Dynamic memory allocation in C/C++ refers to performing memory allocation
manually by a programmer. Dynamically allocated memory is allocated
on Heap, and non-static and local variables get memory allocated on Stack .
What are applications?
One use of dynamically allocated memory is to allocate memory of variable size,
which is not possible with compiler allocated memory except for variable-length
arrays.
The most important use is the flexibility provided to programmers. We are free
to allocate and deallocate memory whenever we need it and whenever we don’t
need it anymore. There are many cases where this flexibility helps. Examples of
such cases are Linked List, Tree, etc.
How is it different from memory allocated to normal variables?
For normal variables like “int a”, “char str[10]”, etc, memory is automatically
allocated and deallocated. For dynamically allocated memory like “int *p = new
int[10]”, it is the programmer’s responsibility to deallocate memory when no longer
needed. If the programmer doesn’t deallocate memory, it causes a memory
leak (memory is not deallocated until the program terminates).
How is memory allocated/deallocated in C++?
C uses the malloc() and calloc() function to allocate memory dynamically at run
time and uses a free() function to free dynamically allocated memory. C++ supports
these functions and also has two operators new and delete, that perform the task of
allocating and freeing the memory in a better and easier way.
new operator
The new operator denotes a request for memory allocation on the Free Store. If
sufficient memory is available, a new operator initializes the memory and returns
the address of the newly allocated and initialized memory to the pointer variable.
Syntax to use new operator
pointer-variable = new data-type;
Here, the pointer variable is the pointer of type data-type. Data type could be any
built-in data type including array or any user-defined data type including structure
and class.
Example:
// Pointer initialized with NULL
// Then request memory for the variable
int *p = NULL;
p = new int;
OR
// Combine declaration of pointer
// and their assignment
int *p = new int;
Initialize memory: We can also initialize the memory for built-in data types using a
new operator. For custom data types, a constructor is required (with the data type as
input) for initializing the value. Here’s an example of the initialization of both data
types :
pointer-variable = new data-type(value);
Example:
C++
int* p = new int(25);
float* q = new float(75.25);
// Custom data type
struct cust
{
int p;
cust(int q) : p(q) {}
cust() = default;
//cust& operator=(const cust& that) = default;
};
int main()
{
// Works fine, doesn’t require constructor
cust* var1 = new cust;
//OR
// Works fine, doesn’t require constructor
var1 = new cust();
// Notice error if you comment this line
cust* var = new cust(25);
return 0;
}
Allocate a block of memory: a new operator is also used to allocate a block(an
array) of memory of type data type.
pointer-variable = new data-type[size];
where size(a variable) specifies the number of elements in an array.
Example:
int *p = new int[10]
Dynamically allocates memory for 10 integers continuously of type int and returns a
pointer to the first element of the sequence, which is assigned top(a pointer). p[0]
refers to the first element, p[1] refers to the second element, and so on.
Normal Array Declaration vs Using new
There is a difference between declaring a normal array and allocating a block of
memory using new. The most important difference is, that normal arrays are
deallocated by the compiler (If the array is local, then deallocated when the function
returns or completes). However, dynamically allocated arrays always remain there
until either they are deallocated by the programmer or the program terminates.
What if enough memory is not available during runtime?
If enough memory is not available in the heap to allocate, the new request indicates
failure by throwing an exception of type std::bad_alloc, unless “nothrow” is used
with the new operator, in which case it returns a NULL pointer (scroll to section
“Exception handling of new operator” in this article). Therefore, it may be a good
idea to check for the pointer variable produced by the new before using its program.
int *p = new(nothrow) int;
if (!p)
{
cout << "Memory allocation failed\n";
}
delete operator
Since it is the programmer’s responsibility to deallocate dynamically allocated
memory, programmers are provided delete operator in C++ language.
Syntax:
// Release memory pointed by pointer-variabledelete pointer-variable;
Here, the pointer variable is the pointer that points to the data object created
by new.
Examples:
delete p;
delete q;
To free the dynamically allocated array pointed by pointer variable, use the
following form of delete:
// Release block of memory
// pointed by pointer-variable
delete[] pointer-variable;
Example:
// It will free the entire array
// pointed by p.
delete[] p;
CPP
// C++ program to illustrate dynamic allocation
// and deallocation of memory using new and delete
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
// Pointer initialization to null
int* p = NULL;
// Request memory for the variable
// using new operator
p = new(nothrow) int;
if (!p)
cout << "allocation of memory failed\n";
else
{
// Store value at allocated address
*p = 29;
cout << "Value of p: " << *p << endl;
}
// Request block of memory
// using new operator
float *r = new float(75.25);
cout << "Value of r: " << *r << endl;
// Request block of memory of size n
int n = 5;
int *q = new(nothrow) int[n];
if (!q)
cout << "allocation of memory failed\n";
else
{
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
q[i] = i+1;
cout << "Value store in block of memory: ";
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
cout << q[i] << " ";
}
// freed the allocated memory
delete p;
delete r;
// freed the block of allocated memory
delete[] q;
return 0;
}
Output
Value of p: 29
Value of r: 75.25
Value store in block of memory: 1 2 3 4 5
Constructors in C++
·
Constructor in C++ is a special method that is invoked automatically at the time of
object creation. It is used to initialize the data members of new objects generally. The
constructor in C++ has the same name as the class or structure. It constructs the
values i.e. provides data for the object which is why it is known as constructor.
• Constructor is a member function of a class, whose name is same as the class name.
• Constructor is a special type of member function that is used to initialize the data
members for an object of a class automatically, when an object of the same class is
created.
• Constructor is invoked at the time of object creation. It constructs the values i.e.
provides data for the object that is why it is known as constructor.
• Constructor do not return value, hence they do not have a return type.
The prototype of the constructor looks like
<class-name> (list-of-parameters);
Constructor can be defined inside the class declaration or outside the class declaration
a. Syntax for defining the constructor within the class
<class-name>(list-of-parameters)
{
//constructor definition
}
b. Syntax for defining the constructor outside the class
<class-name>: :<class-name>(list-of-parameters)
{
//constructor definition
}
C++
// Example: defining the constructor within the class
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class student
{
int rno;
char name[50];
double fee;
public:
student()
{
cout<<"Enter the RollNo:";
cin>>rno;
cout<<"Enter the Name:";
cin>>name;
cout<<"Enter the Fee:";
cin>>fee;
}
void display()
{
cout<<endl<<rno<<"\t"<<name<<"\t"<<fee;
}
};
int main()
{
student s; //constructor gets called automatically when we create the object of the
class
s.display();
return 0;
C++
// Example: defining the constructor outside the class
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class student
{
int rno;
char name[50];
double fee;
public:
student();
void display();
};
student::student()
{
cout<<"Enter the RollNo:";
cin>>rno;
cout<<"Enter the Name:";
cin>>name;
cout<<"Enter the Fee:";
cin>>fee;
}
void student::display()
{
cout<<endl<<rno<<"\t"<<name<<"\t"<<fee;
}
int main()
{
student s;
s.display();
return 0;
}
Characteristics of constructor
• The name of the constructor is same as its class name.
• Constructors are mostly declared in the public section of the class though it can be
declared in the private section of the class.
• Constructors do not return values; hence they do not have a return type.
• A constructor gets called automatically when we create the object of the class.
• Constructors can be overloaded.
• Constructor can not be declared virtual.
Types of constructor
• Default constructor
• Parameterized constructor
• Overloaded constructor
• Constructor with default value
• Copy constructor
• Inline constructor
Constructor does not have a return value, hence they do not have a return type.
The prototype of Constructors is as follows:
<class-name> (list-of-parameters);
Constructors can be defined inside or outside the class declaration:-
The syntax for defining the constructor within the class:
<class-name> (list-of-parameters) { // constructor definition }
The syntax for defining the constructor outside the class:
<class-name>: :<class-name> (list-of-parameters){ // constructor definition}
Example
C++
// defining the constructor within the class
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class student {
int rno;
char name[10];
double fee;
public:
student()
{
cout << "Enter the RollNo:";
cin >> rno;
cout << "Enter the Name:";
cin >> name;
cout << "Enter the Fee:";
cin >> fee;
}
void display()
{
cout << endl << rno << "\t" << name << "\t" << fee;
}
};
int main()
{
student s; // constructor gets called automatically when
// we create the object of the class
s.display();
return 0;
}
Output
Enter the RollNo:Enter the Name:Enter the Fee:
0 6.95303e-310
Example
C++
// defining the constructor outside the class
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class student {
int rno;
char name[50];
double fee;
public:
student();
void display();
};
student::student()
{
cout << "Enter the RollNo:";
cin >> rno;
cout << "Enter the Name:";
cin >> name;
cout << "Enter the Fee:";
cin >> fee;
}
void student::display()
{
cout << endl << rno << "\t" << name << "\t" << fee;
}
int main()
{
student s;
s.display();
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter the RollNo: 30
Enter the Name: ram
Enter the Fee: 20000
30 ram 20000
How constructors are different from a normal member function?
C++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Line {
public:
void setLength( double len );
double getLength( void );
Line( double len ); //This is the constructor
private:
double length;
};
//Member function definition including constructor
Line::Line( double len ) {
cout<<"Object is being created , length ="<< len <<endl;
length = len;
}
void Line::setLength( double len ) {
length = len;
}
double Line::getLength( void ) {
return length;
}
//Main function for the program
int main() {
Line line(10.0);
//get initially set length
cout<<"Length of line :" << line.getLength() << endl;
//set line length again
line.setLength(6.0);
cout<<"Length of line :" << line.getLength() << endl;
return 0;
}
A constructor is different from normal functions in following ways:
Constructor has same name as the class itself
Default Constructors don’t have input argument however, Copy and Parameterized
Constructors have input arguments
Constructors don’t have return type
A constructor is automatically called when an object is created.
It must be placed in public section of class.
If we do not specify a constructor, C++ compiler generates a default constructor for
object (expects no parameters and has an empty body).
Let us understand the types of constructors in C++ by taking a real-world example.
Suppose you went to a shop to buy a marker. When you want to buy a marker, what
are the options. The first one you go to a shop and say give me a marker. So just
saying give me a marker mean that you did not set which brand name and which
color, you didn’t mention anything just say you want a marker. So when we said just I
want a marker so whatever the frequently sold marker is there in the market or in his
shop he will simply hand over that. And this is what a default constructor is! The
second method is you go to a shop and say I want a marker a red in color and XYZ
brand. So you are mentioning this and he will give you that marker. So in this case
you have given the parameters. And this is what a parameterized constructor is! Then
the third one you go to a shop and say I want a marker like this(a physical marker on
your hand). So the shopkeeper will see that marker. Okay, and he will give a new
marker for you. So copy of that marker. And that’s what a copy constructor is!
Characteristics of the constructor:
The name of the constructor is the same as its class name.
Constructors are mostly declared in the public section of the class though it can be
declared in the private section of the class.
Constructors do not return values; hence they do not have a return type.
A constructor gets called automatically when we create the object of the class.
Constructors can be overloaded.
Constructor can not be declared virtual.
Constructor cannot be inherited.
Addresses of Constructor cannot be referred.
Constructor make implicit calls to new and delete operators during memory
allocation.
Types of Constructors
1. Default Constructors: Default constructor is the constructor which doesn’t take any
argument. It has no parameters. It is also called a zero-argument constructor.
CPP
// Cpp program to illustrate the
// concept of Constructors
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class construct {
public:
int a, b;
// Default Constructor
construct()
{
a = 10;
b = 20;
}
};
int main()
{
// Default constructor called automatically
// when the object is created
construct c;
cout << "a: " << c.a << endl << "b: " << c.b;
return 1;
}
Output
a: 10
b: 20
Note: Even if we do not define any constructor explicitly, the compiler will
automatically provide a default constructor implicitly.
C++
// Example
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class student
{
int rno;
char name[50];
double fee;
public:
student() // Explicit Default constructor
{
cout<<"Enter the RollNo:";
cin>>rno;
cout<<"Enter the Name:";
cin>>name;
cout<<"Enter the Fee:";
cin>>fee;
}
void display()
{
cout<<endl<<rno<<"\t"<<name<<"\t"<<fee;
}
};
int main()
{
student s;
s.display();
return 0;
}
2. Parameterized Constructors: It is possible to pass arguments to constructors.
Typically, these arguments help initialize an object when it is created. To create a
parameterized constructor, simply add parameters to it the way you would to any
other function. When you define the constructor’s body, use the parameters to
initialize the object.
Note: when the parameterized constructor is defined and no default constructor is
defined explicitly, the compiler will not implicitly call the default constructor and
hence creating a simple object as
Student s;
Will flash an error
CPP
// CPP program to illustrate
// parameterized constructors
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Point {
private:
int x, y;
public:
// Parameterized Constructor
Point(int x1, int y1)
{
x = x1;
y = y1;
}
int getX() { return x; }
int getY() { return y; }
};
int main()
{
// Constructor called
Point p1(10, 15);
// Access values assigned by constructor
cout << "p1.x = " << p1.getX()
<< ", p1.y = " << p1.getY();
return 0;
}
Output
p1.x = 10, p1.y = 15
C++
// Example
#include<iostream>
#include<string.h>
using namespace std;
class student
{
int rno;
char name[50];
double fee;
public:
student(int,char[],double);
void display();
};
student::student(int no,char n[],double f)
{
rno=no;
strcpy(name,n);
fee=f;
}
void student::display()
{
cout<<endl<<rno<<"\t"<<name<<"\t"<<fee;
}
int main()
{
student s(1001,"Ram",10000);
s.display();
return 0;
}
When an object is declared in a parameterized constructor, the initial values have to
be passed as arguments to the constructor function. The normal way of object
declaration may not work. The constructors can be called explicitly or implicitly.
Example e = Example(0, 50); // Explicit call
Example e(0, 50); // Implicit call
Uses of Parameterized constructor:
It is used to initialize the various data elements of different objects with different
values when they are created.
It is used to overload constructors.
Can we have more than one constructor in a class?
Yes, It is called Constructor Overloading.
3. Copy Constructor:
A copy constructor is a member function that initializes an object using another object
of the same class. A detailed article on Copy Constructor.
Whenever we define one or more non-default constructors( with parameters ) for a
class, a default constructor( without parameters ) should also be explicitly defined as
the compiler will not provide a default constructor in this case. However, it is not
necessary but it’s considered to be the best practice to always define a default
constructor.
Copy constructor takes a reference to an object of the same class as an argument.
Sample(Sample &t)
{
id=t.id;
}
CPP
// Illustration
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class point {
private:
double x, y;
public:
// Non-default Constructor &
// default Constructor
point(double px, double py) { x = px, y = py; }
};
int main(void)
{
// Define an array of size
// 10 & of type point
// This line will cause error
point a[10];
// Remove above line and program
// will compile without error
point b = point(5, 6);
}
Output:
Error: point (double px, double py): expects 2 arguments, 0 provided
C++
// Implicit copy constructor
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class Sample
{ int id;
public:
void init(int x)
{
id=x;
}
void display()
{
cout<<endl<<"ID="<<id;
}
};
int main()
{
Sample obj1;
obj1.init(10);
obj1.display();
Sample obj2(obj1); //or obj2=obj1;
obj2.display();
return 0;
}
Output
ID=10
ID=10
C++
// Example: Explicit copy constructor
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Sample
{
int id;
public:
void init(int x)
{
id=x;
}
Sample(){} //default constructor with empty body
Sample(Sample &t) //copy constructor
{
id=t.id;
}
void display()
{
cout<<endl<<"ID="<<id;
}
};
int main()
{
Sample obj1;
obj1.init(10);
obj1.display();
Sample obj2(obj1); //or obj2=obj1; copy constructor called
obj2.display();
return 0;
}
Output
ID=10
ID=10
C++
#include<iostream>
#include<string.h>
using namespace std;
class student
{
int rno;
char name[50];
double fee;
public:
student(int,char[],double);
student(student &t) //copy constructor
{
rno=t.rno;
strcpy(name,t.name);
fee=t.fee;
}
void display();
};
student::student(int no,char n[],double f)
{
rno=no;
strcpy(name,n);
fee=f;
}
void student::display()
{
cout<<endl<<rno<<"\t"<<name<<"\t"<<fee;
}
int main()
{
student s(1001,"Manjeet",10000);
s.display();
student manjeet(s); //copy constructor called
manjeet.display();
return 0;
}
C++
#include<iostream>
#include<string.h>
using namespace std;
class student
{
int rno;
char name[50];
double fee;
public:
student(int,char[],double);
student(student &t) //copy constructor (member wise initialization)
{
rno=t.rno;
strcpy(name,t.name);
}
void display();
void disp()
{
cout<<endl<<rno<<"\t"<<name;
}
};
student::student(int no, char n[],double f)
{
rno=no;
strcpy(name,n);
fee=f;
}
void student::display()
{
cout<<endl<<rno<<"\t"<<name<<"\t"<<fee;
}
int main()
{
student s(1001,"Manjeet",10000);
s.display();
student manjeet(s); //copy constructor called
manjeet.disp();
return 0;
}
Destructor:
A destructor is also a special member function as a constructor. Destructor destroys
the class objects created by the constructor. Destructor has the same name as their
class name preceded by a tilde (~) symbol. It is not possible to define more than one
destructor. The destructor is only one way to destroy the object created by the
constructor. Hence destructor can-not be overloaded. Destructor neither requires any
argument nor returns any value. It is automatically called when the object goes out of
scope. Destructors release memory space occupied by the objects created by the
constructor. In destructor, objects are destroyed in the reverse of object creation.
The syntax for defining the destructor within the class
~ <class-name>()
{
}
The syntax for defining the destructor outside the class
<class-name>: : ~ <class-name>(){}
C++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Test {
public:
Test() { cout << "\n Constructor executed"; }
~Test() { cout << "\n Destructor executed"; }
};
main()
{
Test t;
return 0;
}
Output
Constructor executed
Destructor executed
C++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Test {
public:
Test() { cout << "\n Constructor executed"; }
~Test() { cout << "\n Destructor executed"; }
};
main()
{
Test t, t1, t2, t3;
return 0;
}
Output
Constructor executed
Constructor executed
Constructor executed
Constructor executed
Destructor executed
Destructor executed
Destructor executed
Destructor executed
C++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int count = 0;
class Test {
public:
Test()
{
count++;
cout << "\n No. of Object created:\t" << count;
}
~Test()
{
cout << "\n No. of Object destroyed:\t" << count;
--count;
}
};
main()
{
Test t, t1, t2, t3;
return 0;
}
Characteristics of a destructor:-
1. Destructor is invoked automatically by the compiler when its corresponding
constructor goes out of scope and releases the memory space that is no longer
required by the program.
2. Destructor neither requires any argument nor returns any value therefore it cannot
be overloaded.
3. Destructor cannot be declared as static and const;
4. Destructor should be declared in the public section of the program.
5. Destructor is called in the reverse order of its constructor invocation.
Friend Function
A friend class can access private and protected members of other classes
in which it is declared as a friend. It is sometimes useful to allow a
particular class to access private and protected members of other classes.
For example, a LinkedList class may be allowed to access private
members of Node.
We can declare a friend class in C++ by using the friend keyword.
Syntax:
friend class class_name; // declared in the base class
Friend class
Example:
C++
// C++ Program to demonstrate the
// functioning of a friend class
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class GFG {
private:
int private_variable;
protected:
int protected_variable;
public:
GFG()
{
private_variable = 10;
protected_variable = 99;
}
// friend class declaration
friend class F;
};
// Here, class F is declared as a
// friend inside class GFG. Therefore,
// F is a friend of class GFG. Class F
// can access the private members of
// class GFG.
class F {
public:
void display(GFG& t)
{
cout << "The value of Private Variable = "
<< t.private_variable << endl;
cout << "The value of Protected Variable = "
<< t.protected_variable;
}
};
// Driver code
int main()
{
GFG g;
F fri;
fri.display(g);
return 0;
}
Output
The value of Private Variable = 10
The value of Protected Variable = 99
Note: We can declare friend class or function anywhere in the base class
body whether its private, protected or public block. It works all the same.
Friend Function
Like a friend class, a friend function can be granted special access to
private and protected members of a class in C++. They are the non-
member functions that can access and manipulate the private and
protected members of the class for they are declared as friends.
A friend function can be:
A global function
A member function of another class
Friend Function in C++
Syntax:
friend return_type function_name (arguments); // for a global function
or
friend return_type class_name::function_name (arguments); // for a
member function of another class
Friend Function Syntax
1. Global Function as Friend Function
We can declare any global function as a friend function. The following
example demonstrates how to declare a global function as a friend
function in C++:
Example:
C++
// C++ program to create a global function as a friend
// function of some class
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class base {
private:
int private_variable;
protected:
int protected_variable;
public:
base()
{
private_variable = 10;
protected_variable = 99;
}
// friend function declaration
friend void friendFunction(base& obj);
};
// friend function definition
void friendFunction(base& obj)
{
cout << "Private Variable: " << obj.private_variable
<< endl;
cout << "Protected Variable: " << obj.protected_variable;
}
// driver code
int main()
{
base object1;
friendFunction(object1);
return 0;
}
Output
Private Variable: 10
Protected Variable: 99
In the above example, we have used a global function as a friend
function. In the next example, we will use a member function of another
class as a friend function.
2. Member Function of Another Class as Friend Function
We can also declare a member function of another class as a friend
function in C++. The following example demonstrates how to use a
member function of another class as a friend function in C++:
Example:
C++
// C++ program to create a member function of another class
// as a friend function
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class base; // forward definition needed
// another class in which function is declared
class anotherClass {
public:
void memberFunction(base& obj);
};
// base class for which friend is declared
class base {
private:
int private_variable;
protected:
int protected_variable;
public:
base()
{
private_variable = 10;
protected_variable = 99;
}
// friend function declaration
friend void anotherClass::memberFunction(base&);
};
// friend function definition
void anotherClass::memberFunction(base& obj)
{
cout << "Private Variable: " << obj.private_variable
<< endl;
cout << "Protected Variable: " << obj.protected_variable;
}
// driver code
int main()
{
base object1;
anotherClass object2;
object2.memberFunction(object1);
return 0;
}
Output
Private Variable: 10
Protected Variable: 99
Note: The order in which we define the friend function of another class is
important and should be taken care of. We always have to define both the
classes before the function definition. Thats why we have used out of
class member function definition.
Features of Friend Functions
A friend function is a special function in C++ that in spite of not being a
member function of a class has the privilege to access the private and
protected data of a class.
A friend function is a non-member function or ordinary function of a
class, which is declared as a friend using the keyword “friend” inside the
class. By declaring a function as a friend, all the access permissions are
given to the function.
The keyword “friend” is placed only in the function declaration of the
friend function and not in the function definition or call.
A friend function is called like an ordinary function. It cannot be called
using the object name and dot operator. However, it may accept the
object as an argument whose value it wants to access.
A friend function can be declared in any section of the class i.e. public or
private or protected.
Below are some more examples of friend functions in different scenarios:
A Function Friendly to Multiple Classes
C++
// C++ Program to demonstrate
// how friend functions work as
// a bridge between the classes
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
// Forward declaration
class ABC;
class XYZ {
int x;
public:
void set_data(int a)
{
x = a;
}
friend void max(XYZ, ABC);
};
class ABC {
int y;
public:
void set_data(int a)
{
y = a;
}
friend void max(XYZ, ABC);
};
void max(XYZ t1, ABC t2)
{
if (t1.x > t2.y)
cout << t1.x;
else
cout << t2.y;
}
// Driver code
int main()
{
ABC _abc;
XYZ _xyz;
_xyz.set_data(20);
_abc.set_data(35);
// calling friend function
max(_xyz, _abc);
return 0;
}
Output
35
The friend function provides us with a way to access private data but it
also has its demerits. Following is the list of advantages and
disadvantages of friend functions in C++:
Advantages of Friend Functions
A friend function is able to access members without the need of inheriting
the class.
The friend function acts as a bridge between two classes by accessing
their private data.
It can be used to increase the versatility of overloaded operators.
It can be declared either in the public or private or protected part of the
class.
Disadvantages of Friend Functions
Friend functions have access to private members of a class from outside
the class which violates the law of data hiding.
Friend functions cannot do any run-time polymorphism in their members.
