Distributed Systems Exam Questions

and Answers
1. What is a distributed system?
A distributed system is a collection of independent computers that appear to the user as a
single system. These systems are connected over a network and collaborate to achieve a
common goal, often involving resource sharing, fault tolerance, and scalability.

2. What are the key characteristics of a distributed system?

Key characteristics of a distributed system include:
- Concurrency: Multiple processes run simultaneously.
- Scalability: The system can grow to handle more users or tasks.
- Fault Tolerance: The system continues to operate despite failures.
- Transparency: The system hides complexity from users.
- Openness: The system is built using standard protocols.
- Resource Sharing: Resources like data and hardware are shared.
- Heterogeneity: The system consists of different hardware, software, and protocols.
- Synchronization: Coordination of processes to ensure consistency.

3. What is the FLP Impossibility Theorem?

The FLP Impossibility Theorem states that in an asynchronous distributed system with
process crashes, it is impossible to guarantee consensus (agreement) among processes. This
result highlights the difficulty of achieving reliable communication in systems that involve
failures and network delays.

4. Explain the CAP Theorem.

The CAP Theorem states that in a distributed system, you can achieve at most two of the
following three properties:
- Consistency: All nodes have the same data at any given time.
- Availability: Every request gets a response, even if some nodes are down.
- Partition Tolerance: The system works even when network partitions occur.
A system can only choose two out of these three properties to optimize.
5. What are the differences between full servers and stateless servers?
Full (stateful) servers remember client interactions, maintaining session data (e.g., login
state), while stateless servers do not store client data between requests, making them
simpler and easier to scale, but requiring more data to be sent with each request.

6. What is Amdahl's Law?

Amdahl's Law describes the potential speedup of a system when only part of it can be
parallelized. It states that the speedup is limited by the portion of the system that cannot be
parallelized. The formula is:
Speedup = 1 / ((1 - P) + P/N)
Where P is the parallelizable portion, and N is the number of processors.

7. What is Remote Procedure Call (RPC)?

A Remote Procedure Call (RPC) allows a program to execute a procedure on a remote server
as if it were a local function. The calling program sends a request to the remote system,
which processes the request and returns the result.

8. What is mutual exclusion in distributed systems?

Mutual exclusion ensures that only one process can access a shared resource at a time to
avoid conflicts. In distributed systems, this is achieved through algorithms like Lamport’s
algorithm, Ricart-Agrawala, or token-based methods.

9. What is the difference between a client-server model and a peer-to-

peer model?
In the client-server model, clients request services from a central server. In the peer-to-peer
model, all nodes are equal and can act as both clients and servers, sharing resources directly
with each other.

10. Explain the concept of fault tolerance in distributed systems.

Fault tolerance is the ability of a distributed system to continue functioning even when one
or more of its components fail. It is achieved through redundancy, error detection, and
recovery mechanisms, such as replication and consensus protocols.
Section B: 5 and 10 Mark Questions
1. Describe the role of middlewares in distributed systems. Provide
examples of how middleware helps in communication and resource
management.
Middleware in distributed systems acts as an intermediary layer that facilitates
communication and data management between different applications or systems. It ensures
compatibility between heterogeneous systems, helps with task coordination, data
transformation, and improves fault tolerance. Examples include message queues, object
request brokers (ORBs), and database middleware.

2. What are the different types of distributed systems? Explain each with
examples.
The types of distributed systems include:
- Client-Server Model: Involves clients requesting services from a centralized server (e.g.,
web servers).
- Peer-to-Peer Model: All nodes act as both clients and servers, directly sharing resources
(e.g., BitTorrent).
- Cloud Computing: Resources are provided and managed by a cloud provider, accessed via
the internet (e.g., AWS, Google Cloud).
- Cluster Computing: Multiple systems connected to work as a single unit, often for high-
performance tasks (e.g., Hadoop clusters).

3. Explain the difference between network operating systems and

distributed operating systems. Discuss their characteristics.
A Network Operating System (NOS) provides networking capabilities for individual systems
but does not combine them into a single unified system. It allows resources to be shared
across machines. A Distributed Operating System (DOS), on the other hand, manages
multiple machines as a single system, hiding the complexity from the user. NOS focuses
more on communication, while DOS focuses on coordination and resource sharing.

4. What are the main challenges in ensuring security in distributed

systems? How can these challenges be addressed?
The main security challenges include:
- Authentication: Verifying the identity of users and systems.
- Confidentiality: Ensuring that sensitive data is not exposed during transmission.
 - Integrity: Preventing unauthorized modification of data.
- Authorization: Ensuring that users can only access resources they are permitted to.
- Fault tolerance: Protecting the system from attacks and failures.
These can be addressed using encryption, secure communication protocols (e.g., SSL/TLS),
firewalls, access control mechanisms, and regular security updates.

5. Explain the difference between synchronous and asynchronous

communication in distributed systems. Provide examples of each.
In **synchronous communication**, the sender and receiver must wait for each other to
complete communication before proceeding (e.g., a telephone call). In **asynchronous
communication**, the sender and receiver do not have to wait for each other, allowing them
to operate independently (e.g., email or messaging systems). Synchronous systems are
simpler but less efficient, while asynchronous systems allow for better scalability and
performance.

6. Discuss the importance of consistency and availability in distributed

databases. How do consistency models affect system design?
Consistency ensures that all nodes in a distributed database have the same data at any given
time. Availability ensures that every request to the system gets a response. The balance
between consistency and availability is crucial for system design, with models like
**Eventual Consistency**, **Strong Consistency**, and **Causal Consistency** influencing
how updates are propagated and conflicts are resolved. The choice depends on the system's
requirements for fault tolerance, response time, and data accuracy.

7. What is the role of fault tolerance in distributed systems? Explain the

different techniques used to achieve fault tolerance.
Fault tolerance ensures that a distributed system can continue operating even when one or
more components fail. Techniques include data **replication** (keeping copies of data on
multiple nodes), **checkpointing** (saving the state of the system periodically),
**redundancy** (having backup systems ready), and **error detection and recovery** (e.g.,
using consensus protocols like Paxos to recover from failures).

8. Describe the process of resource management in a distributed system.

How does it ensure optimal performance?
Resource management in a distributed system involves allocation, scheduling, and
balancing the workload across multiple machines. It ensures optimal performance by
dynamically distributing tasks based on resource availability, managing computational load,
and preventing overloading any single resource. Techniques such as load balancing,
resource reservation, and task scheduling algorithms help ensure resources are used
efficiently.

9. Define and explain the concept of **mutual exclusion** in a distributed

system. How can mutual exclusion be achieved?
Mutual exclusion ensures that only one process can access a shared resource at a time. It is
necessary to avoid conflicts in systems where multiple processes might try to modify shared
data. Algorithms like **Lamport's Algorithm**, **Ricart-Agrawala Algorithm**, and
**Token-Based Algorithms** are used to achieve mutual exclusion in distributed systems.

10. What are the key factors to consider when designing a distributed
system? Discuss their impact on system performance.
Key factors include:
- **Scalability**: The system's ability to handle increased load.
- **Fault tolerance**: The system’s ability to continue functioning despite failures.
- **Communication overhead**: The cost of transmitting data between nodes.
- **Consistency**: Ensuring data remains consistent across all nodes.
- **Security**: Protecting data and processes from unauthorized access.
Designing with these factors in mind ensures a robust, efficient, and scalable system.