CHAPTER THREE: APPLYING CRITICAL REASONING AND THINKING TO

PROBLEM-SOLVING SCENARIOS

3.1 Specification of the problem

From time to time in any innovation activity, you will face problems which need to be solved and solved
quickly so that you can progress towards your objective. The way you go about solving a problem can
make a major difference to the outcome you get. It can mean the difference between a quick clean,
elegant and maybe even downright exciting solution or the loss of weeks of valuable time and an
unhappy compromise nobody really wants. When work in innovative companies, helping people to
solve long standing, "impossible" problems, often people getting caught out at the first step. Teams or
individuals who haven't asked the right questions at the start of their problem-solving process. That's
right, hard to believe as it may seem, many times, even before people have properly defined their
problem, they are off and trying to solve it. There are many reasons for this puzzling behaviour, here are
a selected few:

"I'm the expert so I ought to know all about the problem"

"I'm under serious time pressure, so I need to get on and solve the problem right now!"

"From my experience of similar situations, this worked last time"

Here is a simple process which can really help:

Figure 02

Unit 03: Professional Practice 21

Let’s consider each of these steps in turn:

Step 1: Create an initial problem statement. Now this may sound silly but write the problem down.
Committing your problem to paper can really help clarify exactly what you and maybe your team are
setting out to solve. Teams who have been working on a problem for weeks or months can get into
serious debate at this first stage about which problem they are really trying to solve. Writing the problem
down gets everyone aligned about the real problem to resolve. It helps to start to write the problem
down in the form "I want to .... " To get clearer on the desired solution you want to achieve. It is also
really important that you write the problem down without using technical terms and jargon. Your
problem should be able to pass the My Mum test, that is if you read it to your mother, she would
understand it. There are two reasons for this, first, it makes the problem easier to explain to anyone,
which helps if you want to get external input to your solution and second, it starts to take out
terminology which is associated with the way you see the problem now, in TRIZ (theory of the resolution
of invention-related tasks) terms, your psychological inertia. This immediately helps you to unblock your
thinking, which is the first step towards a new way of looking at your problem situation.

Step 2: Check you're solving the problem at the right level. What do we mean by this? Let’s take an
example, imagine you are work for an airline and you start with problem: I want to design a more
comfortable airline seat. Rather than just look at this specific problem, it can be really helpful to spend
a bit of effort to check the context for the problem and consider possible sub-areas which might yield
the best results. A simple tool to help with this is why-how laddering. To move up the ladder and discover
context, first ask why? This will quickly get you to top level business needs for your airline. Then ask
how? to expose alternative options to answer the top-level needs and even drill into your problem area:

22 Unit 03: Professional Practice

 Figure 03

Step 3: Refine the problem situation. This step helps you to identify the real tension or contradiction you
are trying to resolve, in other words the gap you need to jump from where you are now (reality) to where
you want to get to (expectation). Use the format I want to...but.... to frame your problem situation.

Figure 04

Unit 03: Professional Practice 23

So, for the airplane seat example your problem might be: "I want to make a more comfortable airline
seat but the current space available is too small for tall passengers."

Step 4: Scope the problem. In this step, you define what can and what can't be changed according to the
conditions of your problem situation. Sometimes it is good to list the different components you have in
the problem situation and their associated parameters and then go through each and decide which ones
can be changed and which ones must stay as they are. You can use various scoping tools to help here: a
simple table with can change/can't change columns, a scope box (what is inside can change) or a chalk
man of scope - a dead body outline laid out on the floor to help your problem-solving team decide what
is in and out of scope.

At this point you have a much clearer understanding of your problem situation, and you can then
proceed to use other problem analysis tools including TRIZ (theory of the resolution of invention-related
tasks) tools to analyse and solve your problem.

3.2 Identification of possible outcomes

Just about any problem you have to deal with has more solutions to it than the one that you think of
first. So, it is best to develop a list of alternate solutions that you and your team can assess and decide
which one will be the best for the particular problem.

Then rank those solutions based on efficiency, cost, long-term value, what resources you have and that
you can commit to the solution of the problem. Then, look at every one of those solutions carefully and
decide what you believe to be the best solution to this problem at this time.

Look at your problems in different ways; find a new perspective that you haven't thought of before.
Brainstorming, or rapid noting of alternatives no matter how silly, is an excellent discovery process.

Once you have listed or mapped alternatives, be open to their possibilities. Make notes on those that:

a. need more information

b. are new solutions
c. can be combined or eliminated
d. will meet opposition
e. seem promising or exciting
Weigh Alternatives

After listing possible alternatives, evaluate them without prejudice, no matter how appealing or
distasteful

Consider all criteria

24 Unit 03: Professional Practice

 While a suitable solution may solve the problem, it may not work if resources aren't available, if people
won't accept it, or if it causes new problems

Figure 05

Selecting the best alternative

Don't consider any alternative as "perfect solution."

If there were, there probably wouldn't be a problem in the first place

Consider your intuition,

or inner feelings in deciding on a course of action

Return to your trusted outsider:

Is there something you missed?

Does he/she see a problem with your solution?

Compromise

Consider compromise when you have a full grasp of the problem, and your alternatives. Competing
solutions may yield a hybrid solution.

Unit 03: Professional Practice 25

3.3 Tools and methods

3.3.1 Brainstorming

For decades, people have used brainstorming to generate ideas, and to come up with creative solutions
to problems. However, you need to use brainstorming correctly for it to be fully effective.

Madison Avenue advertising executive Alex Osborn developed the original approach and published it in
his 1953 book, "Applied Imagination." Since then, researchers have made many improvements to his
original technique.

The approach described here takes this research into account, so it's subtly different from Osborn's
approach. Brainstorming combines a relaxed, informal approach to problem solving with lateral thinking.
It encourages people to come up with thoughts and ideas that can, at first, seem a bit crazy. Some of
these ideas can be crafted into original, creative solutions to a problem, while others can spark even
more ideas. This helps to get people unstuck by "jolting" them out of their normal ways of thinking.

Therefore, during brainstorming sessions, people should avoid criticising or rewarding ideas. You're
trying to open up possibilities and break down incorrect assumptions about the problem's limits.
Judgment and analysis at this stage stunts idea generation and limit creativity. Evaluate ideas at the end
of the session – this is the time to explore solutions further, using conventional approaches.

Why Use Brainstorming?

Conventional group problem solving can often be undermined by unhelpful group behaviour. And while
it's important to start with a structured, analytical process when solving problems, this can lead a group
to develop limited and unimaginative ideas. By contrast, brainstorming provides a free and open
environment that encourages everyone to participate. Quirky ideas are welcomed and built upon, and
all participants are encouraged to contribute fully, helping them develop a rich array of creative
solutions.

When used during problem solving, brainstorming brings team members' diverse experience into play.
It increases the richness of ideas explored, which means that you can often find better solutions to the
problems that you face.

It can also help you get buy-in from team members for the solution chosen – after all, they're likely to
be more committed to an approach if they were involved in developing it. What's more, because
brainstorming is fun, it helps team members bond, as they solve problems in a positive, rewarding
environment.

26 Unit 03: Professional Practice

 While brainstorming can be effective, it's important to approach it with an open mind and a spirit of
non-judgment. If you don't do this, people "clam up," the number and quality of ideas plummets, and
morale can suffer.

Individual Brainstorming

While group brainstorming is often more effective at generating ideas than normal group problem
solving, several studies have shown that individual brainstorming produces more – and often better –
ideas than group brainstorming.

This can occur because groups aren't always strict in following the rules of brainstorming, and bad
behaviours creep in. Mostly, though, this happens because people pay so much attention to other
people that they don't generate ideas of their own – or they forget these ideas while they wait for their
turn to speak. This is called "blocking."

When you brainstorm on your own, you don't have to worry about other people's egos or opinions, and
you can be freer and more creative. For example, you might find that an idea you'd hesitate to bring up
in a group develops into something special when you explore it on your own.

However, you may not develop ideas as fully when you're on your own, because you don't have the
wider experience of other group members to draw on. Individual brainstorming is most effective when
you need to solve a simple problem, generate a list of ideas, or focus on a broad issue. Group
brainstorming is often more effective for solving complex problems.

Group Brainstorming

Here, you can take advantage of the full experience and creativity of all team members. When one
member gets stuck with an idea, another member's creativity and experience can take the idea to the
next stage. You can develop ideas in greater depth with group brainstorming than you can with individual
brainstorming.

Another advantage of group brainstorming is that it helps everyone feel that they've contributed to the
solution, and it reminds people that others have creative ideas to offer. It's also fun, so it can be great
for team building!

Group brainstorming can be risky for individuals. Unusual suggestions may appear to lack value at first
sight – this is where you need to chair sessions tightly, so that the group doesn't crush these ideas and
stifle creativity. Where possible, participants should come from a wide range of disciplines. This cross-

Unit 03: Professional Practice 27

section of experience can make the session more creative. However, don't make the group too big: as
with other types of teamwork, groups of five to seven people are usually most effective.

How to Use the Tool

You often get the best results by combining individual and group brainstorming, and by managing the
process according to the "rules" below. By doing this, you can get people to focus on the issue without
interruption, you maximise the number of ideas that you can generate, and you get that great feeling of
team bonding that comes with a well-run brainstorming session!

To run a group brainstorming session effectively, follow these steps.

Step 1: Prepare the Group

First, set up a comfortable meeting environment for the session. Make sure that the room is well-lit and
that you have the tools, resources, and refreshments that you need.

How much information or preparation does your team need in order to brainstorm solutions to your
problem? Remember that prep is important, but too much can limit – or even destroy – the freewheeling
nature of a brainstorming session.

Consider who will attend the meeting. A room full of like-minded people won't generate as many
creative ideas as a diverse group, so try to include people from a wide range of disciplines and include
people who have a variety of different thinking styles.

When everyone is gathered, appoint one person to record the ideas that come from the session. This
person shouldn't necessarily be the team manager – it's hard to record and contribute at the same time.
Post notes where everyone can see them, such as on flip charts or whiteboards; or use a computer with
a data projector.

If people aren't used to working together, consider using an appropriate warm-up exercise, or an
icebreaker.

Step 2: Present the Problem

Clearly define the problem that you want to solve and lay out any criteria that you must meet. Make it
clear that that the meeting's objective is to generate as many ideas as possible.

Give people plenty of quiet time at the start of the session to write down as many of their own ideas as
they can. Then, ask them to share their ideas, while giving everyone a fair opportunity to contribute.

Step 3: Guide the Discussion

28 Unit 03: Professional Practice

 Once everyone has shared their ideas, start a group discussion to develop other people's ideas, and use
them to create new ideas. Building on others' ideas is one of the most valuable aspects of group
brainstorming.

Encourage everyone to contribute and to develop ideas, including the quietest people, and discourage
anyone from criticising ideas.

As the group facilitator, you should share ideas if you have them, but spend your time and energy
supporting your team and guiding the discussion. Stick to one conversation at a time, and refocus the
group if people become side-tracked.

Although you're guiding the discussion, remember to let everyone have fun while brainstorming.
Welcome creativity and encourage your team to come up with as many ideas as possible, regardless of
whether they're practical or impractical. Use thought experiments such as Provocation or Random Input
to generate some unexpected ideas.

Don't follow one train of thought for too long. Make sure that you generate a good number of different
ideas and explore individual ideas in detail. If a team member needs to "tune out" to explore an idea
alone, allow them the freedom to do this.

Also, if the brainstorming session is lengthy, take plenty of breaks so that people can continue to
concentrate.

3.3.2 SWOT Analysis

What is a SWOT Analysis?

SWOT Analysis, also known as the SWOT matrix, is an acronym for:

Strengths: positive characteristics that give an advantage in its being.

Weaknesses: critical characteristics that give a disadvantage in its being.

Opportunities: a set of circumstances that makes it possible to do something in advantage.

Threats: a set of circumstances that could have a negative influence on the desired goal.

It is a strategy method that can be used to evaluate these focus areas involved in a project or
organisation for strategic planning. The SWOT Analysis is also a type of analysis that can be used to
evaluate the Marketing mix: 4P’s (Product, Price, Place and Promotion), an organisation or even a person
or team.

It is about the management objectives of the organisation or project and the identification of internal
and external factors that are favourable and/or unfavourable to achieving the external objectives. The

Unit 03: Professional Practice 29

first fundamentals of the SWOT Analysis were developed by Edmund P. Learned. This method was
further developed by Albert Humphrey in the 1970s and was based on the research of data from Fortune
500 companies in the United States.

In order to create a SWOT Analysis, users must ask and get answers, to generate meaningful information
to fill in the main four focus areas.

Internal and external factors

This powerful strategy tool identifies the internal and external factors. The internal factors are the
strengths and weakness of the evaluation. Some examples of internal factors are financial resources,
company’s location, employees, software systems, legal elements like patents and copyrights and
business processes. A useful management tool that helps you to identify the internal factors is the 7S
Framework by McKinsey, a powerful organisation analysis tool.

The external factors are the opportunities and threats, mostly environmental. Examples of external
factors are market, demographic and economic trends, relationships with suppliers and business
partners and regulations. Two useful management tools that we can recommend are the PEST Analysis
and DESTEP Analysis. Both are great to provide an inside on the external factors. The general results are
often presented in a SWOT Matrix.

Also, if the key findings are not well prioritised, people tent to draw their own conclusions on priority.

SWOT template

The drawing up of a SWOT Analysis always starts with a desired final situation or desirable objectives.
Partly because this, it could therefore be an excellent tool that forms part of the strategic planning.

The preparation of a strategic planning, including a SWOT analysis, requires a lot of research and can be
costly. Below you will find a short explanation of what is meant by the four elements:

Figure 06

30 Unit 03: Professional Practice

 SWOT in practice - Example: (figure 07)

Strengths

These are the strengths of a project or organisation that can contribute to achieving the intended
objectives. To determine what they are, the following questions could be asked:

a. What advantages do you offer your customers?

b. What do you do better than your competitors?
c. Why do customers choose you over your competitors?
d. What are our Unique Selling Points (USPs)?
e. Which factors have a significant influence on the buying behaviour of your customers?

When formulating the strengths, it is important to approach these from an internal perspective as well
as from the perspectives of the customer and the market. It is necessary to remain realistic in order to
prevent that the organisation or the project from being positioned too highly with respect to the market
and the competition.

For example, if your competitor delivers a high-quality product to the market, good ingredients and
sound workmanship are of the utmost importance.

Unit 03: Professional Practice 31

Weakness

These are weaknesses of a project or organisation that may have a negative effect on achieving the
intended objectives.

To determine what these weaknesses are, the following questions could be asked:

a. What could be improved by the organisation?

b. What should especially be avoided within the organisation or project?
c. What are customers likely to see as our weaknesses?
d. What factors make us lose customers or market share?

These are difficult questions to answer, and the answers may be quite confronting. It is best to have
external people assess your weaknesses so that you can work on these.

Opportunities

These are the opportunities that present themselves for the organisation or project. To determine what
these opportunities are, the following questions could be asked:

a. What interesting trends could the organisation or project respond to?

b. What are the opportunities for the organisation or project?
To answer the questions above, the following matters might be of influence: technological
developments, policy developments from the government, changes within the target group, new
suppliers, etc.

Threats

These could be possible obstacles that can negatively influence the project or organisation from the
market. To determine what these threats are, the following questions could be asked:

a. What possible obstacles or external risk can be identified for the organisation or project?
b. What is the financial situation of the project or organisation?
c. Can new technologies pose a threat to the organisation or project?
d. Do the identified weaknesses pose a threat for the project or organisation?
e. How can we meet the quality requirements of the market and how can we compete with other
suppliers?

32 Unit 03: Professional Practice

 Practical SWOT tips

The SWOT Analysis is a serious method. Make sure that when you get to work on this, there is
commitment from the interested parties, the decision makers and the influencers.

This is crucial to the follow-up of the development of strategic planning.

See to it that the intended objectives are realistic and achievable so that people can still support them
afterwards in terms of decisions and policies. In addition, the SWOT Analysis is also often used to identify
areas for development, which can be useful when it concerns an exploration of opportunities such as,
for example, feasibility study.

It is wise not to eliminate an inventory SWOT item too quickly. The importance of the individual SWOT
Analysis can be found in the value of the strategies it could possibly generate. A SWOT item that
produces valuable strategies is important by definition. A SWOT item that does not produce valuable
strategies is therefore not important. A SWOT Analysis can contribute to decision-making when a desired
final situation (objective) has been defined. Examples are non-profit organisations, governmental units
and individuals. SWOT analyses can also be used in pre-crisis planning and crisis prevention
management.

3.3.3 5 Whys method

Sakichi Toyoda, one of the fathers of the Japanese industrial revolution, developed the technique in the
1930s. He was an industrialist, inventor and founder of Toyota Industries. His method became popular
in the 1970s, and Toyota still uses it to solve problems today.

Toyota has a "go and see" philosophy. This means that its decision making is based on an in-depth
understanding of what's actually happening on the shop floor, rather than on what someone in a
boardroom think might be happening.

The 5 Whys technique is true to this tradition, and it is most effective when the answers come from
people who have hands-on experience of the process being examined. It is remarkably simple: when a
problem occurs, you drill down to its root cause by asking "why?" five times. Then, when a
countermeasure becomes apparent, you follow it through to prevent the issue from recurring.

When to Use the 5 Whys

You can use 5 Whys for troubleshooting, quality improvement and problem solving, but it is most
effective when used to resolve simple or moderately difficult problems. You need to be more careful
when you're tackling complex or critical problems. 5 Whys can lead you to pursue a single track, or a
small number of tracks, of enquiry when there could be multiple causes. In cases such as these, a wider-

Unit 03: Professional Practice 33

ranging method such as Cause, and Effect Analysis or Failure Mode and Effects Analysis may be more
effective.

This simple technique, however, can often direct you quickly to the root(s) of a problem. So, whenever
a system or process isn't working properly, give it a try before you embark on a more in-depth approach
– and certainly before you attempt to develop a solution. This tool's simplicity gives it great flexibility,
too, and it combines well with other methods and techniques, such as Root Cause Analysis. It is often
associated with Lean Manufacturing, where it is used to identify and eliminate wasteful practices. It is
also used in the analysis phase of the Six Sigma quality improvement methodology.

How to Use 5 Whys

The model follows a very simple seven-step process:

Step 1. Assemble a Team

Gather together people who are familiar with the detail of the problem and with the process that you're
trying to fix. Include someone to act as a facilitator, who can keep the team focused on identifying
effective countermeasures.

Step 2. Define the Problem

If you can, observe the problem in action. Discuss it with your team and write a brief, clear problem
statement that you all agree on. For example, "Team A isn't meeting its response time targets" or
"Software release B resulted in too many rollback failures." Then, write your statement on a whiteboard,
leaving enough space around it to write your answers to the repeated question, "Why?"

Step 3. Ask the First "Why?"

Ask your team why the problem is occurring. (For example, "Why isn't team A meeting its response time
targets?") Asking "why?" sounds simple, but answering it requires thought and intelligent application.
Search for answers that are grounded in fact: they must be accounts of things that have actually
happened – not guesses at what might have happened.

This prevents 5 Whys from becoming just a process of deductive reasoning, which can generate a large
number of possible causes and, sometimes, create more confusion as you chase down hypothetical
problems.

Your team members may come up with one obvious reason why, or several plausible ones. Record their
answers under (or to the right of) your problem statement as succinct phrases, rather than single words
or lengthy statements. For example, saying "volume of calls is too high" is better than a vague
"overloaded."
34 Unit 03: Professional Practice
 Step 4. Ask "Why?" Four More Times

Working sequentially along one of the answers you generated in Step 3, ask four further "whys" in
succession. Frame the question each time in response to the answer you've just recorded, and again
record your responses to the right. The diagram, below, shows an example of 5 Whys in action in a simple
format, following a single lane of inquiry.

Figure 1: 5 Whys (single lane)

Figure 08

Unit 03: Professional Practice 35

5 Whys also allows you to follow multiple lanes of inquiry, as we show in Figure 2, below.

In our example, asking "Why was the delivery late?" identifies a second answer (Reason 2). Asking
"Why?" for that answer reveals a single reason (Reason 1), which you can address with a
countermeasure. Similarly, asking "Why did the job take longer than expected?" has a second answer
(Reason 2), and asking "Why?" at this point reveals a single reason (Reason 1). Another "Why?" here
identifies two possibilities (Reasons 1 and 2) before a possible countermeasure.

There is also a second reason for "Why we ran out of printer ink" (Reason 2), and a single answer for the
next "Why?" (Reason 1), that can then be addressed with a countermeasure.

Figure 2: 5 Whys (multiple lanes)

Figure 09

36 Unit 03: Professional Practice

 Step 5. Know When to Stop

You'll have revealed the nature of the root cause when asking "why" produces no more useful responses
and you can go no further. An appropriate countermeasure or process change should then become
evident. (As we said earlier, if you're not sure whether you've uncovered the real root cause, consider
using a more in-depth problem-solving technique like Cause-and-Effect Analysis or Root Cause Analysis.

If you identified more than one reason in Step 3, repeat this process for the different branches of your
analysis until you reach a root cause for each one.

Step 6. Address the Root Cause(s)

Now that you've identified at least one true root cause, you need to discuss and agree what
countermeasures will prevent the problem from recurring.

Step 7. Monitor Your Measures

Keep a close watch on how effectively your countermeasures eliminate or minimise the initial problem.
You may need to amend them or replace them with something different. If this happens, it would be
sensible to repeat the 5 Whys process to ensure that you've identified the correct root cause.

3.3.4 The Drill Down Technique

Drill Down is a simple technique for breaking complex problems down into progressively smaller parts.
To use the technique, start by writing the problem down on the left-hand side of a large sheet of paper.
Next, write down the points that make up the next level of detail on the problem a little to the right of
this. These may be factors contributing to the problem, information relating to it, or questions raised by
it. This process of breaking the problem down into its component part is called 'drilling down'.

For each of these points, repeat the process. Keep on drilling down into points until you fully understand
the factors contributing to the problem. If you cannot break them down using the knowledge you have,
then carry out whatever research is necessary to understand the point.

Drilling into a question helps you to get a much deeper understanding of it. The process helps you to
recognise and understand the factors that contribute to it. Drill Down prompts you to link in information
that you had not initially associated with a problem. It also shows exactly where you need further
information.

Example:

The owner of a windsurfing club is having complaints from its members about the unpleasant quality of
the water close to the clubhouse. This seems like a huge problem. She carries out the

analysis in Figure 1:

Unit 03: Professional Practice 37

To use the technique, start by writing the problem down on the left-hand side of a large sheet of paper.
Next, write down the points that make up the next level of detail on the problem a little to the right of
this. These may be factors contributing to the problem, information relating to it, or questions raised by
it. This process of breaking the problem down into its component part is called 'drilling down'.

For each of these points, repeat the process. Keep on drilling down into points until you fully understand
the factors contributing to the problem. If you cannot break them down using the knowledge you have,
then carry out whatever research is necessary to understand the point.

Drilling into a question helps you to get a much deeper understanding of it. The process helps you to
recognise and understand the factors that contribute to it. Drill Down prompts you to link in information
that you had not initially associated with a problem. It also shows exactly where you need further
information.

Example:

The owner of a windsurfing club is having complaints from its members about the unpleasant quality of
the water close to the clubhouse. This seems like a huge problem. She carries out the analysis below:

Figure 10

38 Unit 03: Professional Practice

 3.4 Plan and implement

3.4.1 Planning process

Leaders may be called upon to order the solution to be implemented by others, “sell” the solution to
others or facilitate the implementation by involving the efforts of others. The most effective approach,
by far, has been to involve others in the implementation as a way of minimising resistance to subsequent
changes.

Feedback channels must be built into the implementation of the solution, to produce continuous
monitoring and testing of actual events against expectations. Problem solving, and the techniques used
to derive elucidation, can only be effective in an organisation if the solution remains in place and is
updated to respond to future changes.

Finding the solution does not mean the problem is solved. Now, you need to design a plan of action so
that the solution gets carried out properly. Designing and carrying out the plan of action is equally as
important as the solution. The best solution can fail because it is not implemented correctly. When
designing the plan of action, consider the following:

Who will be involved in the solution; Who will be affected by the solution; What course of action will be
taken; How should the course of action be presented to company employees, customers, vendors, etc.;
When will it happen - the time frame; Where will it happen; How will it happen; What is needed to make
it happen.

Design a plan of action chart including all the details you need to consider carrying it out and when each
phase should happen. Keep in mind, though, that the best plans have setbacks for any number of reasons
- from a key person being out for illness to a supplier shipping material late. So, remember that your
dates are only target dates. Solutions and plans of action must be flexible. Expect some things to be
revised.

3.4.2 Sources of information

Stakeholders
Individuals, groups, organisations that are affected by the problem, or its solution. Begin with yourself.
Decision makers and those close to us are very important to identify.

Facts & data

· Research
· Results from experimentation and studies

Unit 03: Professional Practice 39

· Interviews of "experts" and trusted sources
· Observed events, past or present, either personally observed or reported

Boundaries
The boundaries or constraints of the situation are difficult to change. They include lack of funds or other
resources. If a solution is surrounded by too many constraints, the constraints themselves may be the
problem.

Opinions and Assumptions

Opinions of decision makers, committees or groups, or other powerful groups will be important to the
success of your decision. It is important to recognise truth, bias, or prejudice in the opinion. Assumptions
can save time and work since is often difficult to get "all the facts." Recognise that some things are
accepted on faith. Assumptions also have a risk factor, must be recognised for what they are, and should
be discarded when they are proven wrong.

Develop a plan for implementation

Elements:

· Step-by-step process or actions for solving the problem

· Communications strategy for notifying stakeholders
Where important or necessary, inform those who care for you and/or will be affected by the
change. Prepare them as necessary about your decision
· Resource identification/allocation
· Timeline for implementation

Figure 11

40 Unit 03: Professional Practice

 3.4.3 Critical Path Analysis

Critical Path Analysis is a powerful tool that can help you to schedule and manage complex problems.

They were developed in the 1950s to control large defence projects and have been used routinely since
then. As with Gantt Charts, Critical Path Analysis (CPA) or the Critical Path Method (CPM) helps you to
plan all tasks that must be completed as part of a project. They act as the basis both for preparation of
a schedule, and of resource planning. During management of a project, they allow you to monitor
achievement of project goals. They help you to see where remedial action needs to be taken to get a
project back on course.

Within a project it is likely that you will display your final project plan as a Gantt Chart (using Microsoft
Project or other software for projects of medium complexity or an excel spreadsheet for projects of low
complexity). The benefit of using CPA within the planning process is to help you develop and test your
plan to ensure that it is robust. Critical Path Analysis formally identifies tasks which must be completed
on time for the whole project to be completed on time. It also identifies which tasks can be delayed if
resource needs to be reallocated to catch up on missed or overrunning tasks. The disadvantage of CPA,
if you use it as the technique by which your project plans are communicated and managed against, is
that the relation of tasks to time is not as immediately obvious as with Gantt Charts. This can make them
more difficult to understand.

A further benefit of Critical Path Analysis is that it helps you to identify the minimum length of time
needed to complete a project. Where you need to run an accelerated project, it helps you to identify
which project steps you should accelerate to complete the project within the available time.

How to Use the Tool

As with Gantt Charts, the essential concept behind Critical Path Analysis is that you cannot start some
activities until others are finished. These activities need to be completed in a sequence, with each stage
being more-or-less completed before the next stage can begin. These are 'sequential' activities.

Other activities are not dependent on completion of any other tasks. You can do these at any time before
or after a particular stage is reached. These are non-dependent or 'parallel' tasks.

Drawing a Critical Path Analysis Chart

Use the following steps to draw a CPA Chart:

Step 1. List All Activities in the Plan

For each activity, show the earliest start date, estimated length of time it will take, and whether it is
parallel or sequential. If tasks are sequential, show which stage they depend on.

Step 2. Plot the Activities as a Circle and Arrow Diagram

Unit 03: Professional Practice 41

Critical Path Analyses are presented using circle and arrow diagrams.

In these, circles show events within the project, such as the start and finish of tasks. The number shown
in the left-hand half of the circle allows you to identify each one easily. Circles are sometimes known as
nodes.

An arrow running between two event circles shows the activity needed to complete that task. A
description of the task is written underneath the arrow. The length of the task is shown above it. By
convention, all arrows run left to right. Arrows are also sometimes called arcs.

An example of a very simple diagram is shown below:

This shows the start event (circle 1), and the completion of the 'High Level Analysis' task (circle 2). The
arrow between them shows the activity of carrying out the High-Level Analysis. This activity should take
1 week.

Where one activity cannot start until another has been completed, we start the arrow for the dependent
activity at the completion event circle of the previous activity. An example of this is shown below:

Here the activities of 'Select Hardware' and 'Core Module Analysis' cannot be started until 'High Level
Analysis' has been completed. This diagram also brings out a number of other important points:

Within Critical Path Analysis, we refer to activities by the numbers in the circles at each end. For example,
the task 'Core Module Analysis' would be called activity 2 to 3. 'Select Hardware' would be activity 2 to
9.

Activities are not drawn to scale. In the diagram above, activities are 1 weeklong, 2 weeks long, and 1
day long. Arrows in this case are all the same length.

42 Unit 03: Professional Practice

 In the example above, you can see a second number in the top, right hand quadrant of each circle. This
shows the earliest start time for the following activity. It is conventional to start at 0. Here units are
whole weeks.

A different case is shown below:

Here activity 6 to 7 cannot start until the other four activities (11 to 6, 5 to 6, 4 to 6, and 8 to 6) have
been completed.

3.5 Evaluation
Once the decision and plan are made, it is time to act. In this final step, you must put the plan into
action, then evaluate it to ensure that the desired results are being achieved.

Evaluation is often a neglected step in the decision- making process. The key to evaluation
is to seek feedback constantly on how your plan is doing.

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Get feedback from subordinates. Go to the point of the action and determine first hand if the plan
is working or not. If not, determine why not and take immediate action to correct the plan.

If your problem is still not solved, go back to the list of options and choose another. Follow the same
steps.

Things to remember:

a. Follow-up with the problem, even if it seems to have been solved. Make sure that the problem
doesn't come back or that other things have happened as a result.
b. After the solution is implemented, changes might need to be made - possibly even starting back
to look at the options again.
Things to avoid:

a. Not following up to make sure that the problem stays solved and that other things haven't
happened as a result
b. Assuming that the problem will always stay solved once the plan is implemented

3.6 Activity

Individual self-assessment:

Students to review their own skill base and produce an audit of required skills for
future careers and personal development.

44 Unit 03: Professional Practice