous spectral lines, where a line
represents a single wavelength or frequency.
The boundaries between most of the bands are
arbitrarily defined because each portion
overlaps adjacent portions.
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The EM Spectrum
1020 Hz 1018 Hz 1016 Hz 1014 Hz 1012 Hz 1010 Hz

vi- Microwaves
Gamma si- N. Mid Th. Far IR TV FM
X-Rays UV
Rays ble IR IR IR Radar Radiowaves

1 pm 10pm 10 nm 1 micron 100 microns 1 mm 100 mm

Blue green yellow red

0.4 m 0.5 m 0.6 m 0.7 m

§ Different wavelengths of light can be grouped together into

different types
§ Visible light contains light from 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers
§ Infrared light from 0.1 micrometers to 1 millimeter

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R/S Spectral Regions

Ultraviolet (UV)
Visible
Infrared (IR)
Microwave

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R/S Spectral Regions

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R/S Spectral Regions

Traditionally, the most common
used region of the EMS in remote
sensing has been the visible band.
Its wavelength span is from 0.4 to
0.7 micrometers, limits established
by the sensitivity of the human eye.

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R/S Spectral Regions

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Visible Light
Composed of colors (different
wavelengths)

These familiar colors range from

violet (shortest wavelength) through
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange
and red (ROYGBIV).

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Color
The visible spectrum is also viewed as being composed of three
equal-wavelength segments that represent the additive primary
colors;

Blue (0.4 to 0.5 micrometers)

Green (0.5 to 0.6 micrometers)
Red ( 0.6 to 0.7 micrometers)

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Primary Colors
A primary color is one that cannot be made from any other color.
All colors perceived by the human optical system can be produced
by combining the proper proportions of light representing the
three primaries. This principle forms the basis for the operation of
the color TV.

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Color
The chlorophyll of healthy grass selectively absorbs more of the
blue and red wavelengths of white light and reflects relatively
more of the green wavelengths to our eyes.

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Infrared (IR) Band

The infrared (IR) band has wavelengths between red visible light
(0.7 micrometers) and microwaves at 1,000 micrometers. Infrared
means “below the red.”
In remote sensing the IR band is usually divided into two
components that are based on basic property differences;
◦ Reflected IR band
◦ Emitted/Thermal IR band

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Reflected IR
The reflected IR band represents reflected solar radiation which
behaves like visible light. Its wavelength span is from 0.7 to about
3 micrometers.

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Thermal IR (Heat)
The dominant type of energy in the thermal IR band is heat
energy, which is continuously emitted by the atmosphere and all
objects on the earth’s surface. Its wavelength span is from about 3
micrometers to 1,000 micrometers or 0.1 centimeters.

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Microwave Band
The microwave band falls between the IR and radio bands and has
a wavelength range extending from approximately 0.1 centimeters
to 1 meter.

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Microwave Band
At the proper wavelengths microwave radiation can pass through;
◦ - clouds
◦ - precipitation
◦ - tree canopies
◦ - dry surficial deposits such as;
◦ - sand and
◦ - fine-grained alluvium

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Microwave Sensors
Passive Microwave - detect natural microwave radiation that is
emitted from the earth’s surface.

RADAR - propagates artificial microwave radiation to the surface

and detects the reflected component.

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 Solar and Terrestrial
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Radiation

Most remote sensing systems are designed to detect;

◦ Solar radiation which passes through the atmosphere and is reflected in
varying degrees by the earth’s surface features - reflected
◦ Terrestrial radiation which is continuously emitted by these same features -
emitted

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Solar and Terrestrial
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Radiation

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Solar and Terrestrial
Department of Environmental Studies,
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Radiation
99% of the sun’s radiation falls between
wavelengths of 0.2 and 5.6 micrometers.

80% is contained in wavelengths between 0.4

and 1.5 micrometers (visible and reflected IR),
to which the atmosphere is quite transparent.

Maximum radiation occurs at a wavelength of

0.48 micrometers in the visible band.

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Solar and Terrestrial
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Radiation
About half the solar radiation passes through the earth’s
atmosphere and is absorbed in varying degrees by surface
features of the earth.

Most of this absorbed radiation is transformed into low-

temperature heat (warming the surface), which is
continuously emitted back into the atmosphere at longer
thermal IR wavelengths.

The earth’s land and water surface has an ambient

temperature of about 300oK (80oF)

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Solar and Terrestrial
Department of Environmental Studies,
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Radiation
Because the wavelengths covering most of the earth’s energy
output are several times longer than those covering most of the
solar output, terrestrial radiation is frequently called longwave
radiation and solar radiation is termed shortwave radiation

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Department of Environmental Studies,
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Radiation
Long wave radiation is also emitted by;
◦ The atmosphere’s gasses and clouds and
◦ From artificially heated objects on the earth’s surface
such as
◦ - From buildings
◦ - Steam lines
◦ - certain industrial effluents.

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INTERACTIONS WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Radiation-Matter Interactions

EMR manifests itself only through its

interactions with matter which can be in the
form of;
◦ a gas
◦ a liquid
◦ a solid

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10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Radiation-Matter
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Interactions
When EMR strikes matter, EMR may be;
◦ transmitted
◦ reflected
◦ scattered
◦ Absorbed

EMR that impinges upon matter is called incident radiation.

For the earth the strongest source of incident radiation is the sun.

Such radiation is called insolation, a shortening of incoming solar radiation.

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Radiation-Matter Interactions (cont…)

Ra
di
at
io
n

Reflection
Emission

Courtesy: missionscience.nasa.gov, science.nasa.gov

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10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
Radiation-Matter
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Interactions
Absorption (A) - when radiation
(energy) is absorbed into the
target
Transmission (T) - when radiation
passes through a target.
Reflection (R) - when radiation
"bounces" off the target and is
redirected.
In remote sensing, we are most
interested in measuring the
radiation reflected from targets

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
Radiation-Matter
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Interactions
The amount on interaction Three (3) forms of interaction that can take
place when energy strikes, or is incident (I)
depends upon; upon the surface. These are: absorption
◦ the composition and physical (A) ; transmission (T) ; and reflection (R) .
properties of the medium.
◦ the wavelength or frequency of
the incident radiation.
◦ the angle at which the incident
radiation strikes a surface.

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Transmission
Transmission is the process by which incident radiation passes
through matter without measurable attenuation. The substance is
thus transparent to the radiation.

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Transmission
Transmission through material media of different densities (such
as air to water) causes the radiation to be refracted or deflected
from a straight-line path with an accompanying change in its
velocity and wavelength; frequency always remains constant.

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Reflection
Reflection (also called specular reflection) is the process where
incident radiation “bounces off” the surface of the substance in a
single, predictable direction.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Reflection -
The angle of reflection is always equal and opposite to the angle
of incidence.

Reflection is caused by surfaces that are smooth relative to the

wavelength of the incident radiation. These smooth mirror-like
surfaces are called specular reflectors.

Specular reflection causes no change to either EMR velocity or

wavelength.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Scattering
Scattering (also called diffuse reflection) occurs when incident
radiation is dispersed or spread out unpredictable in many
different directions, including the direction from which it
originated.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Scattering -
In the real world, scattering is much more common than reflection.

The scattering process occurs with surfaces that are rough relative
to the wavelengths of incident radiation.

Such surfaces are called diffuse reflectors. EMR velocity and

wavelength are not affected by the scattering process.

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10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Absorption
Absorption is the process by which incident radiation is taken in
by the medium. For this to occur, the substance must be opaque
to the incident radiation.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
EMR - Atmosphere
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

windows
Areas of the spectrum where specific wavelengths can pass
relatively unimpeded through the atmosphere are called
transmission bands or atmospheric windows.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
EMR - Atmosphere
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Interactions -
Absorption bands define those areas where specific wavelengths
are totally or partially blocked.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
EMR - Atmosphere
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

windows
To observe the earth’s surface different remote sensing
instruments have been designed to operate within the windows
where the atmosphere will transmit sufficient radiation for
detection.

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10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
EMR - Atmosphere
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Interactions -
EMR interacts with the atmosphere in the following ways;
◦ it may be absorbed and re-radiated at longer wavelengths, which
causes the air temperature to rise.
◦ it may be reflected and scattered without change to either its velocity
or wavelength.
◦ it may be transmitted in a straight-line path directly through the
atmosphere.

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

EMR - Atmosphere Interactions

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10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Atmospheric Absorption and Transmission

Significant absorbers of EMR in the atmosphere;
◦ oxygen
◦ nitrogen
◦ ozone
◦ carbon dioxide
◦ water vapor

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Atmospheric Scattering
EMR within certain sections of the UV, visible and reflected IR bands is
scattered by the atmosphere
◦ Important scattering agents include;
◦ Gas molecules
◦ Suspended particulates
◦ Clouds

UV radiation, at wavelengths less than 0.2 micrometers, is absorbed by

molecules of oxygen. This added energy is enough to cause the affected
diatomic oxygen to split apart, leaving single atoms of oxygen.
Reactions occur to combine monatomic and diatomic oxygen into
triatomic oxygen (ozone). The resulting ozone effectively absorbs UV
radiation with wavelengths between 0.2 and 0.3 micrometers in the ozone
layer in the stratosphere.
Carbon dioxide effectively absorbs between 14 and 20 micrometers and
ozone in the 9 to 10 micrometer span.

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Atmospheric Absorption and Transmission

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Atmospheric Scattering
In addition, clouds absorb most of the longwave radiation emitted by the
earth’s surface, essentially closing the thermal IR windows.

This is why cloudy nights tend to be warmer than clear nights. Only
microwave radiation with wavelengths longer than about 0.9 cm is
capable of penetrating clouds.

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Atmospheric Scattering
Important scattering agents include;
◦ Gas molecules
◦ Suspended particulates
◦ Clouds

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Atmospheric Scattering
There are three types of atmospheric scattering important to
remote sensing;
◦ Rayleigh or molecular scattering
◦ Mie or non-molecular scattering
◦ Non-selective scattering

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
Rayleigh or Molecular
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Scattering
Primarily caused by oxygen and nitrogen molecules whose
diameters are, at least, 0.1 times smaller than the affected
wavelengths

Occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength

of the radiation
◦ particles such as small specks of dust
◦ nitrogen and oxygen molecules

Rayleigh scattering is highly selective being inversely proportional

to the fourth power of the wavelength.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
Mie or non-molecular
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

scattering
Occurs when there are sufficient particles in the atmosphere that
have diameters from about 0.1 to about 10 times larger than the
wavelengths under consideration
When the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength
of the radiation

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
Mie or non-molecular
Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

scattering
Important mie scattering agents include;
◦ Water vapor
◦ Smoke
◦ Dust
◦ Volcanic materials
◦ Salt from evaporated sea spray

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Non-selective scattering
Is found in the lower atmosphere when there are sufficient
numbers of suspended aerosols having diameters at least 10
times larger than the wavelengths under consideration
When the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the
radiation

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Non-selective scattering
Important nonscattering agents include;
◦ Larger mie particles
◦ Water droplets
◦ Ice crystals

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Non-selective scattering
Depends upon wavelength.
◦ Within the visible band, colorless water
droplets and ice crystals scatter all wavelengths
equally well, causing, for example, the sunlit
surfaces of clouds to appear brilliant white.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Skylight and Haze

The clear sky is a source of illumination because its
gases preferentially scatter the shorter wavelengths
of sunlight.

This diffuse radiation is called sunlight or sky

radiation.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Skylight and Haze

To our eyes sky radiation is manifested as haze which causes a
reduction in visibility and also causes distant landscapes to take
on a soft, blue-gray appearance.

Atmospheric haze has important ramifications in remote sensing.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Skylight and Haze

In the short wavelength region, radiation reaching an airborne or
spaceborne sensor consists of two components;
◦ radiation that is scattered by the earth’s surface and
then reaches the sensor without being affected by
the intervening atmosphere.
◦ radiation that is scattered by the atmosphere, either
before or after it reaches the earth’s surface.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Skylight and Haze

The radiation scattered by the atmosphere contains no
information about the earth’s surface, and it acts as a masking
agent when a remote sensing system records these wavelengths.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Skylight and Haze

The net effect of this extra illumination, or non-image forming
“haze light”, is a loss of detail and a reduction in scene contrast.

Haze is visualized as a fog-like veil in black and white photos and

as an overall blueish tint in a color photo.

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

EMR - Surface Interactions

The natural and cultural features of the earth’s surface interact
differently with solar radiation.

Albedo or Spectral Reflectance is the percentage radiation

reflected by an object.

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

EMR - Surface Interactions

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

10/20/2023
URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Spectral Signatures
Every natural and synthetic object reflects and emits EMR over a
range of wavelengths in its own characteristic manner according ,
in large measure, to its chemical composition and physical state.

BACHELOR OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Spectral Signatures
Spectral signatures are the distinctive reflectance and emittance
properties of objects.

Within some limited spectral region, a particular object will usually

exhibit a unique spectral response pattern that differs from that of
other objects.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Spectral Signatures
Remote sensing depends upon operation in wavelength regions
of the spectrum where these detectable differences in reflected
and emitted radiation occur.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Spectral Signatures
The diagnostic response patterns of that make it possible to
discriminate objects (spectral signatures) often lie beyond the
narrow confines of the visible spectrum where no detectable
differences occur.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Spectral Signatures
Detectors translate the sensed radiation into electrical energy
which is used to drive invisible-to-visible translation devices.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS
 Department of Environmental Studies,
Geography and Agriculture

Spectral Signatures
Radiometer measurements are
used to prepare spectral signature
curves which are line plots
showing the radiation intensity for
various features as a function of
wavelength.
Here are typical spectral signature
curves for three common
materials;
◦ Vegetation
◦ Soil
◦ water.

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URP 3124-1 - REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS