🔷 1.

Definition of Computer Network

A Computer Network is a group of interconnected computers and other devices that
communicate and share resources like files, internet, printers, etc.

🔑 Key Points:

1. Definition: A computer network is a collection of computers connected together to share

information and resources.
2. Connection medium: Devices are connected using cables (wired) or radio signals
(wireless).
3. Communication: It allows computers to send and receive data.
4. Resource Sharing: Resources like printers, files, and internet are shared across the
network.
5. Nodes: Each device on a network is called a node.
6. Types: There are several types—LAN, MAN, WAN.
7. Protocols: Communication happens using standard rules called protocols (e.g., TCP/IP).
8. Topology: The layout of a network is called topology (Star, Bus, etc.).
9. Security: Network security ensures data is not misused or hacked.
10. Cost-effective: Networking reduces hardware cost by sharing resources.

🔷 2. Uses of Computer Network

Computer networks have a wide range of applications in our daily lives.

🧾 Uses:

1. File Sharing: Users can easily share files between devices.

2. Resource Sharing: Printers, scanners, and storage can be shared among multiple users.
3. Communication: Enables email, video calls, messaging apps (like Zoom, Teams).
4. Internet Access: Provides connectivity to the internet for browsing and services.
5. Remote Access: Allows working from anywhere by accessing the network remotely.
6. Data Backup: Centralized servers help in easy data backup and recovery.
7. Multiplayer Gaming: Enables real-time online gaming.
8. Business Operations: Helps in managing daily business operations (e.g., sales, billing).
9. Education: Supports e-learning platforms and virtual classrooms.
10. Collaboration: Tools like Google Docs or MS Teams enable team collaboration.
🔷 3. Network Device: Bridge
A Bridge connects and filters traffic between two network segments and works at Data Link
Layer (Layer 2).

🔧 Key Features:

1. Purpose: Connects two LAN segments.

2. Layer: Operates at OSI Layer 2 (Data Link Layer).
3. Traffic Filter: Filters data using MAC addresses.
4. Collision Domain: Divides a large collision domain into smaller ones.
5. Bandwidth Improvement: Reduces unnecessary traffic, improving bandwidth.
6. Transparency: Works transparently—users don’t know it exists.
7. Learning: Learns MAC addresses of connected devices.
8. Limitation: Does not work well in large networks.
9. Types: Simple Bridge, Transparent Bridge, Source Routing Bridge.
10. Example: Connecting two office floors on the same network.

🔷 4. Network Device: Switch

A Switch is a smart device that connects multiple devices in a LAN and forwards data to the
correct device.

⚙️Features:

1. Layer: Operates at Data Link Layer (some at Layer 3).

2. MAC Address Table: Maintains a table of MAC addresses for efficient delivery.
3. Data Forwarding: Sends data only to the intended recipient.
4. Multiple Ports: Has many ports to connect several devices.
5. Reduces Traffic: Unlike hubs, it reduces network congestion.
6. Full Duplex: Supports sending and receiving data at the same time.
7. Speed: Faster than bridges and hubs.
8. Security: Some switches allow port security.
9. Managed vs Unmanaged: Managed switches can be configured; unmanaged are plug-
and-play.
10. Used in LAN: Commonly used in home and business networks.
🔷 5. Network Device: Router
A Router connects multiple networks together and directs data from one network to another.

🌐 Key Features:

1. Layer: Works at Network Layer (Layer 3).

2. IP Routing: Uses IP addresses to forward data packets.
3. Internet Connection: Connects home or office network to the internet.
4. Default Gateway: Acts as a gateway for local network.
5. Traffic Management: Chooses the best path for data.
6. Security: Offers firewall and access control features.
7. Wireless Routing: Most home routers also have wireless access points.
8. Dynamic Routing: Can adjust paths using protocols like RIP, OSPF.
9. NAT (Network Address Translation): Converts private IPs to public IP.
10. Example: Home router provided by ISPs like Jio, Airtel, etc.

🔷 6. Network Device: Gateway

A Gateway is a device that connects two different networks using different protocols.

🔄 Key Points:

1. Protocol Translator: Converts one protocol into another.

2. Layer: Works across all layers of OSI model (mostly Layer 5–7).
3. Example: Connecting a TCP/IP network to an ATM network.
4. Used in Enterprises: Used for email, VoIP, cloud communications.
5. Complex Device: More complex than routers or switches.
6. Security Role: Can include firewall functions.
7. Application Gateway: Allows apps on different platforms to communicate.
8. Protocol Gateway: Converts between different protocols (e.g., HTTP to FTP).
9. Default Gateway: Usually set on computers to send data outside local network.
10. Example: API Gateway, VoIP Gateway.
🔷 7. Network Device: Access Point (AP)
An Access Point allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi.

📡 Key Features:

1. Wireless Connectivity: Enables wireless access to a wired LAN.

2. Bridge Role: Works like a wireless bridge between devices and LAN.
3. SSID Broadcast: Sends signals with network name (SSID) for devices to connect.
4. Authentication: Can use password protection (WPA2, WPA3).
5. Range: Has a limited coverage area (depends on antenna and power).
6. Device Capacity: Can support multiple wireless users at once.
7. Connected to Router/Switch: Provides internet through router connection.
8. Mesh Network: Can be used in mesh systems to extend coverage.
9. Indoor/Outdoor APs: Designed for home, office, or outdoor environments.
10. Example: Wi-Fi access point in college or café.

🔶 1. Bus Topology

A bus topology uses a single central cable (the bus) to which all devices are connected.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Single Backbone: All devices are connected to one central cable.

2. Linear Structure: Looks like a straight line.
3. Terminator: Ends have terminators to absorb signals and prevent reflection.
4. Simple Setup: Easy to install and configure.
5. Less Cable Needed: Economical for small networks.
6. Broadcast Transmission: Data is sent in both directions from source.
7. No Central Device: Unlike star topology, no hub or switch is needed.
8. Failure Impact: If backbone fails, entire network goes down.
9. Low Cost: Cheaper than other topologies.
10. Difficult Troubleshooting: Identifying faulty nodes can be tough.
11. Limited Devices: Supports limited number of devices due to signal weakening.
12. Slow Speed: Performance decreases with more devices.
13. Passive Topology: Devices don’t regenerate signal.
14. Used In: Small offices or labs.
 15. Collision Possibility: Higher chances of data collision.

Diagram:
less
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Device1 --- Device2 --- Device3 --- Device4
\ | /
------ BUS Cable -----
[Terminator] [Terminator]

🔶 2. Star Topology

In star topology, each device connects to a central device (hub or switch).

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Central Node: All devices connect to a central hub/switch.

2. Independent Links: Each link is independent of others.
3. Easy Troubleshooting: Faulty devices don’t affect the rest.
4. More Cable Needed: Requires more cabling.
5. Fast Data Transfer: Minimal collision due to dedicated paths.
6. Central Point of Failure: Hub/switch failure disrupts the network.
7. Scalability: Easy to add/remove devices.
8. High Performance: Suitable for modern LANs.
9. Managed Devices: Switches can be configured for better performance.
10. Simple to Understand: Straightforward layout.
11. Security: Easier to control access via switch.
12. Maintenance: Centralized monitoring is easier.
13. Cost: More expensive due to extra devices.
14. Used In: Homes, schools, offices.
15. Redundancy Possible: Can add backup switches for reliability.

Diagram:
lua
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+------+
| Hub |
+--+---+
|
+----------+----------+----------+
| | | |
Device1 Device2 Device3 Device4

🔶 3. Ring Topology

In ring topology, each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a ring.
📌 Key Points (15):

1. Circular Layout: Forms a closed loop.

2. Point-to-Point Links: Each device connects to two others.
3. Unidirectional or Bidirectional: Data can flow one way or both ways.
4. Token Passing: A token is passed to allow data transfer (used in Token Ring).
5. Equal Access: Every device has equal opportunity.
6. No Central Device: All nodes work together.
7. Easy Installation: Moderate complexity.
8. Failure Sensitive: One node failure may disrupt the ring.
9. Difficult Troubleshooting: Harder to isolate faults.
10. Delay: More nodes = more delay.
11. Less Collision: Controlled access reduces collision.
12. Performance: Good under light to moderate traffic.
13. Used In: Some MAN/WAN systems.
14. Upgrading: Inserting/removing devices is tricky.
15. Redundant Ring: Dual rings used for fault tolerance.

Diagram:
lua
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Device1 --- Device2
| |
Device4 --- Device3
\_______/

🔶 4. Tree Topology

Tree topology combines characteristics of star and bus topologies in a hierarchical form.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Hierarchical Structure: Parent-child relationship among devices.

2. Root Node: Central node branches to others.
3. Multi-level Network: Supports layers of devices.
4. Combines Topologies: Mix of star and bus.
5. Scalable: Easy to expand by adding branches.
6. Organized Layout: Neat and logical grouping.
7. Troubleshooting: Easier due to structure.
8. Failure Impact: Node failure affects its subtree only.
9. Cable Requirement: High cabling for large trees.
10. Central Control: Often controlled at root or intermediate level.
11. Flexible Management: Each branch can be managed separately.
12. Used In: Large organizations or schools.
13. Cost: Moderate to high due to cabling.
14. Signal Amplification: Needed for long distances.
 15. Bandwidth Management: Easier to allocate traffic loads.

Diagram:
mathematica
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Root Switch
/ | \
Hub1 Hub2 Hub3
/ \ | |
PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4

🔶 5. Mesh Topology

In mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Full Connectivity: Every node is linked to every other node.

2. High Redundancy: Multiple paths ensure fault tolerance.
3. Reliable: Failure of one link doesn't affect communication.
4. Robustness: Most fault-tolerant topology.
5. Expensive: High cost due to many cables.
6. Complex Installation: Hard to set up and manage.
7. No Traffic Congestion: Dedicated links avoid collisions.
8. Fast Communication: Direct path ensures low delay.
9. Used In: Military, banking, critical networks.
10. Security: Harder to intercept communication.
11. Scalability Issues: Adding devices increases complexity.
12. Maintenance: Difficult and costly.
13. Number of Links: For N devices, (N*(N-1))/2 links.
14. Partial Mesh: Some devices fully connected, others not.
15. Routing Complexity: Needs intelligent routing protocols.

Diagram:
lua
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Device1 ----- Device2
|\ / |
| \ / |
Device4 --- Device3
🔶 6. Hybrid Topology

Hybrid topology combines two or more topologies, like star-bus, star-ring, etc.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Combination: Mix of two or more basic topologies.

2. Flexible Design: Can be customized for various needs.
3. Common in Practice: Most real-world networks are hybrid.
4. Scalable: Easy to expand by adding topologies.
5. Performance: Optimized using best features of each type.
6. Redundancy Possible: Supports backup paths.
7. Fault Isolation: Faults in one part don’t affect others.
8. Complex Management: More devices and layout planning needed.
9. Costly: More devices = higher cost.
10. Used In: Colleges, enterprises, large institutions.
11. Efficient Utilization: Better traffic handling.
12. Supports Hierarchy: Can have layered or modular structure.
13. Custom Security: Security policies per section.
14. Troubleshooting: Varies based on combined topology.
15. Real-Life Example: Star-bus used in office LAN.

Diagram (Example of Star-Bus):

less
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[ Switch ]
|
---------------
| | |
PC1 PC2 [Hub]
|
PC3 PC4
🔷 1. LAN (Local Area Network)
A LAN connects computers within a small area like a home, school, or office.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Full Form: Local Area Network.

2. Limited Range: Covers area up to 1 km (e.g., a building).
3. Ownership: Usually owned and maintained by a single organization.
4. High Speed: Typically 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps.
5. Wired/Wireless: Can use Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi.
6. Topology Used: Star, Bus, or Ring topologies.
7. Inexpensive: Cheaper setup and maintenance.
8. Centralized Resources: Shares printers, files, software.
9. Low Latency: Minimal delays in data transfer.
10. Security: Easier to control access.
11. Easy Setup: Simple to install and manage.
12. Ideal For: Schools, labs, offices, homes.
13. Protocols Used: Ethernet, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11).
14. Maintenance: Requires a basic technical team.
15. Devices Used: Switch, router, access point, cables.

Diagram:
markdown
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PC1 ———
| \
Switch —— PC2
| /
Printer

🔷 2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A MAN covers a city or a large campus using high-speed connections.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Full Form: Metropolitan Area Network.

2. Coverage: Covers cities or towns (~5 to 50 km).
3. Ownership: May be shared by several organizations.
4. Connectivity: Often uses fiber optics.
5. Backbone: Used as backbone for connecting LANs.
 6. Medium Speed: Slower than LAN, faster than WAN.
7. Used By: ISPs, government, universities.
8. Example: Cable TV networks in a city.
9. Protocols: Ethernet, ATM, FDDI.
10. Setup Cost: Higher than LAN.
11. Reliability: More reliable than WAN.
12. Security: More exposed; needs encryption.
13. Maintenance: Requires skilled administrators.
14. Application: Sharing internet across campuses.
15. Common Use: Public Wi-Fi zones, city-wide CCTV.

Diagram:
css
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[Campus A LAN] [Campus B LAN]
\ /
---- MAN ----
/ \
[ISP LAN] [City Center LAN]

🔷 3. WAN (Wide Area Network)

A WAN connects networks over long distances, often globally.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Full Form: Wide Area Network.

2. Global Range: Covers countries and continents.
3. Ownership: Managed by multiple providers.
4. Internet is WAN: The largest example.
5. Low Speed: Slower due to long-distance.
6. Expensive Setup: Costly infrastructure like satellites.
7. Uses Public Networks: Often uses telephone lines or leased lines.
8. Switching Types: Circuit and packet switching.
9. Protocols: TCP/IP, MPLS.
10. Security Risks: Requires firewalls, VPN.
11. Latency: Higher delay compared to LAN/MAN.
12. Devices Used: Routers, modems, satellite links.
13. Maintenance: Requires service providers.
14. Example: Bank ATMs connecting globally.
15. Use Case: Inter-office communication worldwide.
Diagram:

csharp
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[India Office LAN] ——\
\
—— WAN — Internet ——
/
[USA Office LAN] ——/

🔷 4. PAN (Personal Area Network)

A PAN is a small network centered around one person, like Bluetooth or mobile hotspot.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Full Form: Personal Area Network.

2. Range: Up to 10 meters.
3. Devices: Mobile, smartwatch, laptop, etc.
4. Wireless Medium: Usually uses Bluetooth or Infrared.
5. Wired PAN: Possible using USB.
6. Low Cost: No extra equipment needed.
7. Speed: Limited, but sufficient for personal use.
8. Security: Vulnerable if not encrypted.
9. Simple Setup: Plug and play or quick pairing.
10. Applications: File transfer, music playback, hotspot.
11. Mobile PAN: Your smartphone can form a PAN.
12. Health Devices: Used in smart health monitoring.
13. Battery Efficient: Designed for low power.
14. Interference: May face signal interference.
15. Example: Connecting phone to wireless earbuds.

Diagram:
csharp
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[Smartwatch]
|
Laptop — Phone — Earbuds
|
[Printer]
🔷 5. Ad-Hoc Network
An Ad-Hoc Network is a temporary wireless network without a central router or server.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. No Infrastructure: Does not require routers or switches.

2. Temporary Network: Formed as needed.
3. Peer-to-Peer: Each device communicates directly.
4. Mobile Networks: Used in mobile or military applications.
5. Self-configuring: Devices auto-connect.
6. Used In: Disaster areas, remote locations.
7. Low Setup Cost: Minimal hardware required.
8. Wireless Medium: Typically uses Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.
9. Routing Protocols: AODV, DSR used for path discovery.
10. Security: Difficult to secure without a central server.
11. Scalability Issues: Not suitable for large networks.
12. Flexibility: Very flexible and quick to deploy.
13. No Central Control: Fully decentralized.
14. Energy Efficient: For small networks.
15. Example: Connecting phones without Wi-Fi access point.

Diagram:
rust
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Phone1 <---> Laptop <---> Tablet <---> Phone2
🔷 6. Network Software
Software that enables the configuration, monitoring, and operation of networks.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Purpose: Manages, monitors, and secures the network.

2. Examples: Cisco Packet Tracer, Wireshark, SolarWinds.
3. Configuration: Helps in configuring routers/switches.
4. Monitoring Tools: Shows network traffic and bandwidth.
5. Security Tools: Antivirus, firewalls, VPN clients.
6. Troubleshooting: Detect and fix issues quickly.
7. Simulation Software: Used for testing networks.
8. Automation: Scripts and tools to automate tasks.
9. Remote Access: Software like TeamViewer for remote support.
10. Protocol Analysis: Decodes protocol communication.
11. Traffic Management: Controls flow using software firewalls.
12. Virtual Networks: Tools to simulate virtual LANs.
13. Reporting: Logs usage, errors, security issues.
14. Training: Used in networking education.
15. Integration: Works with cloud and hybrid networks.

🔷 7. Protocols
Protocols are rules and standards used to allow computers to communicate on a network.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Definition: Set of rules for communication.

2. Examples: TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, SMTP.
3. OSI Layer Based: Specific protocols exist for each layer.
4. IP Protocol: Used for addressing and routing.
5. TCP: Ensures reliable communication.
6. UDP: Fast but no error checking.
7. HTTP/HTTPS: For web browsing (secure with HTTPS).
8. SMTP/POP3: For email communication.
9. FTP/SFTP: Used for file transfers.
10. DNS: Converts domain names to IP addresses.
11. DHCP: Automatically assigns IP addresses.
12. SNMP: Monitors and manages networks.
13. VoIP Protocols: Like SIP, used in audio/video calls.
 14. Encrypted Protocols: Like SSH for secure terminal access.
15. Protocol Stack: Many protocols work together in a stack.

🔷 8. Design Issues for Network Layers

Network layers must be designed considering various challenges for efficiency and reliability.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Error Control: Detect and correct transmission errors.

2. Flow Control: Prevent sender from overwhelming receiver.
3. Addressing: Assign unique addresses to devices.
4. Routing: Find best path from source to destination.
5. Multiplexing: Share single channel among multiple users.
6. Fragmentation: Break large data into smaller packets.
7. Security: Ensure privacy and data integrity.
8. Sequencing: Keep data packets in correct order.
9. Interfacing: Each layer should communicate properly.
10. Timing Control: Manage speed between sender and receiver.
11. Protocol Compatibility: Ensure layers work together.
12. Data Encoding: Convert data into a transmittable format.
13. Synchronization: Ensure sender and receiver are in sync.
14. Scalability: Should work for small to large networks.
15. Resource Allocation: Fair usage of network bandwidth.
🔷 1. Guided Transmission Media (Wired Media)
Guided media uses physical cables to transmit data. Signals travel along a specific path.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Definition: Media where signals are guided through a physical path like wires or cables.
2. Used In: LANs, telephone lines, office networks.
3. Higher Speed: Generally faster and more reliable than wireless.
4. Lower Interference: Less prone to interference or jamming.
5. Secure: More secure, harder to intercept.
6. Installation Cost: Can be high due to cabling and labor.
7. Types:
o Twisted Pair Cable
o Coaxial Cable
o Fiber Optic Cable
8. Twisted Pair:
o Pairs of copper wires twisted together.
o Used in Ethernet, telephone lines.
9. Coaxial Cable:
o One copper core surrounded by insulation and shielding.
o Used in TV networks, broadband.
10. Fiber Optic Cable:

 Transmits light signals using glass fibers.

 Very high speed, used in backbone networks.

11. Bandwidth: Varies by type (fiber > coaxial > twisted).

12. Attenuation: Signal weakens over long distances, especially in copper cables.
13. Noise Resistance: Fiber optic is immune to electromagnetic interference.
14. Maintenance: Can be difficult due to buried/installed cables.
15. Scalability: Requires additional cabling for expansion.

Diagram (simplified):
php
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Computer ─── Twisted Pair ─── Switch ─── Coaxial ─── Router ─── Fiber Optic
─── ISP
🧵 Types of Guided Media in Short:

Media Type Speed Distance Cost Use Case

Twisted Pair Moderate Short Low LAN, Telephony
Coaxial Cable High Medium Medium TV Cable, Broadband
Fiber Optic Very High Long High Internet backbone, WAN

🔷 2. Unguided Transmission Media (Wireless Media)

Unguided media uses air or vacuum to transmit signals—no physical path.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Definition: Wireless media that transmit data through air using electromagnetic waves.
2. No Physical Cable: Signals propagate through space.
3. Used In: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, satellite, mobile networks.
4. High Mobility: Devices can move freely.
5. Installation: Easier and quicker than laying cables.
6. Interference: Prone to EMI, weather, obstacles.
7. Security: More vulnerable to hacking/interception.
8. Types:
o Radio Waves
o Microwaves
o Infrared
9. Radio Waves:
o Omni-directional.
o Used in FM radio, TV, mobile phones.
10. Microwaves:

 Unidirectional, requires line-of-sight.

 Used in satellite and cellular communication.

11. Infrared:

 Short-range, used in remote controls and wireless peripherals.

12. Range:

 Infrared: Few meters.

 Radio: Up to several kilometers.
 Satellite: Thousands of kilometers.

13. Bandwidth: Varies; radio < microwave < satellite.

14. Cost: Lower initial cost, but spectrum licensing may be expensive.
 15. Scalability: Easily scalable—just add devices.

Diagram (simplified):
nginx
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Laptop ~~~ Wi-Fi Router ~~~ Access Point ~~~ Satellite ~~~ ISP
^ |
Bluetooth Mouse Microwave Tower

📡 Types of Unguided Media in Short:

Media Type Direction Range Applications

Radio Waves Omni-directional Long FM, AM, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi
Microwaves Uni-directional Medium-Long Cellular, satellite, radar
Infrared Line-of-sight Short TV remotes, phones, laptops

✅ Comparison: Guided vs Unguided

Feature Guided Media Unguided Media

Medium Physical cables Air/Vacuum
Speed Higher (esp. fiber) Medium (depends on type)
Installation Difficult & costly Easy
Security More secure Less secure
Interference Less More
Mobility Less mobile Highly mobile
Examples Ethernet, Fiber Optic Wi-Fi, Satellite, IR

1. Network Architectures:
o Client-Server
o Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
o Hybrid
2. Network Models:
o OSI Model
o TCP/IP Model

Each topic includes at least 15 points with text-based diagrams for understanding.
🔷 1. Client-Server Architecture
In Client-Server, one or more clients request services from a central server.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Definition: A model where a central server provides services/resources to clients.

2. Server Role: Stores files, databases, applications.
3. Client Role: Sends requests to server for resources.
4. Centralized Control: Server controls user access and security.
5. Security: Easier to manage because of centralized setup.
6. Examples: Email servers, web servers, file servers.
7. Scalability: Easily scalable by upgrading server hardware.
8. Resource Management: Efficient and managed centrally.
9. Backup: Simplified through centralized data storage.
10. Cost: Server setup is expensive.
11. Downtime Impact: Server failure affects all clients.
12. Performance: Can degrade with too many clients.
13. Used In: Banks, schools, enterprise systems.
14. Protocols: HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP.
15. Maintenance: Requires trained administrators.

Diagram:
arduino
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Client1 ——\
Client2 ——> [Server]
Client3 ——/

🔷 2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture

In P2P, all devices have equal status and can act as both client and server.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Definition: Each computer can send and receive data directly.

2. No Central Server: Every node acts as a peer.
3. Decentralized: No single point of control.
4. File Sharing: Ideal for sharing media/files.
5. Cost-Effective: No need for expensive server hardware.
6. Scalability: Can scale but becomes harder to manage.
7. Security: Difficult to enforce; less secure.
8. Examples: BitTorrent, Gnutella, Skype (older versions).
9. Setup: Easy to set up in home networks.
 10. Redundancy: Data may exist on multiple peers.
11. No Dependency: One peer failure doesn’t affect others.
12. Bandwidth Usage: Each peer uses its own bandwidth.
13. Performance: Depends on peer availability and speed.
14. No Admin Required: Usually doesn’t need full-time admin.
15. Best For: Home sharing, distributed computing.

Diagram:
markdown
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Peer1 <—> Peer2 <—> Peer3 <—> Peer4
↕ ↕
Peer5 <—> Peer6

🔷 3. Hybrid Architecture
A hybrid network combines Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer models.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Definition: Combines features of both client-server and P2P.

2. Flexible: Some nodes act as servers; others as peers.
3. Optimized: Uses centralized control where needed.
4. Example: Microsoft Teams, Google Drive with shared access.
5. Efficient: Central server for authentication, peers for sharing.
6. Secure: Central management for critical data.
7. Scalable: Easily scaled horizontally and vertically.
8. Balanced Load: Uses server for heavy data, peers for local.
9. Fault Tolerance: Peer functionality remains even if server is down.
10. Best of Both: Combines speed and control.
11. Deployment: Complex but effective in large organizations.
12. Devices: Laptops, phones, desktops—all can be mixed.
13. Protocols Used: TCP/IP, HTTPS, WebRTC.
14. Use Case: Online games, e-learning platforms.
15. Maintenance: More efficient than pure client-server.

Diagram:
markdown
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Client1 ——\
Client2 ——> [Central Server]
Client3 ——/

Peer1 <——> Peer2 <——> Peer3

🔷 4. OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection)
The OSI Model is a 7-layer reference model used to understand and design network
communication.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Full Form: Open Systems Interconnection.

2. Developed By: ISO (International Standards Organization).
3. 7 Layers: Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, Physical.
4. Standardization: Provides a universal framework for networking.
5. Each Layer Role: Performs a specific function in communication.
6. Application Layer: User interface (e.g., browsers).
7. Presentation Layer: Data format translation, encryption.
8. Session Layer: Manages sessions (start, end, sync).
9. Transport Layer: Provides reliable transmission (TCP, UDP).
10. Network Layer: Routing and addressing (IP).
11. Data Link Layer: MAC addressing and error detection.
12. Physical Layer: Transmits raw bits over the medium.
13. Interoperability: Ensures devices from different vendors work.
14. Protocol Examples: HTTP (App), IP (Network), Ethernet (Data Link).
15. Helps in Troubleshooting: Easier fault identification.

Diagram:
diff
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+-------------------+ <-- Layer 7: Application
+-------------------+ <-- Layer 6: Presentation
+-------------------+ <-- Layer 5: Session
+-------------------+ <-- Layer 4: Transport
+-------------------+ <-- Layer 3: Network
+-------------------+ <-- Layer 2: Data Link
+-------------------+ <-- Layer 1: Physical

🔷 5. TCP/IP Model (Internet Model)

The TCP/IP Model is the 4-layer framework used for the internet and real-world networking.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Full Form: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

2. Based On: Practical implementation (not theoretical).
3. 4 Layers: Application, Transport, Internet, Network Access.
4. Application Layer: Includes HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP.
5. Transport Layer: Ensures delivery via TCP/UDP.
 6. Internet Layer: Responsible for IP addressing and routing.
7. Network Access Layer: Manages hardware transmission.
8. Used In: All internet communication and LAN/WAN.
9. Open Standard: Freely available for implementation.
10. Reliable Communication: TCP ensures packet delivery.
11. Flexible: Easily adapts to different networks.
12. Global Use: Backbone of the internet.
13. Protocol Suite: Includes HTTP, TCP, IP, UDP, FTP, etc.
14. Simpler Than OSI: Only 4 layers vs 7.
15. Widely Implemented: Routers, switches, mobile networks.

Diagram:
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+---------------------+ <-- Application (HTTP, FTP, SMTP)
+---------------------+ <-- Transport (TCP, UDP)
+---------------------+ <-- Internet (IP, ICMP)
+---------------------+ <-- Network Access (Ethernet, Wi-Fi)

✅ Comparison: OSI vs TCP/IP

Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Layers 7 4
Development Theoretical model Practical model
Used For Teaching, reference Internet communication
Layer Separation Strict Flexible
Protocols Bound Protocol-independent Protocol-specific
Examples HTTP, TCP, IP, FTP Same

🔷 1. Physical Addressing
Physical Address (also called MAC Address) is the hardware address assigned to a network
interface card (NIC) by the manufacturer.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Definition: Address embedded into a device’s NIC at hardware level.

 2. Also Called: MAC (Media Access Control) address.
3. Format: 48-bit (6 bytes) hexadecimal (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
4. Uniqueness: Each MAC address is globally unique.
5. Static: Hard-coded into the hardware; not easily changeable.
6. Used In: LAN communication, Ethernet, ARP.
7. Layer: Operates at Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of OSI model.
8. Role: Helps devices on the same local network identify each other.
9. Delivery Type: Frame delivery to specific devices on LAN.
10. Device-Based: Tied to the device’s network adapter.
11. Used by Switches: Switches use MAC to forward frames.
12. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): Maps IP to MAC.
13. Example: A printer’s MAC = 3E:52:00:12:AB:1C
14. Unicast/Broadcast: Can support both via MAC.
15. Not Routable: Only works within local networks.

Diagram:
csharp
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[PC A]
MAC: 00:14:22:01:23:45
|
[Switch]
|
[PC B]
MAC: 00:14:22:01:23:46

🔷 2. Logical Addressing
Logical Addressing uses IP Addresses to identify devices uniquely across the internet or a wide
area network (WAN).

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Definition: Address assigned via software for identification across networks.

2. Also Called: IP Address (Internet Protocol Address).
3. Layer: Works at Network Layer (Layer 3) of OSI model.
4. Format:
o IPv4: 32-bit (e.g., 192.168.0.1)
o IPv6: 128-bit (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334)
5. Global Identification: Used to identify devices over WAN/internet.
6. Routable: Helps routers to forward packets across networks.
7. Dynamic/Static: Can be assigned automatically (DHCP) or manually.
8. Uniqueness: Must be unique within a network.
9. Classes (IPv4): A, B, C, D, E.
10. Used In: IP routing, DNS, internet communication.
 11. Assigned By: ISP or system admin.
12. Subnetting: Divides IP into sub-networks.
13. Private/Public: Some ranges are reserved for private use.
14. Addressing Methods: Unicast, Multicast, Broadcast.
15. Translation Needed: Mapped to MAC using ARP.

Diagram:
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[PC A]
IP: 192.168.1.10
|
Router
|
[PC B]
IP: 192.168.1.11

🔷 3. Port Addressing
Port Addressing helps identify specific applications or processes running on a device using
port numbers.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Definition: Identifies specific applications/services within a device.

2. Used With: Logical address (IP address).
3. Layer: Operates at Transport Layer (Layer 4).
4. Range:
o 0 to 65535 (16-bit).
o 0–1023 = Well-known ports (HTTP = 80, FTP = 21).
o 1024–49151 = Registered.
o 49152–65535 = Dynamic/Private.
5. Combined Format: IP:Port (e.g., 192.168.0.2:80).
6. Protocols: TCP and UDP use port numbers.
7. Multiplexing: Allows multiple applications to share the same IP.
8. Socket Address: IP + Port = Socket (unique connection ID).
9. Application Access: Used to open specific services (e.g., web server).
10. Firewall Filtering: Filters traffic based on port numbers.
11. Used In: Web, email, file transfers, games.
12. Client/Server Ports:
o Server: Listens on known port.
o Client: Uses random/dynamic port.
13. Helps Routing Inside Device: OS uses ports to deliver data to correct app.
14. Examples:
o HTTP = 80
 o HTTPS = 443
o FTP = 21
o DNS = 53
15. Helps Load Balancing: Multiple services can run simultaneously.

Diagram:
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Client → 192.168.1.10:45678
→ [Router] → 93.184.216.34:80 (Web Server)

🔷 4. Other Addressing Types

Includes special addressing mechanisms like Broadcast, Multicast, Anycast, etc.

📌 Key Points (15):

1. Broadcast Addressing: Sends data to all nodes on the network.

o Example: IPv4 address 255.255.255.255.
2. Multicast Addressing: Sends data to multiple specific nodes.
o Example: Video conferencing to a group.
3. Anycast Addressing: Sends data to nearest node in a group.
o Example: CDN server selection.
4. Unicast Addressing: Sends data to only one destination.
o Common in most communications.
5. Loopback Address: Used to test local device (e.g., 127.0.0.1).
6. APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing): Self-assigned IP (e.g., 169.254.x.x) when
DHCP fails.
7. MAC Broadcast: MAC address FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF sends to all.
8. Link-Local Address: Used within a single link (e.g., 169.254.x.x, IPv6 FE80::).
9. Global Address: Routable public IP address.
10. Private Addressing: Reserved ranges not used on internet (e.g., 192.168.x.x).
11. Virtual Address: Used by virtual machines or servers.
12. Geocast Addressing: Location-based delivery (used in mobile apps).
13. Mobile IP: Used to track changing IP of mobile users.
14. IPv6 Special Addressing:
o Multicast: Starts with FF00::
o Link-local: Starts with FE80::
15. Address Mapping: Protocols like DNS map hostname → IP; ARP maps IP → MAC.

Diagram:
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[Client]
|
|—— Unicast ——> [Single Server]
|—— Broadcast -> [All Devices in LAN]
|—— Multicast -> [Group of Devices]

✅ Summary Table:
Addressing Type Used For Layer Format Example
Physical Address Device identification in LAN Layer 2 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E
Logical Address Communication across networks Layer 3 192.168.0.1 or IPv6
Port Address Identifying application/services Layer 4 192.168.0.1:80
Broadcast Address Send to all Layer 3 255.255.255.255
Multicast Address Send to a group Layer 3 224.0.0.1 (IPv4)
Anycast Address Send to nearest node Layer 3 CDN or IPv6 anycast routing