Jean-Paul Aubert

Côte d'Azur University

Analyze an excerpt from a film or audiovisual document

Preliminary remarks

The purpose of this booklet is to help you analyze an audiovisual document.

Let us warn upfront that the few elements gathered here do not aim to establish a
normative method. It will be recalled with Jacques Aumont and Michel Marie that "there does not exist

universal method for analyzing films. In other words, one cannot hope to establish a
definitive analysis framework applicable to any type of film. Furthermore, these few pages in
First aid kit does not obviously pretend to compete with infinitely
more complete with references listed in the bibliography.

The analysis of a film excerpt should in principle allow us to both outline a

reflection on the world that cinema presents to us and to question how
he shows it to us and reconstructs it for us. Our presentation, which is inspired by what is offered
Laurent Jullier in his highly recommended work The Sequence Analysis (Paris, Nathan,
collection "Cinema", 2003), is structured around three axes, corresponding to the three objectives

fundamentals of an analysis:
- characterize the document;
- demonstrate the specificity of the cinematic medium;
- make interpretation hypotheses.

Characterize the document

The characterization of the proposed audiovisual document cannot be limited to the reading of the
caption or accompanying text that generally just specifies a title, a
author and a date. It is therefore up to you to identify with the utmost precision the

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It should be said from the outset whether we are dealing with a fiction film or a documentary film.
documentary, a report (of the NoDo type or intended for television), a video clip or a
advertising spot. If it is a fiction, we must be able to determine the genre to which it belongs:
detective film, film noir, fantasy, anticipation, melodrama, costume drama, etc. The tone
The general essence of the excerpt must not escape us. We will therefore note its darkness or its lightness, its

inscription in a tragic vein or on the contrary comic, etc. It will be noted that we are in
presence of an excerpt or a work in its entirety (which remains possible for the
reports, video clips, commercials or short films). If it is a
extract, a certain number of clues may help to place it within the work. It is known,
for example, it is generally quite easy to spot the beginnings and ends of movies.
These initial findings allow for a characterization of the document with a relative
Precision comes from a simple observation. They require a minimum knowledge and common sense.

Show the specificity of the cinematic medium

The analysis must update the main connections that give the fragment its
coherence. We will show according to what logic the sequence of events is organized.
the viewer's knowledge and how this sequence of events is connected to a center that can
to be a character, a place, an object, etc. We must also emphasize at every moment on the
means implemented by the director to bring to the audience's attention a certain
number of information or events in a story. In other words, it is about putting
in light of the specificity of the cinematic medium. At this moment in the preparation, a
minimal knowledge of what is agreed to be called 'cinematic language'
becomes necessary.

The plan

The cinematograph is the writing of movement. A film is made up of a succession

fixed images, also known as frames, projected at a standard speed of 24
images per second. In other words, a 90-minute movie consists of no less than 129
600 images or frames. The scrolling of the film and the law of retinal persistence
that the viewer does not perceive these images as an identifiable unit. What he perceives,
these are shots. At the time of editing the film, the shot takes on the value of a unit. One can

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defined as "the cutting of a unique moment of filming" (Emmanuel Siety, The shot. To
beginning of cinema, Paris, Cahiers du cinéma/Les petits cahiers/SC ÉRÉN-CNDP, 2001
p. 15) or like the piece of film located between two splices. The assembly of the shots, at
during the editing phase, the film is produced. As part of a film analysis, it is
it is preferable to talk about the plan rather than the image because the plan refers to the reality of manufacturing

of the film and the two fundamental stages that are shooting and editing. The shot corresponds to
at the entry of a fraction of time and space. We assess a plan according to various criteria. We
we have selected the main ones.

The duration

It is the number of frames that make up the shot. It is measured in minutes and
seconds. The perception of duration is important as it induces a sense of rhythm. The
advertising knows it well. Particularly when it promotes products aimed at young people, it plays
very often on a rapid succession of very brief shots with the intention of translating the
dynamics of the product and the audience it targets.

Mobility

We contrast the fixed shot (when the camera remains still throughout the duration of the shot) with

other types of plans that involve equipment movements. To simplify,

let's distinguish two types of camera movements: the tracking shot and the pan.
The tracking shot (whether it is forward, backward, or lateral) is a movement of the camera foot,
during which the axis of view remains parallel to the same direction. In practice, we
Install the camera on rails or aboard a vehicle.
In the case of a panoramic shot, the camera's foot remains fixed. It is the camera itself.
which pivots horizontally, vertically, or in any direction. When a plane
combine traveling and panorama, we talk about pano-traveling. This scenario has become of
increasingly frequent as the crane systems have improved and
articulated arms and that cameras have become lighter and therefore more maneuverable.
The shoulder-mounted plans are also to be made for the benefit of a more
great maneuverability of the shooting devices. They are often recognizable by a certain
instability of the image that gives a sense of truth, of capturing the moment.

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 We must add to these camera movements the zoom or optical tracking, which appeared in
the sixties, which is practiced using variable focal length lenses according to a principle that
known by all photographers, even amateurs.

The field

The development of a plan involves defining a field. A field is anything that

fits within the vision framework of the objective. Determining the camera framing means deciding on
what is included in the field but also what is excluded from the field, in other words
what is relegated to the off-screen. We can define the off-screen as 'the extension
imaginary of space beyond the borders of the frame" (Emmanuel Siety, p. 34). In films
fantastic or horror films, the off-screen is a mysterious and unsettling space from which
the danger comes from.
The optical characteristics of the camera allow the filmmaker to play with the sharpness of the
different objects placed in the camera's field. The depth of field defines the range
of sharpness around the object on which the point was made. A shallow depth of field allows
to limit sharpness to a specific point. One must then question the strategy that consists of
to keep certain objects or a part of the decor out of focus. When, on the contrary, the depth
the field is maximum, all the objects placed in the field are clear regardless of their
distance from the camera's target. The depth of field allows to play
on the illusion of depth.

The scale

We assess the scale of a shot according to the various framing options of a character or a...
object. The closer the shots are, the less extensive the field. The distance between the camera and
the filmed object will determine the viewer's relationship with the characters or objects present in
the plan. The main types of plans are distinguished by their size:
- The general plan, sometimes with descriptive value, which contains the entirety of a natural site
or a decor;
- The overall plan that shows the entire scene in which the...
characters;
- The medium shot that includes half of a character's body;

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 - The close-up that includes the head and shoulders of the character and thus allows for
to highlight facial expression;
- The close-up that focuses on a character's face or on an object with the purpose of
to further intensify the expression;
- The close-up focuses on the detail of the human body or an object.

When describing a shot, one must also consider the angle of view.
The same scene can be seen up close or from a distance, but also from the front, the side, from above or
from below and the characters, in profile, from behind or at a three-quarter angle. A shot taken from
The view from top to bottom is called a dive perspective. In the opposite direction, it is referred to as a counter-dive perspective.

The plastic composition will capture all our attention. As is sometimes done for
In a painting, one could try to detect the geometric lines that organize the plane and guide.
the gaze of the spectator. We will be sensitive to the work on colors, warm or cool or more
or less saturated, to the fact that the director of photography and the director wanted to put
to benefit from their harmony or their dissonance. For a black and white film, one may notice
contrast and brightness effects.
It is worth questioning the spatial organization of the different objects inside the
Champ. Does the construction of the plan express a relationship between the characters? Does it create
a feeling of intimacy through close framing, or does it, on the contrary, create a
distance through an overview that encompasses the characters, or through movements
panoramas sliding us from one to another?
Similarly, we will pay attention to the movements of the characters within the frame.
and to the relationship that is established between them and the camera. Do the characters cross the screen?
Do they seem to be coming towards us? Does the camera go ahead of them or does it accompany them?
By playing with the various parameters we have briefly described, the
the director establishes a specific form of relationship with reality, with the characters, with space. It is this

relationship that is important to highlight in the context of an analysis.

The film character

The nineteenth century made the character the cornerstone of the novel narrative.
cinema, at least in its most classic dimension, continued to place it at the center of
narrative. It is known that the character is the seat of a powerful realistic illusion that makes one...

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sometimes confused with a person. This confusion between the real and the representation is a
danger that awaits the analyst. Therefore, one must convince oneself that the character, whether fictional
A filmic being is a fictional entity, a paper being in the first case, celluloid in the second.
second.
A study of the character will pay attention to their identity (onomastics, for example, allows...
to invest the name of contextual meanings), to its attributes (costumes, hairstyles,
accessories), to his actions, to his words, to his gestures, to the relationships he has with the
other characters in the story, along with the places he frequents.
What fundamentally distinguishes the filmic character from the novelistic character,
it is the media coverage of the actor. In cinema, without an actor, there is no character. It is
also true in theater and in the performing arts in general. However, at
In theater, it is common for the character, as a role, to preexist the actor's interpretation.
Actors in theater are often required to wear costumes that others have worn before.
them. In the cinema, on the other hand, apart from very particular cases of roles like those of Tarzan
or James Bond, which has led to several films, the character is inseparable from
the actor who embodies him. They are one and the same. The cinematic character of Amadeo, the old executioner

The Executioner (Luis García Berlanga, 1963), is definitively associated (unless there's a remake)
on the face of José Isbert. It seems very difficult to draw a line between what would belong to
in particular to the character and what would belong to the actor. Undoubtedly, one can consider that
the presence of the actor adds a sort of value to the character. Because the actor is not
not a blank page on which the traits of an unprecedented character would be inscribed. It is
bearer of all the roles he has played before and also of the public image he has
giving of himself, especially in the media. The stardom of actors has not made
to amplify this phenomenon. So that the director's strategy can consist either of
to invoke the memories that the spectator may retain from previous ones, whether to entrust
the actor a role breaking away from the more or less conventional image that the viewer has of him.
The director can still call upon non-professional (and unknown) actors.
of the general public) whose presence is unlikely to be 'parasitized' by external data
filmic or extracinematic.

The point of view

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 In literature, the issue of point of view (that is, the response to the questions
"Who tells? Who sees? Who knows?" was addressed by Gérard Genette from the perspective of the
focalization. Genette distinguishes three types of focalization:
- zero focalization: the narrator is omniscient and the events seem to be narrated from
in a neutral way. The narrator knows more than the characters.
- Internal focalization: the narrator accompanies the character and only tells what
that this one knows or sees.
- External focalization: the narrator knows less than the character. He describes him.
externally.
The confusion that occurs in the written narrative between knowing and seeing may seem
legitimate. It is only metaphorically that one can talk about vision. This confusion is
harder to admit when it comes to a visual art like cinema. If we take the case
From internal focalization, the narrator can only tell what such or such character knows,
but it remains that this character will be seen from the outside. That is why we imagined for
cinema the concept of ocularization. The term refers to the eye, that of the camera of course.
The question we now ask is: "Where do we see from?" We will distinguish the ocularization.
zero of internal ocularization. When the image is not seen by any diegetic instance, by
no character (Americans refer to it as nobody's shot), we will talk about zero ocularization.
On the other hand, we will talk about internal ocularization when the image is seen by an instance.
diegetic. In this case, we will distinguish between subjective vision (or vision by ...) and semi vision.
subjective (or vision with). In the case of subjective vision, the viewer sees through the eyes
of the character. This is the classic case of shot/reverse shot. The clues of this vision
subjective are varied: when the frame seems to embrace the character's angle of vision by
For example. It is extremely rare for an entire film to be constructed using this camera technique.
subjective where in principle the character through which we see remains invisible from beginning to end
at the end. One knows an example that was a failure: The Lady of the Lake (1947) by Robert
Montgomery.
The semi-subjective vision is more common. One sees with the character. We do not
we don't see through his eyes but we see everything he sees and hears. The most common case
is the one where the character appears in the foreground, meaning we can see his arm, his
shoulder, a part of his back.
The analysis of perspective is essential. It can lead to reflection on the place
the spectator and on their possible identification with such or such character. It is appropriate for the candidate

to get familiar with her.

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 The assembly

The transition from one plan to another is part of the art of editing. It can be done without transition,

in a nearly brutal way: this is called uncut. By contrast, we will distinguish several
Types of possible transitions. The fade corresponds to the gradual disappearance of the image.
thanks to the closing of the diaphragm. It is generally followed by black. We then talk about fade.
to black. If it is followed by a white screen, we speak of a fade to white. In some cases, the
director chooses the crossfade. It is the gradual replacement of one image by another.
another image with temporary superimposition of the two images. In the so-called 'classic' cinema
(we will revisit this term in the following pages) the fondus often serve as
punctuation of sequences and signaling of a temporal ellipse. The transition from one shot to
Another can also be done through progressive inlays. We talk about panels.
when one image actually slides another one or of iris when the substitution is made by a
opening or a circular closure. Finally, there are the countless distortions.
transitional: turning pages, mosaics, morphism ...
It should be noted that the editing does not only respond to the concern of advancing the narrative according to

a more or less great coherence. It organizes cinematic material and gives it a

meaning. By combining two planes, one manages to give each of them a meaning that goes beyond that
the given represented. In other words, the reconciliation of two or more plans is
susceptible of granting them a value that they would not have outside of this association. This
the design of the editing, obviously essential, underpins cinematic writing. There
furthermore, the preparatory analysis of the sequence must take it into account prominently.

The sequence

The methods of connection between the plans will depend on the fluidity of the film narrative.
Added together, the shots constitute sequences. "A sequence is a series of
plans linked by a narrative unit." We borrow this definition from the work of J. Aumont and
M. Marie, The Analysis of Film (Nathan University, Paris, 1988). It may happen that a sequence
contains only one shot. This is called a continuous shot. A sequence, therefore, is a
a unit of meaning comparable to the "scene" in theater. It often involves a unity of place and
of action.

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 The sound

A film is not limited to moving images. One cannot overlook this other
component that is sound. The three subjects of sound expression in cinema are music,
the sounds and the words. Three types of relationship between image and sound are distinguished:

- The sound whose source is visible

- The off-screen sound: the source of the sound is invisible, but the sound is diegetic, that is to say...

to say that it belongs to the realm of fiction

- The off-screen sound or extra-diegetic sound.

Pit music falls into this latter category. It is always interesting to try.
to determine the relationship it has with the image. Sometimes music is only
redundant (the violins accompanying a first kiss against the backdrop of a setting sun!). But
Sometimes, a subtle relationship is established between sound and image. Music then loses its only
illustration function to take on a suggestive dimension.

Make interpretative hypotheses

The observation of the sequence must lead to the formulation of hypotheses regarding its
coherence and its stakes. The following lines offer some insights. Insights and not
recipes...
When faced with an advertisement, the stakes are quite easily
identifiables. If the aesthetic dimension is not absent, let us acknowledge that it is secondary.
regarding the main objective of an advertisement which is to sell a product to a viewer
consumer. In other words, the effectiveness of such a film is measured by its ability to convince
the consumer to buy the product he praises.
The interpretation of a film sequence can sometimes be more complex...
Because it relies on internal coherence, it can be easily detached from the rest of
film and that it adheres to relatively precise codes, the credits present themselves as a fragment whose
The stakes are easily discernible. It is a turning point of the film, a kind of mandatory passage.
of a world (the real world, that of the film's production and its reception in space
concrete from the cinema hall) to another world (the fictional world, the diegetic world).
It is therefore a somewhat uncertain area where the viewer finds themselves between the fictional universe of the film.

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and reality. The credits connect those who made the film and those who will see it. It
is it called a 'metadiscourse'. Extremely codified, it produces a discourse on the
Film while being part of the film. It is both a commentary and a reflection of the upcoming film.
The beginning of a film, which is not necessarily the credits, also lends itself to
the analysis. It is known that the incipit corresponds to the specific moment of the viewer's entry into
fiction.
We will say, to simplify, that an inaugural sequence must ensure two functions.
at least
- an exposure function;
- a contractual function.
The first function is to provide the viewer with the information they need.
to understand the continuation of the story. By virtue of this requirement, it is not uncommon for the beginnings of

films have a descriptive value. Let us be clear. Every image is, by nature,
descriptive and it would be quite perilous to want to separate the narrative too strictly from the descriptive.
It will be admitted, however, that overall plans or half-overall plans, long panoramas
that very often open a film have the obvious function of introducing the viewer to the
framework in which the action will take place. The second function is to propose to the viewer
a contract, to ensure, in other words, its collaboration, to give him the opportunity to judge this
that he sees not necessarily in relation to lived experience but to the genres in which
the film is registered. To these two functions, a third adds: to create an expectation in the
viewer, in other words, to encourage him to go further.
Let us acknowledge that it is not always easy to deliver an aesthetic discourse nor to clarify
the 'style' of the analyzed fragment. One can attempt to assess the writing strategies
cinematic in relation to what we know about the main aesthetic currents that
mark the history of cinema, while avoiding hasty classifications.
From the end of the 1910s and the beginning of the 1920s of the twentieth century, a new era begins.
a form of cinematic classicism that will endure in the United States and
in Europe. It is a narrative cinema, concerned with telling a story, according to a logic
of action inherited from the romantic literature of the 19th century and particularly from realism. The
Realistic narrative develops on a logic of action based on the relationship of cause and effect. Such
event A leads to such new situation B which in turn leads to such new event
C. The classic setup respects this logical construction. Let there be two planes A and B that...
succeed. For example, we will ensure that an item in plan A is found in
the plan B. It can be a visual or sound element. The relationship between plans A and B may obey

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to a principle of dynamics. A character moves in one direction in the A plane; it
will move in the same direction in plane B (this is what is called a connection in the
movement). The relationship from plane to plane is also structural in the sense that it must
respect the respective position of the characters in space. We will also talk about continuity.
about the gaze when in shot A, a character is looking and in shot B, we see this
that he sees. When the B plan corresponds to what a character situated opposite sees in the
In plan A, we use the expression 'field/counter field'.
These different connection methods aim to give a sense of continuity of
the action. Sometimes we talk about "transparent editing" to refer to this succession of shots.
harmonious and natural, which facilitates a quiet enjoyment of the cinematic spectacle.
Moreover, it should be noted that classical narration (in accordance with realistic storytelling such
that the great novels of the nineteenth century practiced) will develop around a
main character or a couple, with very distinct traits and who will be placed at the center
of conflictual situations. The rise of the star system has only contributed to strengthen this rule
screenwriting.
This classic model will endure to this day, and we can say that it is the one that
dominates contemporary cinema. However, it is regularly challenged. Many
avant-garde movements are particularly part of a sort of rebellion against this
Classicism. This is the case of Soviet cinema from the 1920s, of "pure cinema" (avant-garde
French from the twenties), German expressionism, surrealism or the New
vague.
Let's say a few words about surrealist cinema embodied in Spain by Buñuel and Dali and
but the emblematic work remains An Andalusian Dog (1928). This film sets up a
narration that fundamentally distinguishes itself from the classic story. The succession of events
no longer obeys a structure based on the cause-and-effect relationship. The images meet,
confront each other, collide. Surrealism cultivates breaks, oneirism, mental images,
the provocative visions. Everyone remembers the opening sequence of An Andalusian Dog. The
chaotic montage advocated by surrealism engages the spectator, creates in them
a feeling of discomfort disrupts the understanding of the narrative.
In the fifties and sixties, a cinema known as modernity developed that
borrows some of its characteristics from the avant-garde cinemas listed above.
This cinema implements looser, more fragmentary narratives, less dramatized, often.
ambiguous. One cannot discern what is real from what is not. The characters are
often less defined than in the classic narrative. They suffer more than they act. By a

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A certain number of sound or visual processes, modern cinema blurs the boundaries
between the subjectivity of the character or the author and the objectivity of what is shown. By
for example, dreams, hallucinations or fantasies are on the same level as the images of
present objective. Two Spanish filmmakers perfectly illustrate this blurring of the senses: Luis
Buñuel and Carlos Saura.
The cinema of modernity, as it is presented in the early works of Jean-Luc
Godard notably or in the cinema of the Barcelona School (avant-garde that appears at
Barcelona in the mid-1960s) is also characterized by an affirmation of the
power of the author. The voice-over commentary, the extremely
Marquis, the brutal stylistic breaks, the jump cuts, the direct-to-camera looks for example
testify to the presence of a speaker. It is a cinema that continually reminds of
viewer he is at the cinema. Therefore, it is a reflexive cinema, that is to say, a cinema that
is interested in himself and the process of filmmaking. A figure
a characteristic of this cinema is the mise en abyme as an exaltation of cinematic art.
However, let us be careful not to confine films into overly rigid categories. From
remains, current cinema, little concerned with labels, produces works that are often hybrid which
multiplying the borrowings from various aesthetic currents.
In this regard, nothing prevents us from considering the textual transcendence of the sequence.

analyzed. Intertextuality is one of its aspects. We will strive to identify the elements that
in the studied sequence can constitute an allusion, a reference, a comment, a
parody or a pastiche. One can see in this practice which is common in
post-modern cinema pays tribute to a work or a genre as well as the desire to establish, on a
playful mode, a relationship of complicity with the audience. One can also strive
to evaluate the film in light of the cinematic genre it falls into and to check in
to what extent and for what purpose it respects the codes or, on the contrary, turns away from them and the

subvert.

In conclusion

It is true that the approach to cinema requires knowledge of certain analytical tools.
which are their own. Many hesitations or worries stem from this impression
students sometimes have the issue of not mastering these tools or being unfamiliar with a certain language
specific to film analysis. We can easily break down these barriers by showing

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that a minimum baggage allows one to embark on film analysis and recalling that
The important thing, of course, is not to know how to name such and such a process but to be in
measure of relating it to meaning. What is the interest in reporting a technical parameter (a
camera movement for example) if we are unable to relate it to an interpretation?
Just as the study of a poem cannot be limited to an examination of the meter, the analysis of a
sequence cannot be limited to identifying the rhetorical or stylistic devices it employs
work. It is undoubtedly a necessary step. But it is only useful to the extent that it
allows to show how these processes contribute to the elaboration of meaning.
Summarizing in a few pages what is the subject of entire volumes was indeed
obviously a challenge. That is why I encourage you to consult the bibliography provided
at the end of this booklet. Let us especially remind that a theoretical approach to film analysis does not
could replace the actual practice. And finally, go to the movies... (as soon as you can!!)

Bibliography

Film analysis

AUMONT, Jacques, MARIE, Michel, The Film Analysis, Nathan, series 'University'
Paris, 1988.
A book that defines film analysis, determines its aim, and proposes various ...
modalities.

Laurent JULLIER
"First aid kit" intended for students preparing for various exam assessments and
competition (bac cinema, cinema option for the aggregation of letters and visual arts, competition
upon entering FEMIS, etc). The author develops analytical tools usable for any type of
film and concludes his work with seven sequence analyses. Unfortunately, none is taken from a
Spanish film.

TERRASA, Jacques
"University", Paris, 1999.
This work dedicates a chapter to film analysis and offers the study of a sequence.
Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown by Pedro Almodóvar.

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 VANOYE Francis; GOLIOT-LÉTÉ Anne, Film Analysis Reference, Nathan, coll.
"128", Paris, 1992.
A synthetic work that considers the different 'tools' of film analysis and constitutes
an essential supplement to this booklet.

Let us point out a series of synthetic works, published by Cahiers du cinéma and
the SCÉREN-CNDP dedicated to various aspects of cinema:
GUÉRIN, Anne-Marie, The Narrative, Paris
Special Effects
LOISELEUX, J. The Light in Cinema, Paris
MAGNY, Joël, The Point of View, Paris,
Joël MAGNY
MOUËLLIC, Gilles, The Music of Film, Paris
PINEL, Vincent, The Montage. The Space and Time of Film, Paris, 2001.
SIETY, Emmanuel, The Plan. At the Beginning of Cinema, Paris, 2001.
Claire VASSÉ

Knowledge of Spanish cinema

Coll., History of Spanish Cinema, Cátedra, "Sign and Image", Madrid, 1999.
Detailed overview of Spanish cinema from its origins to the present day, by the best
Spanish specialists.

LARRAZ Emmanuel, The Spanish Cinema from its Origins to the Present Day, Editions du Cerf,
collection '7th Art', Paris, 1986.
First French work dedicated to the history of Spanish cinema. Obviously, it does not
don't deal with the last twenty years.

SEGUIN Jean-Claude, History of Spanish Cinema, Nathan, series '128', Paris

1994.
A synthetic work that puts into perspective the main authors and movements.
by avoiding the pitfalls of lists or accumulation.

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 Knowledge of Latin American cinema

BLAQUIÈRE-ROUMETTE, Monique; GILLE, Bernard, American Films

Latine, Editions du Temps, Paris, 2001.
An overview of the different national cinemas and analysis sheets examining the
major works.

Website about Spanish cinema

http://grimh.orgSite of the Research Group on Image in the Hispanic World.

A site, regularly updated, dedicated to images in general. Offers bibliographies and
many links.

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