QUESTION BANK FOR COMPUTER NETWORK

UNIT-1
Ques-1 What is data communication. What are the different
component of data communication.
Data Communication-Data communication refers to the
exchange of data between two or more devices through a
transmission medium such as wires, fiber optics, or wireless
signals.
Component of data communication – here are some
component of data communication

Message
This is the most valuable asset of a system for data
communication. The message actually refers to data that is to
be shared or a piece of information. A message is in any form,
like a text file, an audio file, a video file, and so on.
Sender
Someone who can play the role of a source must be there to
pass messages from source to destination. The sender plays a
part of the data communication device root. A device that
sends data messages is easy. The node can be a computer,
mobile device, telephone etc.
Receiver :
It is destination where finally message sent by source has
arrived. It is a device that receives message. Same as sender,
receiver can also be in form of a computer, telephone mobile,
workstation, etc.
Transmission Medium:
• The physical pathway through which data is transmitted
from the sender to the receiver. Common media include:
o Twisted-pair cables o Coaxial
cables o Fiber-optic cables
o Wireless transmission (radio
waves, microwaves, infrared)
Protocols:
• Rules and conventions that govern data communication.
These protocols ensure that data is transmitted
accurately and efficiently between devices
Ques-2 what is computer network .Explain various network
category based on size of network.
Computer networking is the practice of connecting
computers and other devices together to share resources and
information. It enables devices to communicate with each
other, whether they are in the same location (local area
network) or spread out across large distances (wide area
network). Networking is fundamental to modern computing,
as it allows for data exchange, resource sharing, and
communication among users and devices.
Types of Networks:
o Local Area Network (LAN): A network that
connects computers within a limited area, such as a
home, school, or office building. LANs typically use
Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi.
o Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that
connects computers over long distances, often using
leased telecommunication lines. The Internet is the
largest example of a WAN.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A network that covers a
larger geographic area than a LAN but is smaller than a WAN,
typically used to connect multiple LANs within a city.
Personal Area Network (PAN): A small network typically used
for connecting personal devices, such as smartphones,
tablets, and laptops, often over Bluetooth.

Ques-3 what is topology .describe various types of topology

in computer network also give the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
Topology- In networking, topology refers to the arrangement
or structure of how devices (nodes) are interconnected within a
network. It defines the physical or logical layout of the network,
determining how data flows between devices and how they
communicate. Network topologies impact network performance,
reliability, and scalability.
Types of Network Topology
Bus topology is a network structure in which all devices
(nodes) are connected to a single communication line or
cable, known as the bus. This central cable acts as the
backbone of the network, and data sent by any device
travels along the bus to all other devices connected to it.

Advantages of Bus Topology:

o Bus topology is easy to install and set up. The
straightforward design involves a single cable
connecting all devices.
o Fewer cables and hardware components are
required compared to other topologies, making
it a cost-effective solution, especially for small
networks.
o In small networks with a limited number of
devices, bus topology can work efficiently
without significant performance issues.
 o New devices can be easily added to the
network by connecting them to the bus.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology:
o As more devices are added to the network,
performance can degrade.
o Since all devices share the same bus, data
collisions are common when two or more
devices attempt to send data simultaneously.
o The length of the bus is limited, and using long
cables can cause signal degradation, which
reduces network reliability.
o If the central bus (cable) fails, the entire
network goes down. Additionally, if one
terminator fails, it can affect the whole network
by causing signal reflection.
Ring topology In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring ,in this
topology each node is strongly connected with its
adjacent(neighbour) node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

• The data transmission is high-speed.
 • The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of
topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.
• It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• The failure of a single node in the network can
cause the entire network to fail.
• The addition of stations in between or the removal of
stations can disturb the whole topology.
• Less secure.

Star Topology- In Star Topology, all the devices

are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all other nodes
are connected to the central node and the
sharing of data is only possible through hub.

Advantages of Star Topolog

o Star topology is relatively easy to set up and expand.
Adding or removing devices does not disrupt the network,
 as each device is independently connected to the central
hub.
o A failure in one device or its connection to the hub does
not affect the rest of the network.
o The central hub makes it easy to monitor network
performance, diagnose issues, and apply security
protocols.

Disadvantages of Star Topology:

o The central hub or switch is a critical component. If it fails,
the entire network goes down, as no devices can
communicate with each other without the hub.
o Star topology requires more cabling than bus or ring
topologies because each device needs a dedicated cable to
connect to the hub.
o The performance and capacity of the central hub/switch
determine the network’s overall performance.
Mesh topology is a network configuration where each device (node)
is connected to every other device in the network. This provides
multiple paths for data to travel, making the network highly reliable
and fault-tolerant
 Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is
transferred among the devices through dedicated channels or
links.
• Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence
suitable for less number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.

Tree topology is a hierarchical network configuration that combines

characteristics of both star and bus topologies. A tree topology is a
special type of structure where many connected elements are
arranged like the branches of a tree.

Advantages of Tree Topology

• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub
thus it decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to
come to the devices.
• We can add new devices to the existing network.
• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of the cabling.

Ques-4 write on short note on E-mail .

E-mail is defined as the transmission of messages on the
Internet. It is one of the most commonly used features over
communications networks that may contain text, files, images,
or other attachments. Generally, it is information that is
stored on a computer sent through a network to a specified
individual or group of individuals.
Advantages of email:
1. Convenient and fast communication with individuals or
groups globally.
2. Easy to store and search for past messages.
3. Ability to send and receive attachments such as
documents, images, and videos.
4. Cost-effective compared to traditional mail and fax.
5. Available 24/7.
Disadvantages of email:
1. Risk of spam and phishing attacks.
2. Overwhelming amount of emails can lead to information
overload.
3. Can lead to decreased face-to-face communication and
loss of personal touch.
 4. Potential for miscommunication due to lack of tone and
body language in written messages.
5. Technical issues, such as server outages, can disrupt
email service.
Ques-5 Define DTE-DCE Interface. Also discuss the essence
of modem.
DTE and DCE
In networking and telecommunications knowing what
particular equipment does in the transmission of the data is
very essential. Two important classes of equipment in this
respect are Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and Data Circuit
Terminating Equipment (DCE).
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)?
It includes any unit that functions either as a source of or as a
destination for binary digital data. At the physical layer, it can
be a terminal, microcomputer, computer, printer, fax,
machine, or any other device that generates or consumes
digital data. DTEs do not often communicate information but
need an intermediary to be able to communicate.
Data Circuit Terminating Equipment (DCE)?
It includes any functional unit that transmits or receives data
in the form of an analog or digital signal through a network. At
the physical layer, a DCE takes data generated by a DTE,
converts them to an appropriate signal, and then introduces
the signal onto a telecommunication link. Commonly used
DCEs at this layer include modems. In any network, a DTE
generates digital data and passes it to a DCE. DCE converts
that data to a form acceptable to the transmission medium
and sends a converted signal to another DCE on the network.
The second DCE takes the signal offline, converts it to a form
usable by its DTE, and delivers it.
Difference Between DTE and DCE

DTE DCE

DTE stands for Data DCE stands for Data

Termination Equipment. Communication Equipment.

It is a device that is an
It is a device used as an interface
information source or an
between a DTE.
information sink.

DTE is concerned with

DCE is concerned with
source or destination of
communications aspect of data.
data.

It produces data and It converts signals to a format

transfers them to a DCE, appropriate to transmission
with essential control medium and introduces it onto
characters. network line.
DTE DCE

It is connected through DCE network acts as a medium

help of a DCE network. for two DTE networks.

Examples of DTE include Examples of DCE include

computers, printers modem, ISDN adaptors, satellites
and routers, etc. and network interface cards, etc.

Modem
A modem (short for modulator-demodulator) is a device that
facilitates communication between digital devices and analog
communication networks, such as telephone lines or cable
systems. It plays a crucial role in enabling data transmission
over long distances and is essential for accessing the internet
and other network-based services.
Features of Modem
• Modems can modulate as well as demodulate the signals
simultaneously.
• Modem allows to connect only a specific number of
devices to the internet.
• According to the features of modem, it’s price ranges.
• Modems can be upgraded with the help of a
specific software patch.
 Ques-6 Draw a neat diagram of OSI Model and explain the
function on each layer.

OSI MODEL The OSI model, created in 1984

by ISO ‘International Organization for
Standardization , is a reference framework
that explains the process of transmitting data
between computers. It is divided into seven
layers that work together to carry out
specialised network functions

Physical Layer – Layer 1

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and
convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which
will put the frame back together.
Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer
is error-free from one node to another .It provides error detection
and correction, framing, and flow control
Network Layer – Layer 3
This layer is responsible for routing data packets between devices
across multiple networks. It manages logical addressing and
determines the best path for data transmission.
Transport Layer – Layer 4
This layer is the heart of the osi layersThe transport layer ensures
reliable end-to-end communication between devices. It segments
data, manages flow control, and provides error recovery and
retransmission of lost packets.
Session Layer – Layer 5
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,
maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures
security.
Presentation Layer – Layer 6
This layer is also known as Translation layer, as this layer serves as a
data translator for the network. The data which this layer receives
from the Application Layer is extracted and manipulated here as per
the required format to transmit over the network. The main
responsibility of this layer is to provide or define the data format and
encryption.
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find
the Application layer which is implemented by the network
applications. These applications produce the data to be transferred
over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the
application services to access the network and for displaying the
received information to the user.

Ques-7 explain TCP/IP Model.

TCP/IP model
The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
is a foundational framework used to understand how data is
transmitted over the Internet and other networks. Developed by the
U.S. Department of Defense in the 1970s, it consists of a suite of
protocols that govern how data is sent, received, and routed across
interconnected networks
Layers of the TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model is composed of four layers, each corresponding to
a specific aspect of network communication:
Network Access Layer
This layer defines how data is physically transmitted over the
network medium. It encompasses the hardware and
protocols required for the transmission of raw data packets
between devices Internet Layer
This layer handles the routing of data packets across
networks. It is responsible for addressing, packaging, and
delivering data from the source to the destination across
multiple networks
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for ensuring reliable data
transfer between devices. It manages end-to-end
communication, data segmentation, and error recovery.

Application Layer
This layer provides network services directly to end-user applications.
It encompasses various protocols used for specific types of
communication and application functions.The application layer
handles user interface interactions and application-level
functionalities, ensuring that applications can communicate over the
network.

Ques-8 what is transmission mode explain different mode of

transmission.
Transmission Modes
Transmission mode refers to the way data is transmitted between
devices in a computer network. It defines how data is sent over the
communication medium

Simplex Mode:
In simplex mode, data transmission occurs in one direction only.
One device acts as the sender, while the other serves solely as
the receiver. Example : keyboard, FM

Advantages of Simplex Mode

Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of
communication.
• It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one
communication channel
• Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where
feedback or response is not required.
Disadvantages of Simplex Mode
• Only one-way communication is possible.
• There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been
received correctly.
• Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require
bidirectional communication.

Half-Duplex Mode Half-duplex mode allows

data transmission in both directions, but not
simultaneously. At any given time, data can
flow in one direction or the other, but not both.

Advantages of Half Duplex Mode

• Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication,
which is useful in situations where devices need to send and
receive data.
 It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex
mode, as the channel can be used for both transmission and
reception.
• Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it
only requires one communication channel.
Disadvantages of Half Duplex Mode
• Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as
both devices cannot transmit at the same time.
• There is a delay between transmission and reception, which
can cause problems in some applications.

Full-Duplex ModeIn full-duplex mode, data

transmission can occur simultaneously in both
directions. This means that both devices can
send and receive data at the same time.

Advantages of Full-Duplex Mode

• Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional
communication, which is ideal for real-time applications such as
video conferencing or online gaming.
• It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices
can transmit and receive data simultaneously.
• Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and
accuracy, as there is no need for error correction mechanisms.
Disadvantages of Full-Duplex Mode
Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires
two communication channels.
It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it
requires two physically separate transmission paths or a
division of channel capacity.

Ques-9 difference between TCP/UDP

Differences between TCP and UDP

Ques-10 what is distributing processing.

Distributed processing- it is method of using multiple
computer to work together to solve a problem.it refers to a
computing architecture where multiple processors or
computers work together to perform a task by dividing the
work among them. This approach distributes computational
tasks across multiple systems or processing units, typically
improving performance, scalability, fault tolerance, and
resource utilization.
Advantages of Distributed Processing:
• Increased Performance: Tasks can be processed faster
by dividing the work across multiple processors.
• Scalability: Systems can grow by adding more
processors or machines to handle larger workloads.
• Fault Tolerance: Failure of one component doesn't bring
down the entire system.
• Resource Sharing: Distributed systems can share
computing resources like storage, memory, and
processing power efficiently.

UNIT-2
Ques-1 what do you mean by Guided and Unguided
Media.
Transmission Media-Transmission media refer to the
physical pathways through which data is transmitted from
one device to another within a network. These pathways can
be wired or wireless. The choice of medium depends on
factors like distance, speed, and interference.

Types of transmission media Transmission Media is

broadly classified into the following types:

Guided Transmission Media

Guided media refers to physical pathways that direct signals along a
specific route. These media involve tangible cables or fibers, where
signals are contained and transmitted through the material, such as
copper or glass. Guided transmission is common in local area
networks (LANs), telephone networks, and high-speed data
transmission setups.

Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted
together to minimize interference. It is one of the most widely used
guided transmission media, commonly found in telephone systems,
Ethernet networks, and other communication infrastructures.

Advantages –
1. These cables are cost-effective and easy to install owing to their
compact size.
 2. They are generally used for short-distance transmission of both
voice and data.

3.It is less costly as compared to other types of cables.

Disadvantages –
1. They are efficient only for a distance up to 100 meters and have
to be installed in pieces of up to 100 meters.

2.These cables have limited bandwidth.

Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for

example, TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.

o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors
parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper,
and the outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The
middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates
the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring
whereas the copper mesh prevents from the
EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

o o Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed. o It has better
 shielding as compared to twisted pair cable. o It provides
higher bandwidth. o Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable: o It is
more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire
network.

Fibre Optic cable

o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for
communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in
plastic that are used to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper
wires.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

• Increased capacity and bandwidth

• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable

• Difficult to install and maintain

• High cost
Unguided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media
. No physical medium is required for the transmission of
electromagnetic signals.
Features of Unguided Media
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided

media:

Radio Waves
Radio waves are electromagnetic signals used for
various wireless communication technologies, such
as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and radio broadcasting.
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies
between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radio waves. Radio waves are omnidirectional.

When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are

propagated in all directions. This means that the
sending and receiving antennas do not have to be
aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can

be received by any receiving antenna.

Microwaves

Electromagnetic waves having frequencies

between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional. The sending and
receiving antennas need to be aligned. The
unidirectional property has an obvious advantage.
A pair of antennas can be aligned without
interfering with another pair of aligned

antennas.

Infrared

Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to

400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can
be used for short-range communication. Infrared
waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
This advantageous characteristic prevents interference
between one system and another; a short range
communication system in one room cannot be

affected by another system in the next room. When

we use our infrared remote control, we do not
interfere with the use of the remote by our
neighbours. Infrared signals useless for long-range
communication. It is used in TV remotes, wireless
mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Ques-2 what is Throughput and Wavelength.

Throughput throughput is how much data can

travel through a network in a given amount of time.
Higher throughput means more data can be sent and
received quickly. Throughput can be measure in
bps(bits per second)
Throughput is calculated as T=I/F

where I represents inventory, T is the throughput rate, and F denotes

time.

Wavelength wave length is a actual distance between two

successive crest or troughs of a wave. It is measure in the
direction of the wave.

Wavelength is the distance from one crest to another crest

or from one trough to another

Crest-crest is the higher point of the wave

Trough- it is the lowest point of the wave

Wave length in represented by lambda(λ)

Wavelength (lambda) can be defined mathematically as:

λ=v/f Where:

• λ = Wavelength (in meters)

• v = Propagation speed of the signal (in meters per second)
• f = Frequency of the signal

Ques-3 Difference between guided and unguided media.

Difference between the Guided Media and Unguided Media

Guided Media Unguided Media

The guided media is also The unguided media is also

called wired communication called wireless communication
or bounded transmission or unbounded transmission
media. media.

The signal energy propagates The signal energy propagates

through wires in guided through the air in unguided
media. media.
Used to perform point- Unguided media is generally
topoint communication. suited for radio broadcasting
in all directions.

Guided Media Unguided Media

It is affordable. It is costly.

Discrete network topologies Continuous network topologies

are formed by the guided are formed by the unguided
media. media.

Signals are in the form of Signals are in the form of

voltage, current, or photons electromagnetic waves in
in the guided media. unguided media.

By adding more wires, the It is not possible to obtain

transmission capacity can be additional capacity in
increased in guided media. unguided media.

It sends out a signal that It does not indicate which

indicates which way to go. way to travel.
For a shorter distance, this is For longer distances, this
the best option. method is used.

It is unable to pass through It can pass through walls.

walls.

Ques-4 explain attenuation in a signal.

Attenuation

Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received

signal will be difficult to receive at the receiver end. This attenuation happens
due to the majority factor by environment as environment imposes a lot of
resistance and the signal strength decreases as it tries to overcome the
resistance imposed.

The above picture shows that the signal loses power at its travels time.

Attenuation is diagrammatically represented as follows −

 UNIT-3
Ques-1 Analyse various error detection technique in
transmission of data.
The error simply means if the message or data transmitted by the
source is not identical to the one received at the destination, we can
say that there is some Error in the Computer Network.
Error detection in Computer Network Parity Check
In this technique, the sender appends an extra parity bit to
the message. If the total number of ones in the bit sequence
is odd, 1 is added as a parity bit. And, if it is even, 0 acts as a
parity bit. During transmission or storage, if an error alters
the number of bits, the parity bit will be used to identify
whether there is an error or not

Two-Dimensional Parity Check

For every row and column, parity check bits are calculated by
a simple method of parity check. Parity for both rows and
columns is transmitted with the data sent from sender to
receiver. At the receiver’s side, parity bits are compared with
the calculated parity of the data received.
If no. of one’s is odd then add 1 and if no. of one’s is even
then add 0
Checksum
This method adds up all the bits and adds the sum to the
message while transmitting. This sum is called the checksum.
The sender calculates the checksum before transmitting the
data, and the recipient recalculates it upon receiving the
data. If the two checksum values do not match with each
other, there is some error in the network. However, if they
match, there is no error.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
The CRC method is similar to the Checksum method with the
difference that this method deals with binary division instead
of binary addition. In this method, the repeated or redundant
sequence of bits in the source message is identified. Then, it
is added to the source message. Now, the source message
will be easily divisible by the binary number formed from
redundant bits which is called CRC Value.

Ques-2 compare byte oriented versus bit oriented protocol.

Byte-oriented and bit-oriented protocols are two approaches
to data communication that differ in how they organize and
interpret data in communication frames.
Byte-Oriented Protocol:
• Treats data as sequences of bytes (or characters).
• Communication frames are designed around byte
boundaries, and control information is embedded in
predefined special characters.
• Example protocols: Binary Synchronous Communication
(BISYNC), PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).
Bit-Oriented Protocol:
• Treats data as a continuous stream of bits, allowing any
arbitrary sequence of bits to be transmitted.
• Control information is encoded in specific bit patterns
rather than characters or bytes.
• Example protocols: HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control),
Frame Relay.

Ques-3 Discuss ISDN, its services and layer.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of

communication standards used in computer networks that
enables the simultaneous digital transmission of voice,
video, data, and other network services over traditional
public switched telephone networks (PSTN). It was initially
developed to provide digital, high-quality voice and data
services over existing copper phone lines, making it faster
and more efficient than analog systems.

Types of ISDN
Interfaces
•
• Basic Rate Interface (BRI) : There are two data-bearing
channels (‘B’ channels) and one signaling channel (‘D’
channel) in BRI to initiate connections. The B channels
operate at a maximum of 64 Kbps while the D channel
operates at a maximum of 16 Kbps. The two channels are
independent of each other. For example, one channel is
used as a TCP/IP connection to a location while the other
channel is used to send a fax to a remote location. In
iSeries ISDN supports a basic rate interface (BRl). The basic
rate interface (BRl) specifies a digital pipe consisting of two
B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 16 Kbps.
This equals a speed of 144 Kbps. In addition, the BRl
service itself requires an operating overhead of 48 Kbps.
Therefore a digital pipe of 192 Kbps is required.
• Primary Rate Interface (PRI): Primary Rate Interface
service consists of a D channel and either 23 or 30 B
channels depending on the country you are in. PRI is not
supported on the iSeries. A digital pipe with 23 B channels
and one 64 Kbps D channel is present in the usual Primary
Rate Interface (PRI). Twenty-three B channels of 64 Kbps
each and one D channel of 64 Kbps equals 1.536 Mbps.
The PRI service uses 8 Kbps of overhead also. Therefore PRI
requires a digital pipe of 1.544 Mbps.

• Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN): Narrowband ISDN has been

designed to operate over the current communications
infrastructure, which is heavily dependent on the copper
cable however B-ISDN relies mainly on the evolution of
fiber optics. According to CCITT B-ISDN is best described as
‘a service requiring transmission channels capable of
supporting rates greater than the primary rate.

Advantages of ISDN
• ISDN channels have a reliable connection.
• ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple digital
channels.
• It has faster data transfer rate.
• Efficient use of bandwidth
• Improved call quality
• It provides Greater flexibility
• Integrated services
Disadvantages of ISDN
• ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone system.
• It requires specialized digital devices.
• It is less flexible.
• Limited coverage
• High installation and maintenance costs
• Limited features
Services Provided by ISDN
ISDN services are broadly categorized into two types:
1. Bearer Services
2. Teleservices
3. Supplementary Services

1. Bearer Services
Bearer services are responsible for the transmission of data
between devices without modifying the content. They
provide the foundation for other services.
• Circuit-Switched Services:
o Establish a dedicated path for the duration of the
communication.
 o Example: Voice calls, file transfers, and video
conferencing.
• Packet-Switched Services:
o Data is sent in packets, allowing efficient use of
network resources.
o Example: Internet access, email transmission.
• Frame-Switched Services:
o Data is organized into frames, similar to packet
switching but with a focus on error detection.
o Example: Frame relay networks.

2. Teleservices
Teleservices provide end-to-end communication
functionality, adding higher-level features to the basic
bearer services. These services are designed for specific
applications.
• Voice Communication:
o High-quality voice transmission over digital lines.
o Example: Standard telephone calls.
• Text and Teletext Services:
o Transmission of text-based information.
o Example: Interactive text services like messaging.
• Video Telephony:
 o Simultaneous transmission of video and voice for
face-to-face communication.
o Example: Video calls or video conferencing.
• Facsimile (Fax):
o Sending scanned documents over the network.
o Example: Digital fax transmission.
• Electronic Mail:
o Basic email services for sending and receiving
messages.

3. Supplementary Services
Supplementary services enhance the basic bearer and
teleservices, providing additional features to users.
• Call Forwarding:
o Redirects incoming calls to another number or
device.
• Call Waiting:
o Notifies users of an incoming call during an ongoing
call.
• Caller ID:
o Displays the number of the incoming caller.
• Three-Way Calling:
 o Allows users to hold a conference call with two
other parties.
• Closed User Group (CUG):
o Restricts communication to a defined group of
users for privacy.
• Call Barring:
o Restricts certain types of outgoing or incoming
calls.
ISDN layer

It defines three layers: Physical Layer, Data Link Layer, and

Network Layer, which correspond to the first three layers of
the OSI model.

Physical Layer

• Purpose: Defines the physical connection between the user’s

equipment (TE: Terminal Equipment) and the ISDN network.

Data Link Layer

• Purpose: Ensures error-free data transmission over the physical

connection.

Network Layer

• Purpose: Handles call setup, maintenance, and termination, as

well as routing and addressing.

Ques-4 what is switching explain different switching

technique.

Switching techniques
In computer networking, Switching is the process of transferring
data packets from one device to another in a network, or from
one network to another, using specific devices called switches.In
large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to
receiver. The switching technique will decide the best route for
data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making

one-toone communication.

Types of Switching

There are three types of switching methods:

• Message Switching
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching

Circuit Switching

Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a

dedicated path between sender and receiver. o In the Circuit
Switching Technique, once the connection is established then
the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is
terminated. o Circuit switching in a network operates in a
similar way as the telephone works.

A complete end-to-end path must exist before the

communication takes place.

In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to

send the data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the
receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to
ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data. o

Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used

for voice transmission. o Fixed data can be transferred at a time
in circuit switching technology.
Advantages of Circuit Switching

The main advantage of circuit switching is that a committed

transmission channel is established between the computers
which give a guaranteed data rate.

In circuit switching, there is no delay in data flow because of the

dedicated transmission path.

Reliability: Circuit switching provides a high level of reliability

since the dedicated communication path is reserved for the
entire duration of the communication. This ensures that the data
will be transmitted without any loss or corruption.

Quality of service: Circuit switching provides a guaranteed

quality of service, which means that the network can prioritize
certain types of traffic, such as voice and video, over other types
of traffic, such as email and web browsing.

Security: Circuit switching provides a higher level of security

compared to packet switching since the dedicated
communication path is only accessible to the two
communicating parties. This can help prevent unauthorized
access and data breaches.

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

Limited scalability: Circuit switching is not well-suited for

large-scale networks with many nodes, as it requires a dedicated
communication path between each pair of nodes. This can result
in a high degree of complexity and difficulty in managing the
network.
Vulnerability to failures: Circuit switching relies on a
dedicated communication path, which can make the network
vulnerable to failures, such as cable cuts or switch failures. In
the event of a failure, the communication path must be
reestablished, which can result in delays or loss of data.

Limited Flexibility: Circuit switching is not flexible as it

requires a dedicated circuit between the communicating devices.
The circuit cannot be used Waste of Resources for any other
purpose until the communication is complete, which limits the
flexibility of the network.

Waste of Resources: Circuit switching reserves the bandwidth

and network resources for the duration of the communication,
even if there is no data being transmitted. This results in the
wastage of resources and inefficient use of the network.

Expensive: Circuit switching is an expensive technology as it

requires dedicated communication paths, which can be costly to
set up and maintain. This makes it less feasible for small-scale
networks and applications.

Message Switching

Message Switching is a switching technique in which a

message is transferred as a complete unit and routed through
intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded. o In
Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a
dedicated path between the sender and receiver. o The
destination address is appended to the message. Message
Switching provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed
through the intermediate nodes based on the information
available in the message. o Message switches are programmed
in such a way so that they can provide the most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then
forward it to the next node. This type of network is known as
 store and forward network. Message switching treats each
message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

1. Data channels are shared among the communicating devices

that improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.

2.Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is

temporarily stored in the nodes.

3. Message priority can be used to manage the network.

4.The size of the message which is sent over the network can be
varied. Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

1. The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage

to enable them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
2. The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding
facility provided by the message switching technique.

Packet Switching

The packet switching is a switching technique in which the

message is sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces,
and they are sent individually. o The message splits into smaller
pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique number
to identify their order at the receiving end. o Every packet
contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number. o Packets will travel
across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
 All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct
order. o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message
will be sent to resend the message.

If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the

acknowledgment message will be sent

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching

devices do not require massive secondary storage to store the
packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can
say that the packet switching technique is a costeffective
technique.

Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted.

This ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides
reliable communication.

Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not

require any established path prior to the transmission, and many
users can use the same communication channel simultaneously,
hence makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

1. Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those

applications that require low delay and high-quality services. o The
protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and
requires high implementation cost.
2. If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires
retransmission of lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical
information if errors are nor recovered.
Ques-5 how flow control and error control is done at data link
layer.

Flow Control

o It is a set of procedures that tells the sender how much data it

can transmit before the data overwhelms the receiver. o The
receiving device has limited speed and limited memory to store
the data. Therefore, the receiving device must be able to inform
the sending device to stop the transmission temporarily before the
limits are reached. o It requires a buffer, a block of memory for
storing the information until they are processed.

Two methods have been developed to control the flow of data:

1.Stop-and-wait

2. Sliding window

Stop-and-Wait protocol is a fundamental method for reliable

data transfer in networking. It’s a simple flow control and error
control protocol where the sender transmits a single frame and
waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver before
sending the next frame. This process continues for each frame,
hence the name "stop and wait.
 Advantages of Stop-and-Wait

• Simplicity: The protocol is straightforward and easy to

implement, making it suitable for simple communication
systems.
• Reliable Communication: It ensures that each frame is
acknowledged before the next one is sent, preventing data loss.

Disadvantages of Stop-and-Wait

• Inefficiency for High-Speed Networks: The protocol can

be slow, especially on high-speed networks or longdistance
links, as it only allows one frame to be "in flight" at a time.
• High Overhead: The waiting time for each
acknowledgment can lead to underutilization of available
bandwidth.

Sliding Window protocol is an efficient data transmission

method in networking that allows multiple frames to be sent
before waiting for an acknowledgment. It improves throughput
by enabling the sender to send a "window" of frames without
needing to stop and wait for each individual acknowledgment,
as in the Stop-and-Wait protocol. The window size determines
how many frames can be "inflight" or unacknowledged at any
given time.

Working:

• The sender and receiver have a “window” of frames. A window

is a space that consists of multiple bytes. The size of the window
on the receiver side is always 1.
• Each frame is sequentially numbered from 0 to n – 1, where n is
the window size at the sender side.
• The sender sends as many frames as would fit in a window.
• After receiving the desired number of frames, the receiver sends
an acknowledgment. The acknowledgment (ACK) includes the
number of the next expected frame.
 Example:

Error Control in the Data Link Layer

Error Control is a combination of both error detection and error

correction. It ensures that the data received at the receiver end is
the same as the one sent by the sender.

Stop-and-wait ARQ

• In the case of stop-and-wait ARQ after the frame is sent, the

sender maintains a timeout counter.
• If acknowledgment of the frame comes in time, the sender
transmits the next frame in the queue.
• Else, the sender retransmits the frame and starts the timeout
counter.
• In case the receiver receives a negative acknowledgment, the
sender retransmits the frame.

Sliding Window ARQ

To deal with the retransmission of lost or damaged frames, a

few changes are made to the sliding window mechanism used in
flow control.

Go-Back-N ARQ :

In Go-Back-N ARQ, if the sent frames are suspected or

damaged, all the frames are re-transmitted from the lost packet
to the last packet
Selective Repeat ARQ

It is also known as Sliding Window Protocol and used for error

detection and control in the data link layer.

In the selective repeat, the sender sends several frames specified

by a window size even without the need to wait for individual
acknowledgement from the receiver as in Go-Back-N ARQ. In
selective repeat protocol, the retransmitted frame is received out
of sequence.

In Selective Repeat ARQ only the lost or error frames are

retransmitted, whereas correct frames are received and buffered.

The receiver while keeping track of sequence numbers buffers

the frames in memory and sends NACK for only frames which
are missing or damaged. The sender will send/retransmit a
packet for which NACK is received

Ques-6 difference between circuit switching and packet

switching.

Difference between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

In-circuit switching has

there are 3 phases:
In Packet switching
i) Connection
directly data transfer takes
Establishment.
place.
ii) Data Transfer.
iii) Connection Released.

In Packet switching, each

In-circuit switching, each
data unit just knows the
data unit knows the entire
final destination address
path address which is
intermediate path is
provided by the source.
decided by the routers.

In Packet switching, data

In-Circuit switching, data is processed at all
is processed at the source intermediate nodes
system only including the source
system.

The delay between data The delay between data

units in circuit switching is units in packet switching
uniform. is not uniform.

Resource reservation is the There is no resource

feature of circuit switching reservation because
because the path is fixed bandwidth is shared
for data transmission. among users.

Circuit switching is more Packet switching is less

reliable. reliable.
Quest-7 explain Network control protocol.

Network Control Protocol (NCP) was an early protocol

implemented by ARPANET, the world’s first operational
packet-switching network that later evolved into what became
the Internet. NCP allowed users to access and use computers
and devices at remote locations and to transmit files between
computers. NCP provided the middle layer of the protocol stack,
and enabled application services such as email and file transfer.

Protocols in NCP:

Encryption Control Protocol (ECP): It is needed to configure,

enable, disable, negotiate and control or maintain data
encryption algorithms on both ends of the PP connection.

Compression Control Protocol (CCP): CCP is basically

responsible for configuring, enabling, disabling, negotiating, and
controlling or maintaining data compression algorithms on both
ends of the PP connection.

Bridging Control Protocol (BCP): BCP is responsible for

configuring, enabling, disabling, negotiating, and controlling or
maintaining bridge control modules on both ends of the PP
connection. It is similar to IPCP but rather than routing, it
initializes bridging.

Ques-8 difference between TDM and FDM.

Key TDM FDM

TDM stands for FDM stands for

Definition Time Division Frequency Division
Multiplexing. Multiplexing.
TDM works well FDM works only
Signal
with both analog as with analog signal.
 Key TDM FDM

well as digital
signals.
TDM has low FDM has high
Conflict
conflict. conflict.
Wiring or Chip of Wiring or Chip of
Wiring
TDM is simpler. FDM is complex.
FDM is quiet
Efficiency TDM is efficient
inefficient.
Time is shared in Frequency is shared
Sharing
TDM. in FDM.
Synchronization Synchronization
Required
pulse is mandatory in pulse is not
Input
TDM. mandatory.

Ques-9 What is multiplexing also explain its types in detail.

Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the

multiple data streams over a single medium. The process of
combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and
hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer

(MUX) that combines n input lines to generate a single output
line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and
one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called

Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving end.
DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one
 input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing
follows the one-to-many approach

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and

multiplexer combines the signals to form a composite signal. o
The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and
demultiplexer separates a signal to component signals and
transfers them to their respective destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:

o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium. o The
bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Types of Multiplexing in Computer Networks

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

The frequency spectrum is divided among the logical channels

and each user has exclusive access to his channel. It sends
signals in several distinct frequency ranges and carries multiple
video channels on a single cable. Each signal is modulated onto
a different carrier frequency and carrier frequencies are
separated by guard bands. The bandwidth of the transmission
medium exceeds the required bandwidth of

all the signals. Usually, for frequency division

multiplexing analog signaling is used in order to transmit the

signals, i.e. more susceptible to noise. Assignment of
nonoverlapping frequency ranges to each user or signal on a
medium. Thus, all signals are transmitted at the same time, each
using different frequencies.

Advantages of FDM

• The process is simple and easy to modulate.

• A corresponding multiplexer or de-multiplexer is on the
end of the high-speed line and separates the multiplexed signals.
• For frequency division multiplexing analog signaling is
used in order to transmit the signals.

Disadvantages of FDM

• One problem with FDM is that it cannot utilize the full

capacity of the cable.
• It is important that the frequency bands do not overlap.
• There must be a considerable gap between the frequency
bands in order to ensure that signals from one band do not affect
signals in another band

Time Division Multiplexing

o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals
operate at the same time with different frequency, but in case of
Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the
same frequency with different time. o In Time Division
Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is
allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at
which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of
time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not
transmitted simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-
by-one. o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of
frames. Frames contain a cycle of time slots in which each
frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user. o It can
be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly
used to multiplex digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM

o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is

preassigned to every device. o In Synchronous TDM, each
device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the
device contains the data or not. o If the device does not have
any data, then the slot will remain empty. o In Synchronous
TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are
organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data
for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be
transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1
multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
Concept Of Synchronous TDM

Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the

empty slots are also transmitted which is having no data. In the
above figure, the first frame is completely filled, but in the last
two frames, some slots are empty. Therefore, we can say that
the capacity of the channel is not utilized efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater
than the total speed of the input lines. An alternative approach
to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division
Multiplexing.

Asynchronous TDM

o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are
not fixed as in the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are
allocated to only those devices which have the data to send.
Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division
multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations. o
An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the
time slots to the devices. o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed
of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of the
channel. o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the
incoming data streams and creates a frame that contains only
data with no empty slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part
that identifies the source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and

Synchronous TDM is that many slots in Synchronous TDM are

unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized.
This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient
utilization of the capacity of the channel. o In Synchronous
TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots.
In Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then
there are m time slots where m is less than n (m<n). o The
number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of
the number of input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except

that the optical signals are transmitted through the fibre optic
cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a
single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre
optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique. o Optical signals
from different source are combined to form a wider band of
light with the help of multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to
transmit them to their respective destinations. o Multiplexing
and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism. o Prism
can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various
optical signals to form a composite signal, and the composite
signal is transmitted through a fibre optical cable.

Ques-10 explain synchronous and asynchronous protocol.

Synchronous Protocols

In synchronous protocols, data transfer is governed by a shared

clock signal or strict timing coordination between sender and
receiver. This synchronization enables continuous data flow and
predictable timing, making it ideal for highspeed data transfer
over stable networks.

Advantages

• High Data Throughput: The absence of start and stop bits

reduces transmission overhead, enabling higher data rates.
• Efficiency: Suitable for continuous data streams,
minimizing transmission delays.

Disadvantages
• Complex Setup: Requires a synchronized clock, making
setup and maintenance more complex.
• Sensitivity to Timing Mismatches: Timing
desynchronization can lead to data errors.

Asynchronous Protocols

In asynchronous protocols, data transfer occurs without a shared

clock signal, and each data packet is transmitted independently.
Start and stop bits are used to signify the beginning and end of
each packet, allowing flexible timing between transmissions.

Advantages

• Flexibility: Suitable for scenarios where data is

transmitted intermittently or irregularly.
• Simpler Setup: Easier to implement and less sensitive to
timing issues.

Disadvantages

• Higher Overhead: Start and stop bits in every packet add

to transmission overhead, reducing efficiency compared to
synchronous protocols.
• Lower Throughput: Due to the additional bits and
intermittent data flow, it is generally slower for continuous data
streams.

Ques-11 explain point to point protocol in detail.

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a widely-used data link layer

protocol that facilitates direct communication between two
network nodes over a point-to-point connection. It is commonly
used in Internet connections, like dial-up, DSL, and some
 VPNs, due to its simplicity, error-checking, and ability to
handle multiple network layer protocols.

Transmission phases in ppp

1. Dead –

In this phase, link basically starts and stops. Carrier Detection is

an event that is used to indicate that physical layer is ready, and
now the PPP will proceed towards establishment phase.
Disconnection from modem line must bring back the line or
connection to this phase.

2. Establish –

Link then proceeds towards this phase after the presence of peer
is being detected. When one of nodes starts communication,
then connection goes into this phase. By the exchange of LCP
Frames or packets, all of configuration parameters are
negotiated.

3. Authenticate –

In PPP, authentication is optional. Peer authentication can be

requested by one or both of the endpoints.

4. Network –
 PPP basically sends or transmits NCP packets to choose and
configure one or more network-layer protocols such as IP, IPX,
etc. once LCP state is being open and link or connection is
established. This is especially required to configure the
appropriate network layer.

5. Open –

Usually transferring of data takes place in this phase. Once

endpoints want to end the connection, connection is then
transferred to terminate phase, till then connection remains in
this phase.

6. Terminate –

Connection can be terminated at any point of time as per the

request of either of the endpoints. LCP is basically required to
close or terminate link through the exchange of terminate
packets.

component of point to point protocol

Here are the key components of PPP:

Link Control Protocol (LCP) • LCP is responsible for

establishing, configuring, testing, and terminating a data link
connection.

• It manages link quality and can automatically terminate

the link if the quality falls below a certain threshold.
• It negotiates link parameters such as maximum frame size
and errorchecking mechanisms.

2. Network Control Protocols (NCPs)

• NCPs configure and manage network layer protocols over
PPP, allowing multiple protocols (e.g., IP, IPX) to be
transmitted.
 • Common NCPs include the Internet Protocol Control
Protocol (IPCP) for IP traffic, and others for supporting IPv6,
AppleTalk, and other network layer protocols.
3. Authentication Protocols
• PPP supports optional authentication protocols to ensure
that only legitimate users can establish a connection. Common
authentication protocols include:

PAP (Password Authentication Protocol): A simpler, two-

way handshake protocol where the password is sent in plaintext

point to point protocol layers

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) operates primarily at the Data

Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model but has mechanisms
that extend to other layers to handle aspects like configuration,
authentication, and network layer protocol encapsulation.
Here’s a breakdown of the layers and how PPP operates within
them:

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

• While PPP itself is a Data Link Layer protocol, it relies on
the Physical Layer to transmit data.
• PPP can be used over various physical media, including
serial lines, fiber optics, and cellular networks.
• It does not define its own Physical Layer but works over
established physical interfaces (like serial connections, ISDN,
etc.).
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
• This is the core layer where PPP operates. It provides
framing and encapsulation of network layer packets.
• Key components at this layer include:
o Link Control Protocol (LCP): Responsible for
setting up, configuring, and managing the point-to-point
link. It establishes and maintains the connection, handling
options such as packet size and link quality monitoring.
 o Authentication Protocols (e.g., PAP, CHAP):
Provide a mechanism for authenticating the identity of the
connecting party to ensure secure access.
• Error Detection: Uses a Frame Check Sequence (FCS) to
detect transmission errors, though it does not provide error
correction.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3)
• PPP can encapsulate network layer protocols, making it
compatible with various protocols like IPv4, IPv6, AppleTalk,
and IPX. This is managed through:
o Network Control Protocols (NCPs): Separate
NCPs are defined for each supported network layer
protocol. For example:
▪ IP Control Protocol (IPCP): Manages
configuration options for IP traffic over PPP.
▪ IPv6 Control Protocol (IPv6CP): Configures
IPv6 options.
• NCPs allow PPP to support multiple network layer
protocols over a single link by negotiating and configuring
protocol-specific parameters.

UNIT-4

Ques-1 Write a short note on Router.

Router
A router is a crucial network device in computer networks that connects
multiple networks together and directs data packets between them. Routers
operate at the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model, using IP addresses to
determine the best path for data transmission. They play a key role in enabling
communication between different networks, such as connecting a Local Area
Network (LAN) to the internet (a Wide Area Network, or WAN).
Advantages of a Router
• Enables Network Communication: Routers allow different networks to
communicate, facilitating internet access and data sharing between LANs
and WANs.
• Efficient Data Routing: Routers direct data based on IP addresses,
ensuring efficient, reliable delivery by choosing the best path for each
data packet.
• Security Features: Routers help secure networks with features like NAT,
firewalls, and VPN support.
Disadvantages of a Router
• Higher Cost: Routers, especially high-performance ones, can be costly
compared to simpler network devices like switches.
• Configuration Complexity: Configuring a router can be complex,
especially in large networks

Ques-2 explain bride and its uses.

A bridge is a hardware or software device used in computer networking that

joins two or more network segments and routes data between them according
to MAC addresses. In short, a bridge improves network performance and
connection by functioning at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

Uses of Bridge in Computer Network

• Bridges are used to increase the network capacity as they can
integrate multiple LANs together.
• On receiving a data frame, databases use the bridge to decide
whether to accept or reject the data.
• In the OSI model, it can be used to transmit the data to multiple
nodes of the network.
• Used to broadcast the data even if the MAC address or
destination address is unavailable.
• It forwards data packets despite faulty nodes.

Ques-3 explain the distance vector routing algorithm.

The Distance Vector Routing Algorithm is one of the
fundamental routing algorithms used in computer networks. It
is used to determine the best path for data packets to travel
from one node (router) to another. Each router in the network
maintains a routing table, which holds the distance (cost) to all
other routers in the network and the next hop to reach each
destination.
Applications of Distance Vector Routing Algorithm
The Distance Vector Routing Algorithm has several uses:
• Computer Networking : It helps route data packets in
networks.
 • Telephone Systems : It’s used in some telephone switching
systems.
• Military Applications : It has been used to route missiles.

Advantages of Distance Vector routing

• Shortest Path : Distance Vector Routing finds the shortest path
for data to travel in a network.
• Usage : It is used in local, metropolitan, and wide-area
networks.
• Easy Implementation : The method is simple to set up and
doesn’t require many resources.

Disadvantages of Distance Vector Routing Algorithm

• It is slower to converge than link state.
• It is at risk from the count-to-infinity problem.
• It creates more traffic than link state since a hop count change
must be propagated to all routers and processed on each router

Ques-5 what is congestion control. how congestion control is

different from flow control . explain various congestion control
techniques.

Network congestion is the state in which multiple users try to use

the network at once. The network then loses its ability to handle
requests efficiently and slows data transfer from one network to
another. As a result, data packets can be delayed, lost, or arrive out
of order, which leads to poor network performance.Various factors,
such as limited bandwidth, high traffic volumes, and cyberattacks,
cause network congestion.
Congestion Control Algorithm
• Congestion Control is a mechanism that controls the entry of
data packets into the network, enabling a better use of a
shared network infrastructure and avoiding congestive
collapse.
There are two congestion control algorithms which are as follows:
Leaky Bucket Algorithm

Token Bucket Algorithm

Leaky Bucket Algorithm

• The leaky bucket algorithm discovers its use in the context of network
traffic shaping or rate-limiting.
• A leaky bucket execution and a token bucket execution are
predominantly used for traffic shaping algorithms.
• This algorithm is used to control the rate at which traffic is sent to the
network and shape the burst traffic to a steady traffic stream.
• The disadvantages compared with the leaky-bucket algorithm are the
inefficient use of available network resources.
• The large area of network resources such as bandwidth is not being
used effectively.
Let us consider an example to understand Imagine a bucket with a small hole
in the bottom. No matter at what rate water enters the bucket, the outflow is
at constant rate. When the bucket is full with water additional water entering
spills over the sides and is lost.
Similarly, each network interface contains a leaky bucket and the following
steps are involved in leaky bucket algorithm:
• When host wants to send packet, packet is thrown into the bucket.
• The bucket leaks at a constant rate, meaning the network interface
transmits packets at a constant rate.
• Bursty traffic is converted to a uniform traffic by the leaky bucket.
• In practice the bucket is a finite queue that outputs at a finite rate.

Token Bucket Algorithm

The Token Bucket algorithm is a popular and simple method used in computer
networking and telecommunications for traffic shaping and rate limiting. It is
designed to control the amount of data that a system can send or receive in
some sort of period, ensuring that the traffic conforms to a specified rate.
It refers to traffic control mechanisms that seek to either differentiate
performance based on application or networkoperator requirements or
provide predictable or guaranteed performance to applications, sessions, or
traffic aggregates. It is something that data flow seeks to attain.
Steps Involved in Token Bucket Algorithm

Step 1: Creation of Bucket: An imaginative bucket is assigned a fixed

capacity, known as "rate limit". It can hold up to a certain number of tokens.

Step 2: Refill the Bucket: The bucket is dynamic; it gets periodically

filled with tokens. Tokens are added to the bucket at a fixed rate.

Step 3: Incoming Requests: Upon receiving a request, we verify the

presence of tokens in the bucket.

Step 4: Consume Tokens: If there are tokens in the bucket, we pick one
token from it. This means the request is allowed to proceed. The time of token
consumption is also recorded.

Step 5: Empty Bucket: If the bucket is depleted, meaning there are no

tokens remaining, the request is denied. This precautionary measure prevents
server or system overload, ensuring operation stays within predefined limits.
Let’s see the difference between flow control and congestion control:

Key Flow Control Congestion Control

Flow Control is a mechanism that Congestion Control

controls the traffic in a computer too is a traffic
Definition
network. Traffic represents the flow of controlling
data from the sender to the receiver. mechanism.

Network and
Data link and Transport layers handle Transport layers
Layers
flow control. handle congestion
control.

Network is
Receiver is prevented from being
Prime Focus prevented from
overwhelmed.
being congested.
 Key Flow Control Congestion Control

Transport layer is
Only sender is responsible for the
Responsibility responsible for the
traffic.
traffic.

Traffic is prevented
How does it Traffic is prevented by slowing down
by slowing down the
work? the sender.
transport layer.

Ques-6 What do you understand by Routing. Explain any routing protocol in

detail. Differentiate between static and dynamic routing.
Routing algorithm
o In order to transfer the packets from source to the destination, the
network layer must determine the best route through which packets
can be transmitted.
o Whether the network layer provides datagram service or
virtual circuit service, the main job of the network layer is to provide
the best route. The routing protocol provides this job.
o The routing protocol is a routing algorithm that provides the best path
from the source to the destination. The best path is the path that has
the "least-cost path" from source to the destination.
o Routing is the process of forwarding the packets from source to the
destination but the best route to send the packets is determined by the
routing algorithm.
Classification of a Routing algorithm
The Routing algorithm is divided into two categories: o
Adaptive Routing algorithm o Non-adaptive Routing algorithm
Adaptive Routing algorithm
o An adaptive routing algorithm is also known as dynamic routing
algorithm.
o This algorithm makes the routing decisions based on the topology and
network traffic.
o The main parameters related to this algorithm are hop
count, distance and estimated transit time.
Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm
o Non Adaptive routing algorithm is also known as a static routing
algorithm.
o When booting up the network, the routing information stores to the
routers.
o Non Adaptive routing algorithms do not take the routing decision based
on the network topology or network traffic.

Distance-vector routing protocols

Distance-vector routing protocols are interior gateway protocols that are used
in computer networks to choose the most profitable path to transmit data
packets from one point to another within autonomous systems (ASes).
In distance-vector routing protocols, distance is the measurement of the path
between the two networks, and vector is the direction in which the data
packets should be forwarded so that they reach the destination by covering
the distance. In routers, the vector indicates the interfaces.
Distance-vector routing protocols calculate paths using distance and vectors
to reach the data packets to the destination network. This protocol
periodically sends information about routers to their neighbors whenever
there is a change in the network topology.
Differences between the Static and Dynamic Routing

Ques-7 difference between gateway and router.

Ques-8 what are the approaches used to provide a range of
quality of services.
Quality of Service (QoS)

Quality of Service (QoS) in computer networks refers to a set of

techniques and technologies that manage and prioritize network resources to
ensure optimal performance for critical applications, data flows, and users.
QoS is essential in networks where different types of data (such as video,
voice, and regular data) are transmitted, as it helps to reduce delays, minimize
packet loss, and improve the overall user experience.

Key QoS Metrics

To measure and maintain network performance, QoS is typically evaluated

using the following metrics:

1. Bandwidth: o Refers to the data transmission capacity of a network.

o QoS ensures that sufficient bandwidth is allocated for high-

priority applications like video conferencing or VoIP (Voice over
IP).

2. Latency:

o The time it takes for data to travel from the source to the
destination.
o Low latency is crucial for real-time applications (e.g., online
gaming, video calls) where delays can disrupt user experience.

3. Jitter:

o The variation in packet arrival time. High jitter can cause issues in
audio and video streams, resulting in poor quality.
o QoS can prioritize data packets to reduce jitter, which is essential
for real-time communications.

4. Packet Loss:
 o Occurs when packets of data fail to reach their destination,
leading to degraded quality for applications, especially real-time
ones.
o QoS techniques can reduce packet loss by prioritizing sensitive
traffic and managing network congestion.

Approaches To Quality Management

• Total Quality Management (TQM): TQM is an organizational
approach that involves a continuous focus on quality improvement and
customer satisfaction. It emphasizes the involvement of all stakeholders
in quality efforts and the use of data and analysis to make informed
decisions.

• Six Sigma: Six Sigma is a methodology used to identify and eliminate

defects in a process, with the aim of achieving near-perfect quality. It
relies heavily on data and statistical analysis to identify areas for
improvement and to track progress.

• Lean Management: Lean management is a process improvement

methodology that aims to eliminate waste and minimize non-value-
added activities in a process. It involves identifying the value stream of
a process and optimizing it to improve efficiency and quality.

• ISO Standards: International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

standards provide a set of guidelines and best practices for quality
management. These standards cover areas such as quality
management, environmental management, and information security
management.

• Agile Methodology: Agile is an iterative approach to project

management that emphasizes flexibility, collaboration, and customer
satisfaction. It involves breaking a project down into smaller, more
manageable tasks that can be completed in short iterations, allowing
for constant feedback and improvement.

UNIT-5
Ques-1 Discuss different protocol at Application layer.
The Application Layer is the topmost layer in the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model. This layer provides several ways for manipulating
the data which enables any type of user to access the network with ease. The
Application Layer interface directly interacts with the application and provides
common web application services. The application layer performs several
kinds of functions that are required in any kind of application or
communication process

Application Layer Protocol in Computer Network

TELNET
Telnet stands for the TELetype NETwork. It helps in terminal emulation. It
allows Telnet clients to access the resources of the Telnet server. It is used for
managing files on the Internet. It is used for the initial setup of devices like
switches. The telnet command is a command that uses the Telnet protocol to
communicate with a remote device or system. The port number of the telnet
is 23.
FTP
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is the protocol that actually lets us
transfer files. It can facilitate this between any two machines using it. But FTP
is not just a protocol but it is also a program.FTP promotes sharing of files via
remote computers with reliable and efficient data transfer. The Port number
for FTP is 20 for data and 21 for control.
NFS
It stands for a Network File System. It allows remote hosts to mount file
systems over a network and interact with those file systems as though they
are mounted locally. This enables system administrators to consolidate
resources onto centralized servers on the network. The Port number for NFS is
2049.
SMTP
It stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is a part of the TCP/IP protocol.
Using a process called “store and forward,” SMTP moves your email on and
across networks. It works closely with something called the Mail Transfer
Agent (MTA) to send your communication to the right computer and email
inbox. The Port number for SMTP is 25.
SNMP
It stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It gathers data by polling
the devices on the network from a management station at fixed or random
intervals, requiring them to disclose certain information. It is a way that
servers can share information about their current state, and also a channel
through which an administrate can modify pre-defined values. The Port
number of SNMP is 161(TCP) and 162(UDP).

Ques-2 Explain the function of session layer.

The Session layer is the fifth layer of the OSI (Open System Interconnection)
model. The session layer is responsible for maintaining, establishing,
synchronizing, and terminating sessions between them. A connection is being
established among the session entities by the session layer. The data received
from the presentation layer is handled by the session layer. Various protocols
such as PPTP, PAP, RTCP, ADSP, and SDP are used by the session layer. The
below article covers the functions of the session layer in detail.

Functions of Session Layer

The session layer is responsible for various tasks that are mentioned below:

1. Session Establishment
The basic and most important function of the session layer is to establish a
connection between the communicating parties known as sessions. This
connection helps to transfer the data such as files, remote login, and
communication over these sessions in a more ordered and reliable way. The
session layer can establish connection-oriented as well as connectionless
sessions.

Communication Synchronization
The session layer provides proper connectivity among the systems, during this
if any occurs, a recovery option known as the state is provided. For using the
known state session layer adds synchronization bits in every state of the error
and these bits are then used as checkpoints.
Data Transfer
Data transfer is also one of the basic and important function of session layer.
Session layer handles the exchange of data between the communicating
systems. This exchange of data between the users can be in two modes of
transmission.
Dialog Management
Dialog management is defined as a process of keeping log data for the
connections established for transmitting and receiving data.

Ques-3 What the service of Transport layer

The services provided by the transport layer are explained below
• Address Mapping It means mapping of transport address onto
the network address. Whenever a session entity requests to
send a transport service data unit (TSDU) to another session
entity, it sends its transport service access point address as its
identification.
• Data Transfer The transport layer provides the data transfer of
two types, such as the regular data transfer and expedited
data transfer.
• To enable efficient network transmission, the Transport Layer
splits the total amount of data it gets from the applications
running at the top layers into smaller units known as
segments. The Transport Layer puts these bits back together
into the original data stream at the other end.
• In situations when organised data transfer is required, the
Transport Layer creates a connection between the source and
the destination. In order to create the proper parameters and
guarantee that both systems are prepared to communicate
data, a handshake protocol is established. When the data
transfer is complete, the Transport Layer closes the
connection.
• The transport layer also assures dependable data transmission.
Receiving acknowledgments, or ACK bits, is how this is
 accomplished. While waiting for the recipient to acknowledge
the parts it sent, the sender keeps an eye on them. Any
damaged segments are retransmitted by the sender if they
receive an acknowledgment.
• Flow regulation is one of the Transport Layer’s most crucial
roles. In order to prevent data overload, it regulates the data
transfer rate. This is done by utilising protocols like the sliding
window protocol, which is carried out by the receiver telling
the sender of the maximum amount of data it may receive by
sending back a window.
• Both error detection and repair are handled by the transport
layer. Checksums are one of these techniques for error
detection. By computing and validating checksums, it can
ascertain whether data was tampered with during
transmission. The Transport Layer may request retransmission
if it finds anything.

Ques-4 Explain the design issue of Network layer.

Network Layer Design Issues

The network layer comes with some design issues that are described
as follows:
1. Store and Forward packet switching
The host sends the packet to the nearest router. This packet is
stored there until it has fully arrived once the link is fully processed
by verifying the checksum then it is forwarded to the next router till
it reaches the destination. This mechanism is called “Store and
Forward packet switching.”
2. Services provided to the Transport Layer
Through the network/transport layer interface, the network layer
transfers its patterns services to the transport layer.
Implementation of Connectionless Service
Packets are termed as “datagrams” and corresponding subnets as
“datagram subnets”. When the message size that has to be
transmitted is 4 times the size of the packet, then the network layer
divides into 4 packets and transmits each packet to the router via. a
few protocols
Implementation of Connection-Oriented service:
To use a connection-oriented service, first, we establish a
connection, use it, and then release it. In connection-oriented
services, the data packets are delivered to the receiver in the same
order in which they have been sent by the sender.

Ques-5 Explain the connection management of transmission

control protocol.
Connection management in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) refers to the
procedures used to establish, maintain, and terminate a reliable
communication session between two devices (hosts) in a network. TCP is a
connection-oriented protocol, meaning that it requires a connection to be
established before data can be exchanged, and it guarantees reliable delivery
of data through mechanisms like error detection, retransmission, and flow
control.
The connection management process in TCP is divided into three main stages:
1. Connection Establishment (Three-Way Handshake)
2. Data Transfer
3. Connection Termination (Four-Way Handshake
Steps of the Three-Way Handshake:
• Step 1: SYN
 o The client (sender) initiates the connection by sending a SYN
(synchronize) packet to the server (receiver). This packet contains
an initial sequence number (ISN), which is used to keep track of
the byte order in the communication.
o The SYN packet also indicates that the client wants to initiate a
connection.
• Step 2: SYN-ACK
o The server responds by sending a SYN-ACK packet back to the
client. The server acknowledges the client's SYN request by
setting the ACK flag and sending its own SYN request, which
includes the server's initial sequence number.
o The ACK flag in the response indicates that the server has
successfully received the SYN from the client.
• Step 3: ACK
o The client sends a final ACK packet back to the server,
acknowledging the server’s SYN-ACK.
o Once the server receives this ACK, the connection is established,
and data transfer can begin.

At this point, both the client and server have agreed on initial sequence
numbers and are ready for reliable data transfer.
Data Transfer
After the connection is established, data transfer can occur. TCP ensures that
data is reliably delivered in the correct order between the sender and receiver
using several mechanisms:
 • Sequencing: Each byte of data is assigned a sequence number to keep
track of the order of packets.
• Acknowledgments (ACKs): The receiver sends ACK packets to the
sender to confirm receipt of data. If a packet is lost or corrupted, the
sender retransmits it.
• Flow Control: TCP uses a mechanism called Window Size to prevent the
sender from overwhelming the receiver. The receiver advertises a
"window size" that indicates how much data it can buffer, and the
sender adjusts its sending rate accordingly.
• Congestion Control: TCP adjusts the data sending rate to avoid
overwhelming the network. Algorithms like Slow Start, Congestion
Avoidance, Fast Retransmit, and Fast Recovery are used to detect and
react to congestion.
Connection Termination (Four-Way Handshake)
When communication is complete, the connection needs to be properly
terminated. This is done using a Four-Way Handshake. Each side of the
connection terminates independently, ensuring that all data has been
transmitted and acknowledged before the connection is closed.
Steps of the Four-Way Handshake:
• Step 1: FIN
o The client sends a FIN (finish) packet to the server, indicating that
the client has finished sending data and wants to terminate the
connection.
o The server acknowledges this by sending an ACK packet,
indicating that it has received the request to terminate.
• Step 2: FIN
o After the server has finished sending any remaining data, it sends
its own FIN packet to the client, indicating that it too is ready to
close the connection.
o The client responds with an ACK packet, acknowledging the
server’s FIN.
Once both sides have sent and acknowledged the FIN packets, the connection
is fully closed, and all resources related to the session are released.