DESIGN OF FILES AND DATABASES

The design of files and databases includes decisions regarding the

nature and content of the file itself, as if it were to be used for
store transaction details, historical data, or information of
reference.

File design: It is the essence of the information system, the data must
be available when the user requires it, they must allow it
update with efficient storage for easy access to information
have a purpose in management, planning, control or decision-making.

Database
It is a series of organized and related data, which are
collected and exploited by the information systems of a company or
a particular business, that is, a database is a central source of data

that is designed to be shared by many users with a

diversity of applications.

Advantages of databases.

Data integrity, because changes in data are achieved

much easier and more reliably if the data appears only once.
The data have a chance of being available in a system
of traditional files.
A database can evolve as the needs change.
of the users and the applications

Disadvantages of databases

All the data is stored in one place. Therefore, they are more
vulnerable to disasters and require complete backups.
 There are risks that the database administrator is the only one
privileged and with sufficient abilities to approach and control the
data.
The procedures to modify the database can be done
bureaucratic and slow, due to the idea of maintaining security of the
information.
Other disadvantages when it comes to achieving two efficiency goals for
the administration of the data resource is as follows:
Keep the time for inserting and updating within a tolerable amount.
delete and recover data. Because the data is shared by
many users and applications.
Keep storage costs at a reasonable level.
data. Due to the cost of the technology and personnel required.

Database Design: There are many considerations to take into account

At the time of designing the database, perhaps the strongest ones are:
The access speed.
The size of the information.
The type of information.
Ease of access to information.
Ease of extracting the required information.
The behavior of the database manager with each type of
information.

Nevertheless, file processing systems can be developed and

even database managers based on the team's experience
of software development achieving highly acceptable results, is always
the use of certain design standards that guarantee
the highest level of efficiency in terms of storage and
information recovery.
Similarly, it is obtainedmodelsthat optimize the use
secondary and the simplicity and flexibility in the queries that can be provided
to the user.

Objectives of File or Database Design

Data storage is considered by some as the core part of
the information systems. The general objectives for the design of the
the organization is as follows:
Data integrity.
Data availability.
Efficient update and recovery.
Efficient data storage.
Information retrieval for a purpose.

Data Organization
In order for computers to store and process data, they need to
are regularly organized into certain elements. Each of these elements is
group with their similarities, to form another more complex element:
Character: It is a letter, a number, punctuation mark, or special sign.
Field: Contains a group of characters that grouped form a
data or information attribute. When filling out a request form for
admission to a university, the name of the person for example,
represents a field; its address, location, and others, in turn represent
other fields.
Record: It is composed of a grouping of related fields.
between themselves. All the enrollment information of a student constitutes a
registration.
File: It is a set of related records. All the entries.
The students of a university could form a file.
 Database: It is made up of a set of files.
interrelated. The registration files, in addition to the files of
notes, from teachers and subjects together can constitute a
university database.

Key field: It is a specific field within the record that allows for
exclusive and unique identification of each record. The key must be a value that
do not repeat, such as, the identity card number, number of
identification, the student ID number at a university or the insurance number
social.

Data Processing.
There are two traditional ways to process data that are:
Batch processing: In this processing, the data is gathered by
a period of time (hours, days, or even weeks) at the end of which, one
they are processed in a single operation or 'batch'.

Real-time processing: This occurs when the data is

they are processed at the same moment they are generated.

At first, only magnetic tape storage was available that

only allow sequential storage. This forced to carry out all the
batch processing. With the emergence of direct access devices
(hard disks), direct access storage became possible, which allows
quickly locate the record of interest. This enabled processing in
real-time, which is highly valued in operations, such as those of companies
commercials. Real-time processing allows, for example, to know about
at the moment how many products have been sold and how many are available
inventory, while sales are being made.
Even though batch processing preceded real-time processing,
motivated by factors such as the availability of technology, it is not correct to think
in batch processing as something outdated. There are processes that due to their
nature should be done in batches, such as the calculation of the payroll of
a company every month.

Types of Files
Files can be used to store data for an indefinite period of time.
of time or can be used to temporarily store data for a
specific purpose.
The file types are:
Master Files.
Table Files.
Temporary Files are generally referred to as: Files of
Transactions, Work Files or Report Files.

Master Files
The master files contain records of a group of entities that are
used to store data over a long period. The attributes can be
frequently changed, but the records are relatively permanent.
These tend to have large records that contain all the information about
from a data entity. Each record generally contains a primary key
and several secondary keys. Frequently these files are saved as
indexed files or sequential files with indexes. Examples of files
masters include patient records, client records, a file of
personal or a parts inventory file.

Table files
These files contain data used to calculate more data or measurements of
performance and are used to store data for a long period.
example a postal rate table to determine the cost of sending a
package, A tax table, etc. These types of files are usually
read by a single program.
 Transaction files
These files are used to capture changes that update the files.
masters and to produce reports. For example, a master file of subscribers
of newspapers, it may have a transaction file that contains the code and
subscriber name, transaction code, such as E, to extend the
subscription, C to cancel it or D to change the address. This is all that is needed.
provide relevant information when required. Therefore, the files of
transactions are generally kept to a minimum length. In addition
these can contain several types of different records.

Working files
Programs can run more efficiently if work files are used.
An example of working files is one that has been rearranged so that the
records can be accessed more quickly.

Report files
When it is necessary to run a program that prints information and it does not exist the
printer is busy, a report file is used. Sending the output to a
file is instead sent to a printer is called spooling, later when the
The device is ready, and the report file information can be printed.

Organization of files.

The organization of records in files can be done in three ways

they are different:

Sequential organization: In this organization, the records are

they are stored one after another in a predetermined order. The order is determined by

its key field. The records must be sorted in a way

specific for its storage, which has its cost in time. It has
advantages when full access or a large portion is needed
 records, but if it is about locating a particular record it can be
extremely slow. With this type of organization, to reach the registration
6510, the first 6509 previous records must be reviewed one by one
starting from 0001.
Direct organization: For this organization, the records do not
they are stored one after another, but they are located in a particular direction that

is determined by its key field. The address is set by

programs that use a technique called key calculation, which
they convert the numerical value of the key field into an address of
private storage. The programs are also used for the
subsequent location of such records. When using direct organization of
files can quickly locate specific records. For example,
if you want the data of a specific car in a file with the cars of
a city can be obtained almost instantly simply
providing your plate. However, this organization aims to
disadvantage that requires more disk storage space.
In addition, it is not as suitable as the sequential file organization for
carry out a large number of updates or list a large number of
records.
Sequential organization of index: It is a combination of the two
presented organizations, which seek to take advantage of both.
The records are stored in sequential order, but this file
it has an index. The index file lists the keys of each group
stored records and their corresponding disk addresses.
When one wishes to search for a particular record, the computer begins the
sequential search, identifying the beginning of the group of records.
This organization is faster than the sequential one, but not by much.
like the shortcut. It is especially useful when an update is required.
occasionally large batches of transactions are needed to be available
quick and frequent access to data.
 Advantages of file organization

Sequential organization:

Efficient access to all or most of the data.

Less storage space usage.

Direct organization:

Quick access to specific records.

Sequential index organization:

Faster than the sequential.

More efficient than the direct one.

Disadvantages of file organization

Sequential organization:

Slow access to specific records.

Direct organization:

Inefficient access to instability or a large part of the records.

Greater use of storage space.

Sequential index organization:

Less efficiency than the sequential

Less fast than the direct one.

Organization of database management system.

A database can be considered as a set of data about
elements or facts that are logically related to each other and are
organized under a specific structure. The most common models of
database organization includes hierarchical, network, relational, and object-oriented.
objects.
Hierarchical database: Structures the fields in nodes within a structure.
hierarchical. The nodes are points connected to each other forming a kind of
upside down tree. Each entry has a parent node, which can have several nodes
children; this is commonly referred to as a 'one-to-many' relationship. The lower nodes are

they subordinate those who are at their immediate higher level. A node that has no
father is called root, while those who have no children are known as
leaves. When one wants to find a particular field, one starts from the top, with
a parent node, descending the tree towards a child node.
A reservation system for a national airline can be represented
through a hierarchical organization. The parent node is the starting city
(Caracas), this node can have child nodes representing the destination cities.
One of these child nodes, Maracay for example, has child nodes of its own, which
it is the flight number. The flight number will also have child nodes, which are
the passengers. Among the limitations of this type of database is that when
deleting a parent node will also remove its subordinate nodes.

• Network database: It is also a hierarchical organization of

nodes, but a child node can have more than one parent node (relationship
many to many). There are pointers, which are additional connections between
parent nodes and child nodes, which allow access to a node by different paths
accessing it in a descending direction through the various branches.
Represents an improvement to the hierarchical model. The highlighted sellers for
distributing certain products in some cities can illustrate this model.
Each product can be distributed by more than one seller, likewise each
The seller can be responsible for different cities.

• Relational database: This organization offers the greatest flexibility since

the data is stored in different tables, composed in turn of rows and
columns. A table is called a relation. In a table, the rows contain the
records. The columns represent the fields. The related tables have
a common field, the key field, through which the stored information in
a table can be linked with the information stored in another. Access to the
data is achieved through queries written in SQL. The organization of databases
Relational data is the most widespread today due to its simplicity for
perform addition, deletion, and modification operations in contrast with the
greater rigidity of hierarchical and network organizations. For example in a
relational model for a small business, one can have a table of
clients and another of orders. The orders that belong to a certain client
they are identified by placing the customer's identification field on the order
(key field of the customer table), which allows linking the two tables.

Object-oriented databases: It is a relatively new structure.

which has generated great interest. The object-oriented data model is a
adaptation for the database systems of the paradigm of the
object-oriented programming. It is based on the concept of encapsulating
data elements, their characteristics, attributes and the code that operates on them
they in complex elements called objects. Structured objects are
they group into classes. The set of classes is structured into subclasses and
superclasses. Since the values of the data elements are also objects,
It is possible to represent the continents of objects, which gives rise to objects.
compounds.

Types of Databases.
There are some characteristics that allow to typify databases, since
These can be small or large, or their access can be limited or broad.
Thus, it is possible to establish four types: individual, shared, distributed
and owners.
Individual database: It is a database used basically by
a person. The database management system and the data are
controlled by the same user. It can be stored on the drive
 user's hard drive or on the file server of a local area network.
For example, a sales manager could have a database.
for the control of their sellers and their performance.

Shared database: These are databases with multiple users and

that very likely belong to the same organization, such as the
company database. It is stored in a
powerful computer and under the care of a professional in the field,
database administrator. Users have access to the database.
data via a local area network or a wide area network.

Distributed database: According to the nature of the organization it is

likely that the data is not stored in a single point, but rather that it
place them in a location or locations different from where the users are.
A distributed database is the union of the databases through
networks. Users connect to the database servers
distant through a wide variety of communication networks. It can
to imagine a company with different regional offices, where
the database is distributed. However, the executives can
to have access to the information from all regional offices.

Proprietary databases or data banks: It generally refers to

large databases, developed by an organization and that
contains specialized or particular themes. The general public
you can access this database sometimes for free and other times through
the payment of a fee. They can provide information that ranges from business,
economy, investment, technical and scientific up to entertainment services.
They allow you to find in minutes what would take hours to browse through magazines.