FOUNDATIONS OF INCLUSIVE AND SPECIAL EDUCATION

LEARNING
DISABILITIES
BY CONCEPCION, CARY SYDNY & PEREZ, DWAYNE KARLHEINZ
 It was coined by Samuel Kirk in a 1963 address to an
audience of parents whose children were experiencing
serious difficulties learning to read, write, spell, or solve
math problems (Heward, Alber-Morgan, & Konrad, 2016).

Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2016). Exceptional

children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY (FEDERAL DEFINITION)
Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using spoken or written language. It may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen,
think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual
disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia (Heward, Alber-
Morgan, & Konrad, 2016).

OPERATIONALIZING THE FEDERAL DEFINITION

When using the federal definition to identify students with learning disabilities,
most states require three criteria:(Heward, Alber-Morgan, & Konrad, 2016).
1.a severe discrepancy between the student’s intellectual ability and
academic achievement
2. an exclusion criterion—the student’s difficulties are not the result of
another known condition that can cause learning problems
3.A need for special education services

Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2016). Exceptional children:

An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson
NATIONAL JOINT COMMISION ON LEARNING DISABILITIES DEFINITION
The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (1990) believes that the federal definition of
learning disabilities contains several inherent weaknesses:
Excludes Adults – The term “children” limits understanding; learning disabilities span all ages.
Ambiguous Terminology – Phrases like “basic psychological processes” confuse instructional
issues with definition.
Spelling as a Disability – Should be included under broader categories like written expression.
Outdated Terms – Terms such as “minimal brain dysfunction” and “developmental aphasia” are
vague and unhelpful.
Exclusion Clause Issues – Suggests LDs can't coexist with other disabilities, which is misleading.

AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC DEFINITION

The American Psychiatric association (aPa) uses the term specific learning disorders instead of
learning disabilities. In 2013, the aPa revised its definition of learning disorders in the fifth edition of
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DsM-5).

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Specific learning disorder fact sheet—DSM-5. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved July 19, 2014, from
http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/Specific%20 Learning%20Disorder%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf.
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities. (1990). Definition of learning disabilities. Retrieved July 17, 2015 from www.ldonline.org/pdfs/njcld/
NJCLDDefinitionofLD.pdf
ACHIEVEMENT DISCREPANCY
According to federal guidelines accompanying the original IDEA, children were identified with learning
disabilities based on a “severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability” (U.S. Office of
Education, 1977). This IQ-achievement model was widely used but criticized for being unreliable,
inconsistent across states, and lacking empirical support (Fletcher et al., 2002; Kavale, 2002; Francis et al.,
2005; Fuchs & Young, 2006). These limitations led to a shift toward early identification models, such as
response to intervention (RTI).

EXCLUSION NEED FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION

The IDEA definition of learning disabilities Students with learning disabilities have significant
excludes learning problems mainly caused by learning difficulties despite receiving standard
other disabilities, cultural or environmental instruction and require specially designed teaching.
factors, or limited English proficiency. The term This ensures that children who simply lack learning
"primarily" allows for the possibility of coexisting opportunities are not misidentified. With appropriate
conditions, but in such cases, services are usually instruction, those without true disabilities should
provided under the other primary disability show adequate progress. (Heward, Alber-Morgan, &
category (Heward, Alber-Morgan, & Konrad, 2016). Konrad, 2016).

Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Barnes, M., Stuebing, K. K., Francis, D. J., Olson, R. K., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2002). Classification of learning disabilities: An evidence-based evaluation. In R. Bradley, L.
Danielson, & D. P. Hallahan (Eds.), Identification of learning disabilities: Research to practice (pp. 185–250). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Francis, D. J., Fletcher, J. M., Stuebing, K. K., Ryan, G. R., Shaywitz, B. A., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2005). Psychometric Approaches to the Identification of LD: IQ and achievement scores are not sufficient. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 38(2), 98–108.
Fuchs, D., & Young, C. L. (2006). On the irrelevance of intelligence in predicting responsiveness to reading instruction. Exceptional Children, 73(1), 8–30.
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2016). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson.
U.S. Office of Education. (1977). Procedures for evaluating specific learning disabilities. Federal Register, 42, 65082–65085.
 1.READING PROBLEMS
90% of all children identified as learning disabled are referred for special education because of reading
problems (Bender, 2007).
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a neurologically-based learning disability that affects word recognition, spelling, and decoding.
It is linked to difficulties with phonological processing, despite the individual having normal intelligence
and appropriate instruction (The International Dyslexia Association, 2002).
Reading Comprehension difficulties
Reading comprehension problems often stem from weak decoding and limited vocabulary. Some students
decode well but still struggle due to language comprehension issues. Most students with learning
disabilities face major challenges in understanding what they read (Spencer et al., 2014; Gajria et al., 2007).
These difficulties are linked to challenges in working memory, connecting to prior knowledge, and
understanding text structure (Borella et al., 2010; Swanson et al., 2010).

Bender, W. N. (2007). Learning disabilities: Characteristics, identification, and teaching strategies. (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Borella, E. Carretti, B., Pelegrina, S. (2010). The specific role of inhibition in reading comprehension in good and poor comprehenders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(6), 541–552.
Gajria, M., Jitendra, A. K., Sood, S., & Sacks, G. (2007). Improving comprehension of expository text in students with LD: A research synthesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 210–225.
International Dyslexia Association. (2008). Just the facts: Definition of dyslexia. Baltimore: Author. Retrieved from: http://www.interdys.org/.
Spencer, M., Quinn, J. M., & Wagner, R. K. (2014). Specific reading comprehension disability: Major problem, myth, or misnomer? Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 29(1), 3–9.
Swanson, H. L., Kehler, P., & Jerman, O. (2010). Working memory, strategy knowledge, and strat egy instruction in children with reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43, 24–47.
2. WRITTEN LANGUAGE DEFICITS
The National Center for educational statistics (2012) reported that only 27% of the nation’s 8th and 12th graders scored at or
above proficient in writing.
Students with learning disabilities perform significantly lower than their age-matched peers without disabilities on all written
expression tasks, including handwriting, spelling, punctuation, vocabulary, grammar, and expository writing (Graham & harris,
2003; troia, 2007).

3. MATH UNDERACHIEVEMENT
Numerical reasoning and calculation pose major problems for many students with learning disabilities; they perform lower
than typically achieving students on every type of math problem at every grade level (Cawley, Parmar, Foley, Salmon, & Roy,
2001).
These challenges are linked to working memory deficits, which affect the ability to hold and manipulate information during
problem-solving (Baddeley, 2000).

4. POOR SOCIAL SKILLS

Students with learning disabilities often have poor social skills, leading to rejection, low social status, and difficulty
forming friendships (Estell et al., 2009; Wiener & Tardiff, 2004).
These challenges may stem from misinterpreting social cues and difficulty recognizing nonverbal expressions
(Meadan & Halle, 2004; Most & Greenbank, 2000).

Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417–423.
Cawley, J., Parmar, R., Foley, T. E., Salmon, S., & Roy, S. (2001). Arithmetic performance of students: Implications for standards and programming. Exceptional Children, 67, 311–328.
Estell, D. B., Jones, M. H., Pearl, R., & Van Acker, R. (2009). Best friendships of students with and without learning disabilities across late elementary school. Exceptional Children, 76, 110–124.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2003). Students with learning disabilities and the process of writing. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 323–344). New York: Guilford.
Meadan, H., & Halle, J. W. (2004). Social perceptions of students with learning disabilities who differ in social status. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 19, 71–82
National Center for Education Statistics (2012). The Nation’s Report Card: Writing 2011 (NCES 2012–470). Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, D.C.
Troia, G. A. (2007). Writing instruction for students with learning disabilities. In C. A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 324–336). New York: Guilford.
5. ATTENTION DEFICITS AND HYPERACTIVITY
Some students with learning disabilities also struggle with attention and hyperactivity. These symptoms may lead to a
diagnosis of ADHD.
Students with both conditions perform worse in reading tasks, receive lower teacher ratings, and show poorer social skills
than those with learning disabilities alone (Wei, Yu, & Shaver, 2014).

6. BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
Students with learning disabilities show a higher rate of behavior problems (Kauffman & Landrum, 2013).
A study of over 600 adolescents found more risk-taking behaviors (e.g., smoking, aggression, gambling) among
those with learning disabilities (McNamara & Willoughby, 2010).

7. LOW SELF-ESTEEM OR SELF EFFICACY

Students with learning disabilities tend to have lower self-efficacy, mood, effort, and hope compared to their peers
without disabilities. It is unclear whether this is an inherent trait of learning disabilities or a result of ongoing academic
and social struggles (Cosden et al., 2002; Lackaye et al., 2006).

8. THE SIGNATURE CHARACTERISTIC

Despite being a highly diverse group, students with learning disabilities share a common trait: significantly low academic
achievement, even though they receive appropriate instruction and have average intelligence (Fuchs et al., 2015). Their
struggles reflect a clear gap between expected performance and actual ability.

Cosden, M., Brown, C., & Elliott, K. (2002). Devel opment of self-understanding and self-esteem in children and adults with learning disabilities. In B.Wong & M. Donahue (Eds.), The social dimensions of learning disabilities (pp. 33–51).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Compton, D. L., Wehby, J., Schumacher, R. F., Gersten, R., & Jordan, N. C. (2015). Inclusion versus specialized intervention for very-low-performing students: What does access mean in an era of academic challenge?
Exceptional Children, 81, 134–157.
Kauffman, J. M., & Landrum, T. J. (2013). Characteristics of emotional and behavioral disorders of children and youth (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Lackaye, T., Margalit, M., Ziv, O., & Ziman, T. (2006). Comparisons of self-efficacy, mood, effort, and hope between students with learning disabilities and their non-LD-match peers. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 21(2), 111–121.
McNamara, J.K., & Willoughby, T. (2010). A longitudinal study of risk taking behaviours in adolescents with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 25(1), 11–24.
Wei, X., Yu, J. W., & Shaver, D. (2014). Longitudinal effects of ADHD in children with learning disabilities or emotional disturbances. Exceptional Children, 80, 205–219.
 Learning disabilities (LD) is the largest special education category, with
nearly 2.4 million students served in 2010–2011 (U.S. Dept. of Education,
2013).
Identification rates vary widely by state, from 2.3% to 8.5%, due to
different diagnostic methods (U.S. Dept. of Education, 2013).
Since 2002, identification rates declined by 18%, likely due to early
interventions, improved reading instruction, and new identification
methods like RTI (Cortiella & Horowitz, 2014).
Some argue many low-achieving students are misdiagnosed as LD,
straining resources meant for true disabilities (Lyon, 1999).

Cortiella, C., & Horowitz, S. H. (2014). The State of Learning Disabilities: Facts, Trends and Emerging Issues. New York:
National Center for Learning Disabilities.
Lyon, G. R. (1999, December 12). Special education in state is failing on many fronts. Los Angeles Times, p. A1.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2013). Digest of Education Statistics, 2012
(NCES 2014–015).
 1. BRAIN DAMAGE OR DYSFUNCTION 3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Some professionals believe learning disabilities result from Longitudinal research (Hart & Risley, 1995) shows
neurological injury or central nervous system dysfunction that infants with less parent-child communication
(NJCLD). tend to have vocabulary, language, and intellectual
Neuroimaging (MRI, fMRI) shows differences in brain activation deficits before school.
and structure in individuals with reading and language Quality of instruction is another key environmental
disabilities, especially in the left temporal lobe (Gabrieli, 2009; factor; many educators agree that poor teaching
Miller, Sanchez, & Hynd, 2003; Richards, 2001). can cause learning difficulties (Engelmann, 1977).
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences
2. HEREDITY
in the everyday experience of young American
Growing evidence suggests genetics play a role in the familial link to
children. Baltimore: Brookes.
reading disabilities (Kirkpatrick, Legrand, Iacono, & McGue, 2011;
Engelmann, S. (1977). Sequencing cognitive and
Rosenberg, Pennington, Willcutt, & Olson, 2012).
academic tasks. In R. D. Kneedler & S. G. Tarver (Eds.),
Research has identified possible chromosomal locations associated
Changing perspectives in special education (pp. 46–
with genetic transmission of phonological deficits that may
61). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/ Pearson.
predispose children to future reading difficulties (Kaplan et al., 2002).

Engelmann, S. (1977). Sequencing cognitive and academic tasks. In R. D. Kneedler & S. G. Tarver (Eds.), Changing perspectives in special education (pp. 46–61). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/ Pearson.
Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2009). Dyslexia: A new synergy between education and neuroscience. Science, 325, 280–323.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore: Brookes.
Kaplan, D. E., Gayan, J., Ahn, J., Won, T. W., Pails, D. L., Olson, R. K., DeFries, C., Wood, F. B., Pen nington, B. F., Page, G. P., Smith, S. D., & Gruen, J. R. (2002). Evidence for linkage and association with reading disability. American Journal of Hu man Genetics, 70, 1287–1298.
Kirkpatrick, R. M., Legrand, L. N. Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2011). A twin and adoption study of reading achievement: Exploration of shared-environmental and gene-environment-interaction effects. Learning and Individual Differences, 21, 368–375.
Miller, C. J., Sanchez, J., & Hynd, G. W. (2003). Neurological correlates of reading disabilities. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 242–255). New York: Guilford.
Rosenberg, J., Pennington, B.F., Willcutt, E.G., & Olson, R.K. (2012). Gene by environment interactions in reading disability (RD) and the inattentive symptom dimension of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 243–251.
Challenges of People with Learning Disabilities (Vaughn, Zumeta, Wanzek, Cook, & Klinger, 2014)*
Information Organization
Ineffective and Inefficient Approach to Learning Tasks
Limited Background Knowledge (of classroom activities)
Instructional Requirements (Vaughn et. al., 2014)*
Intensive and Frequent Individualized Interventions
Explicit Instruction
Active Student Engagement and Motivating Materials
Frequent Practice
Systematic Feed
back
Six Major Principles of Effective Instructional Design (Coyne, Kame’enui, & Carnine, 2011)**
Big Ideas
Conspicuous Strategies Six Major Principles of Effective Instructional Design (Coyne, Kame’enui, & Carnine, 2011
Mediated Scaffolding Big Ideas
Strategic Integration Conspicuous Strategies
Pimed Background Knowledge Mediated Scaffolding
Judicious Review Strategic Integration
Pimed Background Knowledge
Judicious Review
* Vaughn, S., Zumeta, R., Wanzek, J., Cook, B., & Klinger, J. (2014, February). Intensive interventions for students with
learning disabilities in the RTI era. Position Statement #1. Retrieved from http://TeachingLD.org/pages/position-
papers/.
** Coyne, M. D., Kame’enui, E. J., & Carnine, D. W. (Eds.). (2011). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse
learners (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
READING
WRITING
Principles of Early Reading Instruction
Students can learn to self-monitor their
Begin teaching phonemic awareness directly
in kindergarten.
writing and correct errors. Teachers can
Teach each letter–phoneme relationship create individualized self-monitoring
explicitly. checklists that target specific editing skills
Teach frequent, highly regular letter–sound (Mason, Harris, & Graham, 2011)*
relationships systematically
Show children exactly how to sound out words Examples of learning strategies for writing
Give children connected, decodable text to
C-SPACE (Graham & Harris, 1992)**
practice the letter–phoneme relationships
COPS (Schumaker et. al., 1981)***
Use interesting stories to develop language
comprehension POW-TREE (Sandmel et. al., 2009)****
Heward, W. L. (2005). Reasons applied behavior analysis is good for education and why those reasons have been insufficient. In W. L. Heward, T. E. Heron, N. A. Neef, S. M. Peterson, D. M. Sainato, G. Cartledge,
R. Gardner III, L. D. Pe- terson, S. B. Hersh, & J. C. Dardig (Eds.), Focus on behavior analysis in education: Achievements, challenges, and opportunities (pp. 316–348). Up- per Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Pearson.
Mason, L. H., Harris, K. R., Graham, S. (2011). Self-regulated strategy development for students with writing difficulties. Theory Into Practice, 50, 20–27.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. (1992). Cognitive strategy instruction in written language for learning dis- abled students. In S. Vogel (Ed.), Educational alternatives for students with learning disabilities (pp. 91–115).
New York: Springer-Verlag.
Schumaker, J. B., Deshler, D. D., Nolan, S., Clark, F. L. Alley, G. R., & Warner, M. M. (1981). Error monitoring: A strategy for improving academic performance of LD adolescents (Research Rep. No. 34).
Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas.
Sandmel, K. N., Brindle, M., Harris, K. R., Lane, K. L., Graham, S., Nackel, J., Mathias, R., & Little, A. (2009). Making it work: Differentiating tier two self-regulated strategies development in writing in tandem
with school wide positive behavioral support. Teaching Exceptional Children, 42(2), 22–33.
Jayanthi, Gersten, and Baker (2008)
use explicit instruction; SOLVE (Freeman-Green, O’Brien, Wood, & Hitt, 2015)
provide many teaching examples; used for mathematical word problems
have students verbally state the steps as they solve problems Study the problem
and make visual representations; Organize the facts
provide continuous assessment to inform instructional Line up a plan
decisions, use peer-mediated instruction (e.g., classwide Verify your plan with action
peer tutoring, cooperative learning groups); Evaluate your answer
and teach learning strategies for problem solving.

Elementary and secondary students with learning disabilities benefit from math instruction that progresses in a concrete–representational–
abstract sequence (Flores, Hinton, & Strozier, 2014; Poch, van Garderen, & Scheuermann, 2015; Strickland & Mancini, 2013)*.
At the concrete stage, students use manipulatives such as place value blocks and counters.
When students demonstrate competence at the concrete stage, they move to the representational stage when they examine or draw
pictures of objects representing the math problems.
In the abstract stage, the students use only numbers to solve problems.

Jayanthi, M., Gersten, R., & Baker, S. (2008). Math- ematics instruction for students with learning disabilities or difficulty learning mathematics: A guide for teachers. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation,
Center on Instruction.
Freeman-Green, W. M., O’Brien, C., Wood, C. L. & Hitt, B. (2015). Effects of the SOLVE strategy on the mathematical problem solving skills of sec- ondary students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities
Research & Practice, 30, 76–90.
Flores, M., Hinton, V., Strozier, S. D. (2014). Teach- ing subtraction and multiplication with regroup- ing using the concrete-representational-abstract sequence and strategic instruction model. Learning
Disabilities Research & Practice, 29(2), 75–88.
Poch, A. L., van Garderen, D., & Scheuermann, A. M. (2015). Students’ understanding of diagrams for solving word problems: A framework for assessing diagram proficiency. Teaching Exceptional Children, 47, 153–
162.
Strickland, T. K., & Mancini, P. (2013). The effects of the concrete-representational-abstract integration strategy on the ability of students with learning disabilities to multiply linear expressions within area
problems. Remedial and Special Education, 34(3), 142–153.
GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
Content enhancement is a general term for a wide range of techniques teachers use to
enhance the organization and delivery of curriculum content so that students can better
access, interact with, comprehend, and retain that information (Bulgren, Deshler, & Lenz, 2007).
Teachers must be thoughtful about the curriculum content and what learning approaches
students need to be successful with the content.
Graphic organizers are visual-spatial arrangements of information containing words or
concepts connected graphically that help students see meaningful hierarchical, comparative,
and sequential relationships (Dye, 2000; Ellis & Howard, 2007; Ives, 2007).
Computer-based graphic organizers are another good option for students with learning
disabilities.

Bulgren, J. A., Deshler, D. D, & Lenz, B. K. (2007). Engaging adolescents with LD in higher order thinking about history concepts using integrated content enhancement
routines. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 121–133.
Dye, G. A. (2000). Graphic organizers to the rescue! Helping student link—and remember—information. Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(3), 72–76.
Ellis, E. S., & Howard, P. W. (2007). Graphic organizers: Power tools for teaching students with learning disabilities. Current Practice Alerts, Issue 13. Reston, VA: Division
for Learning Disabilities and Division for Research, Council for Exceptional Children. Retrieved September 12, 2011, from http://teachingld.org/alerts#the-alert-series.
Ives, B. (2007). Graphic organizers applied to secondary algebra instruction for students with learning disorders. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 22, 110–118.
NOTE TAKING STRATEGIES
Students who take notes and study them later consistently receive higher test scores than do
students who only listen to the lecture and read the text (Kiewra, 2002). Meanwhile, one study
found that middle school students with learning disabilities accurately recorded only 13% of
science lecture content (Boyle, 2010).
Strategic note taking involves specially designed note paper containing cues such as: “What
do you already know about this topic?” or “List new vocabulary and terms” that help students
organize information and combine new knowledge with prior knowledge (Boyle, 2013).
Guided notes are teacher-prepared handouts that provide an outline of the lecture content,
which students complete during class by writing in key facts, concepts, or relations (Konrad,
Joseph, & Itoi, 2011).

Kiewra, K. A. (2002). How classroom teachers can help students learn and teach them how to learn. Theory and Practice, 41, 71–80.
Boyle, J. R. (2010). Note-taking skills of middle school students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of learning disabilities, 43(6),
530–540.
Boyle, J. R. (2013). Strategic note-taking for inclusive middle school science classrooms. Remedial and Special Education, 34(2), 78–90.
Konrad, K., Joseph, L. M., & Itoi, M. (2011). Using guided notes to enhance instruction for all students. Intervention in School and Clinic, 46,
131–140.
MNEMONICS
Letter strategies - “Kids playing croquet on freeways get smashed” can help
students remember the life sciences classification system: kingdom, phylum, class,
order, family, genus, and species (Kleinheksel & Summy, 2003)
Keyword method - links a new, unfamiliar word with familiar information.
Mastropieri and Scruggs (2014) give the following example of how a teacher could
use a keyword mnemonic to help a student remember that the Italian word strada
means “road.”
Pegword method - uses rhyming words for numbers (1 is “bun,” 2 is “shoe,” 3 is
“tree,” and so on) when information to be remembered is numbered or ordered
(Heward, Alber-Morgan, & Konrad, 2016).
Kleinheksel, K. A., & Summy, S. E. (2003). Enhancing student learning and social behavior through mnemonic strategies. Teaching
Exceptional Children, 36(2), 30–35.
Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2014). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective instruction (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson.
Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2016). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson
GENERAL EDUCATION CLASSROOM
IDEA requires that students with disabilities be educated with students without disabilities, have access to the core
curriculum to the maximum extent possible, and be removed from the general education classroom only to the extent their
disability necessitates (Heward, Alber-Morgan, & Konrad, 2016)*.

Research on the academic achievement of students with learning Special educators can help students with learning disabilities
disabilities in inclusive classrooms is mixed (Heward et. al., 2016)*. succeed in inclusive classrooms by teaching them behaviors valued
better learning outcomes than in pull-out programs‌ by general education teachers.‌
disappointing achievement results majority of K–12 teachers rated self-control and cooperation as
concerns about inadequate instruction the most essential (Lane, Givner, & Pierson, 2004).
teachers’ limited understanding of learning needs of students treating teachers and peers with courtesy among the most
with LD important skills for success in the general education classroom
poor acceptance by teachers, peers, or both (Ellet, 1993).

SPECIAL TEACHER
A consultant teacher provides support to general education classroom teachers and other staff members who work directly
with students with learning disabilities. The consultant teacher helps the general education teacher select assessment
devices, curriculum materials, and instructional activities (Heward et. al., 2016)*.
A drawback is that most consultant teachers have little direct contact with students (Heward et. al., 2016)*.

Lane, K. L., Givner, C. C., & Pierson, M. R. (2004). Teacher expectations of student behavior: Social skills are necessary for success in elementary
classrooms. Journal of Special Education, 38, 104–110.
Ellet, L. (1993). Instructional practices in mainstreamed secondary classrooms. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 57–64.
*Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2016). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson
RESOURCE ROOM
A resource room is a specially staffed and equipped classroom where students with learning disabilities come for one or
several periods during the school day to receive individualized instruction (Heward, Alber-Morgan, & Konrad, 2016)*.
In addition to teaching students with learning disabilities, the resource teacher also works closely with each student’s
general education teacher(s) to suggest and help plan each student’s program in the general education classroom
(Heward et. al., 2016)*.

DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
require students to spend time traveling between
students do not lose their identity with their general
classrooms‌
education class peer group;‌
may result in inconsistent instructional approaches
students can receive the intensive, individualized
between settings‌
instruction they need every day;
can make it difficult to determine whether and how
flexible scheduling allows the resource room to serve a
students should be held accountable for what they
fairly large number of students.
missed while out of the general education classroom

RESOURCE ROOM
The academic achievement deficiencies of some children with learning disabilities are so severe that they need full-
time placement in a setting with a specially trained teacher (Heward et. al., 2016)*.
In a separate classroom, a special education teacher is responsible for all educational programming for 8 to 12 students
with learning disabilities (Heward et. al., 2016)*.
A student should be placed in a separate classroom only after legitimate and supported attempts to serve her
effectively in less restrictive environments have proven unsuccessful (Heward et. al., 2016)*.

Heward, W. L., Alber-Morgan, S. R., & Konrad, M. (2016). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (11th ed.). Pearson
AUTHORS & PUBLICATION YEAR
Lauren D. Goegan, Lily Le, Lia M. Daniels (2023)

REFERENCE
Goegan, L. D., Le, L., & Daniels, L. M. (2023). Online Learning is a Rollercoaster: Postsecondary Students With Learning Disabilities Navigate the COVID-
19 Pandemic. Learning Disability Quarterly, 46(3), 166–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/07319487221090912

KEYWORDS
learning disabilities, postsecondary education, undergraduate, online learning, COVID-19, phenomenology

SPECIFIC QUESTIONS
1.What are the lived experience of students with LD during the COVID-19 pandemic and online learning?
2.How do students with LD make sense of their online learning experiences?

METHODOLOGY
Phenomenology is the study's research design (Goegan, Le, & Daniels, 2023).
Moreover, the study gave six participants pseudonyms to ensure anonymity. The participants were all university students with learning disabilities
and varied with the courses they took.
Furthermore, the researchers collaboratively created a semistructured interview schedule to guide the conversations.
The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed by two of the authors following the steps for phenomenological qualitative analysis outlined
by Creswell and Poth (2017).

Goegan, L. D., Le, L., & Daniels, L. M. (2023). Online Learning is a Rollercoaster: Postsecondary Students With Learning Disabilities Navigate the COVID-19 Pandemic. Learning
Disability Quarterly, 46(3), 166–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/07319487221090912
Creswell J. W., Poth C. (2017). Qualitative inquiry and research design (4th ed.). SAGE.
FINDINGS
One student mentioned no longer needing the isolation room on campus as a result of working from home. Other students
who needed to transfer accommodations online expressed that it was a troublesome process.
For some students, accommodations were often viewed as necessary to their academic success. In some instances,
instructors did their best to accommodate students, such as the few who provided extra time to help students.
Students also reported experiencing barriers to accessing accommodations. Having to advocate for accommodations was a
common occurrence, both when it came to in-person and remote learning settings. The onus to receive accommodations
often fell on the students.
Some students mentioned certain accommodations were not necessary for online learning. For example, students who
recorded lectures when in-person did not require this accommodation for asynchronous classes.
On the contrary, students also noted some accommodations were difficult to obtain, and some instructors were more
accommodating than others.

CONCLUSION
The responses from the students identified experiences specifically related to being a student with LD such as accessing
accommodations online, and the broader impact of having an LD. Moreover, the participants identified several themes related
to the student experience more broadly such as how learning online is different, the role of others (e.g., instructors and peers),
the emotional impact of learning online during a pandemic and the importance of resilience and perseverance.

Goegan, L. D., Le, L., & Daniels, L. M. (2023). Online Learning is a Rollercoaster: Postsecondary Students With Learning Disabilities Navigate the COVID-19 Pandemic. Learning
Disability Quarterly, 46(3), 166–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/07319487221090912