FARM STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

FARM STRUCTURES
A farm is an area of land that is devoted primarily to agricultural processes with the primary
objective of producing food and other crops. It is the basic facility in food production. The name
is used for specialised units such as arable farms, vegetable farms, fruit farms, dairy, pig and
poultry farms, and land used for the production of natural fibres, biofuel and other commodities.

What are farm structures?

Farm structures are common agricultural structures associated with an agricultural use such as
growing and harvesting crops, and raising livestock. These structures may include:
1. Barns
2. Cold storages for crops grown and raised on site
3. Riding arenas (riding academies)
4. Slaughterhouses
5. Hay or feed storage
6. Livestock shelter or shade structures
7. Feed or hay shelter structures
8. Loafing sheds
9. Poultry coop
10. Farm equipment storage

Need for farm structures

Farm structures are need basically for:-
1. Production activities e.g. fattening of bacons, laying of eggs, milking etc
2. Rearing of animals e.g. calf housing, raising of seedlings
3. Carrying out marketing activities e.g. sorting and grading of produce before storage,
processing of crops such as grains etc
4. Providing general farm services such as workshops, chemical storage management offices
etc.

ENGINEERING ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES.

A structure engineering design for a farm building usually calls for two principal investigations.
1. Functional and economic: This involves determining the specific requirement of the animal
or crops and the shillings value of the improved production as compared to the total cost of the
material, and construction.
2. Structural- This includes determining the dual needs of the animal to be housed or the
conditional requirements of the crop, structural size strength and durability necessary to satisfy
the situations.

BUILDING TYPES FACTORS

The wide divergence of crops and conditions has and important effects on types of farm
buildings design and selection.
The following points should be considered in the design of a building (farm
structure)

1. Temperature ranges –Extreme temperatures will determine the crop’s andlivestock’s

structures as well as the type of construction necessary. The relative duration of these extreme
temperatures is also important, other climatic factors to be considered include amount of
sunlight, rainfall latitude and elevation.
2. Precipitation: The total amount and distribution of rainfall and snowfall affects the farm
production as well as the structural protection required, extreme humidity will required the use of
special insulation and vapors sprayers.
3. Elevation and topography: These are environmental features, which include,land slopes,
contour patterns solar exposures are also directly related and determined the general shapes of
the buildings, strength and durability of the structure.
4. Soils: This refers to the ability of the agricultural soil to support live and dead loads of
buildings of all types and sizes. Where the soils is weak or unstable a heavy structure should not
be built, unless upon a large floating foundations or suitable pilling.
5. Special live loads: These include winds, tornadoes, hurricanes, earthquakes, deep
snow and nuclear, high velocity of winds and duration of these forces will
require peculiar methods of constructions.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

1. Supply of building materials used in a particular job
2. Type and use of the buildings
3. Value of the building materials with respect to initial investment cost and annual
maintenance and serviceability requirements
4. Appearance of the material, resistance against wear, attractiveness etc.
5. Transport cost to buildings site
6. Properties and installation requirements of the material
7. Acceptability of the material by the people who will be using the buildings
8. Personal preferences Quality and durability of individual material
9. Skills required in fitting the material.

NB: The strength of clear wood is closely related to this weight density .The moisture of
wood effect the strength seasoning timber stiffens and stronger it fibers. Structural timber may be
weakening knots, checks, wanes pitch pockets, holes slopes of grain
and fungus and insects attack –if not treated.
FACTORS TO CONSIDERWHEN SELECTING A STRUCTURAL SITE
The ideal site for a farm building
1. Sheltered though not completely by trees
2. Away from direction -of prevailing winds and rains (the wind direction will influence the
arrangements of building as well as the size and location of influence the arrangements of
buildings as well as the size and location of wind breaks.
3. On slopes that enable the construction of farm buildings removal of rain and water and sewage
from livestock buildings.
4. On soils that are free from drainage ( low drainage) – poorly drained soils permits the rate of
building depreciation , damp condition or stores that lead to spoilage of crop.
5. The buildings should be easy to reach from public roads or farm roads to void time wasting in
long travels
6. Should be within easy reach from a water source
7. Near the power supply line for easy and cheap wiring.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR SITE LAYOUT.

1. Building for delivery of metals e.g. stores, drying plant etc should be grouped together. This
helps to reduce unnecessary handling and distance for moving materials.
2. Livestock foods stores should either be combined or constructed near livestock buildings.
3. Dairies should be build where cows are milked and it is easy to reach by roads.
4. Milking parlous should near the collecting yard for cows.
5. Buildings for tractors, implements and tools should be located in one place.
6. Provide enough for movements of machinery e.g. Lorries and tractors used to deliver
materials.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN.

Structures are designed for specific purpose. A good structure should have the following
1. Should be strong and rigid.
2. Should be economical and durable
3. Should be designed such that it withstands both environmental forces and its live and dead
loads.
4. Should be attractive in appearance.

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURES.

A structure consists of a foundation, columns/walls, trusses etc. all these structural elements are
assembled for stability of the structure.
Each of the elements has maximum allowable stress and each material has different strength.
Each structural member has design codes showing what and where to put these structures. This
design codes are based on the principle of statistics done by structural engineering analysis of the
stability of the structure. When designing a structure start from the top downwards.

FACTOR OF SAFETY
The permissible allowable stress on structure is less than the stress cause failure. The ratio
ultimate or yield stress to design gives a factor of safety.

Factor of safety= Yield stress

Design stress
These factors when based on the yield stress of material should1.4-2.4and 3-5 when based on
ultimate stress
Chose lowest factor where you expect less frequent loading and highest where full intensity
loading is expected.
Purpose of factor of safety
1. Enables one to make a rough estimate of stress of the materials
2. Takes care of permanency of loading due economics lose called casualties
3. For valuable to be safe.
4. Good workmanship and uniformity of materials.
5. Building materials cost effectives.

The design consideration for farm structures

1. The function of housing - This will assist in determining the specification
required animal crop and stilly value of this would assist the improved production composed to
total cost of material and construction. This will help to decide on the size of the house.
2. The location –site; Temperature ranges that in extensive temperature will determine the crops
and livestock as will the type of construction necessary i.e. the relative duration of this extreme
temperature is also important.
Other element factors include
a) Sunlight
b) Rainfall
c) Wind direction
3. Elevation and topography - These are environmental features which include landscape,
contour patterns, solar, wind exposure are also directly related they will determine the general
shape of the building strength and durability of the structure.
4. The drainage - Building should be located on well drained places, otherwise special structural
designs are required.
5. The type of soil –this refers to the ability of the agricultural soils to support the live and dead
loads of building of all types, where the soil is weak or unstable and heavy structures shouldn’t
be built unless a floating foundation is put in place.
6. The special live loads-this includes winds, Hurricanes, earthquakes, snows and high velocity
winds.
7. Direction of wind.

Factors to consider when selecting structural material (building).

(1) Quality and durability of individual material

(2) The skill required in fitting the material.
(3) The supply of the building material used in a particular.
(4) Type and the use of the building.
(5) The value of the building with respect to the initial investment cost and the animal
maintenance and services activity required.
(6) The appearance of the material and their attractiveness
(7) Transport cost to the building site
(8) The prospective and the installation requirement of the Material.
(9) Acceptability of the material by the people who will be using the building
(10) The personal preference.
The common building material and their advantage.

A) Lumber and wood products.

(1) It is available in many areas. i..e. logs board planks pressed wood, plywood
(2) They are easily worked on they require common tools and familiars methods ofmanipulation.
(3) They are salvageable, timber may be saved and may be reused for new construction.
(4) It is inexpensive and can be worked by semiskilled or even common labor.
(5) It is traditional used for building in most areas.
(6) It may be strong than common steel or concrete by unit of weight.
Classification of wood
1. Hard wood
2. Soft wood

1. Hardwood: Hard wood is usually cut from deciduous timber and they usually shed their
leaves in certain seasons of the year camphor& Elgon teak
2. Soft wood - These are cut from coniferous trees. They have needle like leaves Cider & pine
Cyprus
Factors to consider when selecting structural timber.

(1) Strength of the wood -This is the ability of the wood to resist breaking when it is used in
beam columns strength in affection by the spaces and moisture content of the wood.
(2) Hardness - Ability of the wood to resist density and weak. Hard woods are usually difficult
to work on but they are good for making handles and wooden floors.
(3) Stiffness - Ability of the wood to resist deflection of bending when loaded. This wood may
not be necessarily strong.
(4) Toughness -This is the ability of the wood to deflect considerably before breaking (Even of
the breaking of the fibers tired to having together and resist separation.
(5) Warping - This is the ability of the wood to resist bend, bowing or resist destruction. This
ability affected by the methods of sowing and caring of wood
(6) Nail holding ability - hard woods hold nails better while some woods still split when nailed.
(7) Workability - This is the ability of the wood to be sawed or shaped. Soft woods are easier to
be worked on.
(8) Ability of the wood to resist natural decay- hard offers more resistance than soft woods and
should be used whence the weather in worth and humid.
9) Ability of the wood to hold paints -Paints preserves wood against rain and water. Paints
holding ability differs between woods. This should be considered when selecting wood for
construction.

The defects in woods:

A Defect is an irregularity or abnormality occurring in or on wood which is responsible for its;
a) Strength reduction
b) Lowering of durability
c) Lowering of utility
d) Poor appearance
e) Decay
1. Brittle heart -It makes the wood to break with a brittle fracture (inside hollow)
2. Wide growth rings - The indicator rapid growth resulting in thin walled roles
with a consignment loss of density and strength
3. Fire shake (cracks)
4. Presence of knots -This is the part of the branch, which has become enclosed, in
a growing tree. Dead knots are often loose and reduce the strength of the wood.
5. Decay - These results from moisture level between 21-25% in the presence of air .The
moisture reduce the strength of wood and spoil the appearance.
6. The presence of inject a hack (fanged) - May is enclosed by bores in between on fungi
attacks on termites. They reduce the strength of wood hence they should be checked for.

B) Steel alloys aluminum and metal products.

1. Durable – Most metals are highly resistance to wear and abrasion, as well as to termites and
decay
2. Strong – High in proportion to weight and size especially for rolled structural shapes
3. Prefabricated:- partial or complete prefabrication makes construction rapid and convenient.
4. Concrete reinforcement steels is useful and necessary in developing the full value of concrete
5. Convenient: it easy to erect in the form of metals sheets and window frames
6. Fire resistant- structural metals will not burn and are semi resistant to hot fires.
C). Concrete
Concrete is an artificial building material or artificial stone-It is composed of a mixture of
cement, sand, gravel or broken stones and water, which when put together in proper proportions,
soon sets or hardens into a mass of home made stones. It has the following qualities.
1. Durable-It is strong, resistance against weather, wear Abrasions, delay and termite attack
2 .Sanitary- It can be made smart and easily cleaned
3. Fire resistance – it will not burn or support combustion and is not easily damage by fire
4 .Low cost-price per kg of cement an aggregate are low especially when local materials are -
used
5. Strong – It is superior to wood in bearing compression.
NB: The quality, strength and durability of concrete depends upon
1. The quality and amount of cement used
2. The kind, size and amount of aggregate used.
3. The way the ingredients are mixed and placed
4. Proper curing of the mixture after it is placed.
5. Reinforced by steel bars to improve its tensions strength.

The aggregate of concrete

Aggregate -It is the name given to the material used to the bulk and body to the concrete. They
are commonly known as fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate (gravel)
1. Fine aggregate (sand) - Define as materials that will pass through 5mm sieve sand or crushed
stones scheming are usually known as fine aggregate
2. Coarse aggregate (ballast) - Any suitable material such as gravel pebbles, crushed rocks
ranging in size from 5mm upwards .The maximum size of gravel will depend on the thickness of
the concrete being made .The largest piece of aggregate should not exceed 1/3 of the thickness of
the section.

The properties of good aggregate: The aggregate should be hard, clean and free of salt and
vegetable matter, too much silt and organic matter mark is unsuitable for concrete.
The grading of the aggregate: Grading refers to proportioning of different sizes of aggregate
material. This influences the quality, permeability and workability of the concrete. The grading is
expressed, as % by weight of aggregate passing through various sieves .A well-graded aggregate
will have a fairly uniform distribution of sizes of aggregate.
The moisture content: This is important since sand-mixing values often refers to 1Kg of drier
sand and the maximum amount of water to be added includes the moisture content of the
aggregate.
The density-Weights per volume of the solid mass exclude voids and is determined by putting 1
kg of dry aggregate in 1 litter of water .The density of the aggregate will be the weight of the dry
aggregate divided by the volume of water displaced.
-The normal density of stone and sand are 2600-2700kg/m3
-The normal density of cement is 3100kg /m3
-The bulk density of coarse aggregate is normally 1500-1650kg/m3
- Naturally moist sand may have density between 1300-1500kg /m3
Water: Good water for concrete should be free from impurities such as suspended solid
organic matter and silt. It should be water fit for drinking
Batching: The concrete mix should contain enough sand to fill all the voids, between the most
aggregate enough cement paste to cover the entire particle with complete film and
enough water to complete the chemical reaction
The water cement ratio: This is an expression for relative proportion of water including the
moisture in aggregate and cement in the cement paste. Excess water weakens the concrete while
too little water makes the concrete unworkable .

NB/ The strongest concrete is obtained with the lowest amount of water which gives a
workable mix every 1% of excess water will reduce the concrete strength by 5%. The
recommended water cement ratio should be:
0.4:1 or 2:5
Batch measuring –Batching can either be done by
1 Weight - This is more exact but it is used in large contribution work.
2 Volume -This is used when constructing farm building.

Calculating the amount of ingredients.

Example 1
Calculating the amount of material needed. to construct a rectangular floor
7.5m x 4m x 7cm thick. Use a minimal mix of 1:3:6 assumptions.
1) The material normally has 30-50% gravel volume than the concrete mix
2) 5-10% of material is allowed for waste and spill
3) The cement added does not noticeably increase the volume
4) 50kgs of cement equal to 37liter
Total concrete volume =4 x 7.5 x 0.07 = 2.1m3 concrete volume
Total material=2.1m³ +gravel (30 x 2.1) + 5 x 2.1) waste
100 100
=2.84m³
Mix ratio-1: 3: 6 Total parts = 10
NB: The volume of the ingredients is proportional to the number of parts in the nominal mix.
Total parts =10
In this case there is a total of 10 parts in the mix. Since the cement does not affect the final
volume of the concrete only the part of sand and gravel are used.
Cement =1 x 2.84 = 0.32m³ = 320 L = 320 kgs
9
(Since1m³ = 1000 litres)
= 320 = 8.64 = 9 Bags of cement approximately
37
Sand = 3 x 2.84= 0.95m³ =1.33 tones
9
D=M
V
Mass = D x V=1300x0.947= 1231.1kg= 1.2311 tones
Stones 6 x 2.84 m³ = 1.89m3.
9
Mass=density x volume
= 2600x 1.89= 4921.8kg= 4.9218tones
Approximately = 5tonnes

Bricks, stones, masonry, and terra cotta (baked earth)

1. .Durable: resistant against weather and decay
2. .Fire resistant will not burn or support combustion, not damaged by ordinary fires
3. Sanitary smooth easily washed and cleaned
4. Economical in some cases, these materials may be more readily locally
5. Strong – adequate in bearing and compressions can be reinforced with steel.

Synthetic material i.e. plastic asbestos fibers glass ASP hath

Advantages
1. These materials can be used for special purposes and may serve particular need better than
other material
2. They are water prove –they may be superior in water resistance and are therefore used in
roofing installation flashing and vapor barriers.
3. They are fire resistance some of this resists burning until melted and decomposed
4. They are convenient some of them may be agricultural by products and are lightweight. Earth,
soils and sod (mud ).

Under this classes

1. Adobe brick-They are convenient and economical in certain. Regions (unburned bricks from
normal soils) water mixture
2. Rammed earth - stone and soil mixed then pressed to form a wall. This is sometimes
economical and useful in certain cases it is strong when mixed with stones
3. The sod -Is cheap but requires stabilizers for strength i.e. a mixtures of sand, soils, water and
gravel.
4. Economical: using local material and low labor cost.
5. Sod will resist water, fires and weather when mixed with cement or
Asphalt.

Disadvantages of using earth

1. It has a low resistance to water penetration due to its crumbling not water proof.
2. Has high shrinkage, swellings action hence cracks
3. Low resistance to an abrasion wears out easily
4. Regular maintenance and repair.

SOIL STABILIZERS
Soil can be stabilized to increase its resistance, to water and strength, shrinkage and cohesions.

The following are the common stabilized and their effect.

1. Sand and clay in good ratio
a) Improves the grading of the mixture
b) Improves the cohesion of the mixture
c) It reduce moisture movement
2. Port land cement:
a) It improves compression strength
b) It improves imperviousness of the of soil
c) It reduce moisture movement
3. Limestone
a) Decrease moisture movement and permeability of the soil.
b) It reacts with clay improving soil strength
4. Cement &lime: used when there is too much clay for cement stabilization .The lime makes
the soil easier to work with while cement increases the strength of the soil.
5. Bitumen /asphalt tar” Ram”
a) Reduce waste permeability in the soil
b) It is used to build sand and soil particles
6. The natural fibers -The natural fibers e.g. grass sisal are added to reduced the moisture
movement in the soil they also help to live the soil particles together.

The building hardware.

1. Nails -Are used for joining wood of different sizes and shapes depending on the purpose
1.Round nails, 2.Roofing nails, 3.Stabler
2. Screw &bolts- They have a high holding capacity then nails. They are classified according to
the shapes of the head and they are available in different sizes.1 counter jackscrews
3. Hinges - made of metals are used for flexible structures like door, gates.

Methods of wood preservation

1. Pressure treatment method- Timber leads in large steel and preservation such as cure sole or
water but if applied use great paints
2. Open water treatment
a) Hot and cold sleeping method –heating hence preservation
b) To expel are and replace it with preservation.
The need for farm structures
1. We need farm structure for production activity e.g. fettering of backers laying eggs and
milking
2. We may need them for rearing of animals e.g. calving, housing raising of seedlings
3. For caring out of marketing activities e.g. for sorting out grading and for processing for crops
such as grains.

CONSTRUCTIONS OF FARM STRUCTURES.

Farm structures to be considered include;-

1. Livestock structures-( Dairy unit, poultry, sheep, goats ,beehives, cattle dip, pigs, spray race).

2.Barn or crop storage structures.

LIVESTOCK HOUSING STREUCTURES.
A ZERO GRAZING UNIT.

A zero grazing unit: In the zero grazing system the cattle are classified in one place feeds and
water are brought to the animals zero grazing is good system for keeping dairy cattle in densely
populated high potential areas when little land in available.

Advantage of a zero grazing unit

1. It ensures clean milk production
2. Good calve rearing
3. Easy collection of manure for the benefit of fodder crops
4. High yielding crops like Napier grass can be produced
5. Animals are better protected against especially the tick born disease
6. The system allows close observation of animals which makes heat detection easier
7. The animals are kept inside which is more secure
8. No time is required for herding
9. Use of minimal space area
Disadvantage of a zero grazing unit
1. Much capital is required for initial constructions of unit
2. Much labour is required to take feed and water to the animals
3. No possible in large-scale production.

Factors /Requirements to consider when layout dairy unit.

Some requirements and work routines to consider when the layout is planned are:
1. Movement of cattle for feeding, milking and perhaps to pasture.
2. Movement of bulk feed from store to feeding area, and concentrates from store to milking
shed or parlour.
3. Transfer of milk from milking shed or parlour to dairy and then off the farm. Clean and
dirty activities, such as milk handling and waste disposal, should be separated as far as possible.
4. The diversion pen, with artificial insemination stalls and any bull pens, should be close to the
milking centre because any symptoms of heat or illness are commonly discovered during
milking, and cows are easily separated from the rest of the herd when leaving the milking area.
5. Easy and periodical cleaning of accommodation, yards, milking facilities and dairy, and
transfer of the waste to storage and then to the fields.
6. Movements of herd workers. Minimum travel to move cows in or out of the milking area.
7. Provision for future expansion of the various parts of the unit.

Components of zero grazing units

1. Resting area for cows:
(a) paved shade; or
(b) deep bedding in an open sided barn; or
(c) free stalls in an open-sided barn.

2. Exercise yard (paved or unpaved).

3. Paved feed area:
(a) fence-line feed trough (shaded or unshaded); or
(b) self-feeding from a silage clamp.
4. Milking Centre:
(a) milking shed or parlour; and
(b) collecting yard (part of the exercise yard); and
(c) dairy, including milk store; and
(d) motor room.
5. Bull pen with a service stall.
6. Calving pen(s).
7. Calf accommodation.
8. Young stock accommodation (yard with paved
shade and feed area).
9. Bulk feed store (hay and silage).
10. Concentrate feed store.
11. Veterinary facilities:
(a) diversion pen with artificial insemination
stalls; and
(b) isolation pen.
12 Waste store:
(a) slurry storage; or
(b) separate storage of solids and effluents.
13 Office and staff facilities.
14.Cubicles.

a) Cubicles- Each cow has her own resting to lie down and rest. This place is called a
cubicle .The measure of the cubicle are important. It should not be too small in order to give
enough comfort to the cow, but also make too big in order to avoid the cow making dirty .he
recommended measurement for the cubicle should be 210cm x 120cm (2.1m x 1.2m). The actual
dimension however will depend on the size of the cow .The floor of the cubicle are raised and
may consist of plain soil or concrete floor .In this way the animal have comfortable place which
is easy to clean and maintain cubicles are separated from each other by 2pieces of timber .The
resting area is roofed to provide shelter against rainfall sunshine. Across the cubicle a neck pole
is fixed. This prevents the cow from entering too far into the cubicles and ensures that the urine
and the dung will drop in the working area.
Young animals should be separated from the milking cows The cubicles should be adjusted
according to their sizes by making the poles backwards according to the size of the animal .An
extra timber can be added length wide to make sure that the cubicle is narrow as per the size of
the animal.
b) The walking area -The working area is about 3m wide .No roofing is required for this area
unless the condition are very hot the floor of the working area is made very strong by use of
concrete It should not be very smooth otherwise the animal will slip .The floor should shape
from the milking place towards the end of the unit .in this way the urine and dung can easily be
swept into the pit at the lower end of the working area .The floor should slope slightly.
c) The seed and water trough -The feed trough should run along the length of the working area
with water trough in the middle .the troughs can be made of timber .The water troughs can be
made of cemented bricks often wise half drum can be used if funds are not available .The inside
measurement of the feed trough should be 60cm wide and the bottom should be raised 15cm
above the level of the working area.
d) The milking place polar ; Should be constructed next to the cubicles .The width of the
milking place should be 1.2m .The floor should be made of strong concrete and should
slope towards the working area (1:2:4) There should be a smell trough in font of the
milking place to feed the cow concentrates during milking:
e) The calf pen. It should be build next to the animal situated opposite to the milking place
and has a surface of 120cm*150cm.The most important part of the slanted floor through which
the dung and urine can drain away easily .The slanted floor .The slanted floor is raised 30cm
above the concrete floor .It may be removable to enable its clearing. There should be a smell
feed trough and smell water contain and attached to the outside of the calf pen .The calf pen
should be under the roof to protect the calf against sunlight and rain .The calf pen should be open
on all side to ensure good ventilation and at the same time to prevent drought.

f) The store-If required a store can be attached to the 2:4:4 next to the milking place and
opposite to the floor checking once in this place concentrated materials milking utensils
and smell equipments can be stored near to the animals.
g) The fodder checking area – Situated opposite the store next to the calf pen as is also put
under roof .The floor can be made concrete to avoid soily the feed.
h) The manure store /pit- can be stored in small concrete pit. This pit should be located at
the lower end of the milking area.
Housing for medium to large herds
For the farmer with up to about 30 cows, a yard with a paved shade and feed area would be
suitable. The yard and feeding area may alternatively be combined with an open-sided barn
designed for deep bedding or equipped with free stalls and, where the herd consists of high-
yielding cows, the milking shed may be equipped with a bucket milking machine. Some farmers
with up to 30 cows may even consider using an open-sided tiestall shed.
Each of the parts of the dairy unit may be planned in many different ways to suit the production
management system and the chosen method of feeding.
LAYOUT 1. FOR FLOOR PLAN.
LAY OUT 2

MILKING PARLOR.
Milking and milk handling
Hand milking versus machine milking
machine milking has become very widespread and it is also practiced on many large commercial
dairy farms in the tropics.
Advantages of milking machine.
1) Milking machines reduce labour requirements .
2) Eliminate the drudgery of hand milking.
3) Perform a better quality milking operation than would be done by hand.
4) Gives good milk quality.
5) Easy to nclean.
6) Provides a massaging effect on the teats.
Disadvantages.
1) machines require more power.
2) more expensive to purchase than the few pieces of equipment needed for hand milking.
3) there is an irregular supply of spare parts and a lack of skilled mechanics
4) provides a massaging effect on the teats, and is easy to clean. The milking machine
simulates nursing by the calf. Two vacuum lines lead to the teat cups.
5)
Operation of milking machine.
A pulsator supplies an intermittent vacuum to one line at the rate of 45–60 pulses per minute.
The line, connected to the shell of the teat cup, causes the teat inflation (rubber liner) to
alternately expand and collapse. This massaging action promotes normal blood circulation in the
teat. The second line maintains a continuous vacuum on the teat and carries the milk either to a
stainless steel bucket or through a pipeline directly to the milk cooler. Machine milking gives
good quality and operates with a uniform vacuum of 275–350 mm of mercury.

Bucket milking machine.

A bucket milking machine is the simplest and least expensive to install, but the milk must be
carried by hand to the cooler. This type of system is often chosen for the small- and medium-size
herd and where the cows are milked on a level floor of a stable or milking shed.
The labour of carrying the milk to the cooler can be avoided by installing a transfer system. This
consists of a 30-litre receiving tank, including a built-in filter, mounted on wheels so that it can
be moved around the stable. It is connected to the cooler with a plastic hose and the milk is
drawn to the cooler by vacuum from the milker pump. The hose is reeled in or out as necessary
as the cart is moved around the stable.

Operation of bucket milking machine.

A pipeline milking plant transports the milk through a pipe direct from the cow’s udder to the
milk cooler.
Pipeline milking systems are usually installed in milking parlours, where the operator stands
below the level of the cows Although they are expensive, they reduce the backbreaking tasks and
are usually designed to be cleaned in place, a feature that not only saves labour but also helps to
ensure good sanitation. They may also be installed in stanchion or tie-stall barns but the extra
pipeline needed makes the system even more expensive.

Milk room and cooler

The facts about milking room.
1) cows belonging to a smallholder or from a commercial herd supplying milk for the two
Sanitation is the primary consideration in the handling of milk, whether it is from one or city.
 In either case, an adequate supply of potable water is essential for cleaning the milking
equipment immediately after use. Hot water (85 °C), mixed with a chemical detergent, is
required for effective cleaning, and cold water is used for rinsing.
2) Milk should be handled in a separate area that is easy to clean and is free of insects, birds,
rodents and dust.
3) A smallholder producing milk only for the household may be able to process, curdle, or
consume the milk within a short time so that cooling is not necessary.
4) Selling milk to the public requires higher standards of sanitation and more elaborate
facilities. Whether the cows are hand- or machine-milked, a separate milk room adjacent to
the milking stalls or milking parlour is needed. This room should be well ventilated and
designed with
5) a concrete floor with a slope of 20 mm/m to a drain and masonry walls with a smooth, water-
resistant surface that can be easily and thoroughly cleaned.
6) Milk is strained and cooled in this room in preparation for selling. As soon as the cow has
been
7) Milked, the bacteria in the milk start to multiply, but cooling the milk to about 4 °C within
two hours will drastically reduce bacterial growth. However, proper cooling is a very
difficult problem for the small-scale producer. The only practical solution for individual
farmers in an area may be to bring their milk to a central collection depot for cooling
immediately after milking.
8) On dairy farms of sufficient size and where power is available, the milk can be cooled by
cold water circulated between an evaporative water cooler and a milk cooler (plate heat
exchanger), through which the milk is passed until it is adequately cooled. Where milk is
stored and transported in cans, cooling can be accomplished by immersing the full cans in a
water filled refrigerated cooler or by passing cold water through a coil, which is immersed in
the can. Large scale dairy farms with a pipeline milking system and milk collection by road
tanker require a refrigerated cooler and holding tank.
MANURE HANDLING STRUCTURES.
Careful waste management is needed to to the following:
1) utilize the fertilizing qualities of the manure, urineand other waste;
2) maintain good animal health through sanitary facilities;
3) avoid pollution of air and water and to provide good hygiene around the farmstead.

Facts about manure handling structures.

1) The method of disposal depends on the type of waste being handled. Solids can be stacked
and spread on fields at the optimum time of year, while liquids
2) must be collected in a tank and may be spread from tank-wagons.
3) Manure from a livestock production unit may contain not only faeces and urine, but also
straw or
4) other litter materials, spillage from feeding, and water.
5) If silage is produced on the farm, the runoff from the silos should be led to the urine
collection tank.
6) Manure is handled as a solid when the dry matter content exceeds 25 percent. In this
condition, the manure can be stacked to a height of 1.5–2 metres. This condition of the
manure is obtained only when urine is drained away immediately and a prescribed amount of
litter, such as straw or sawdust, is used. The use of 1–2.5 kilograms of litter per cow per day
ensures that the manure can be handled as a solid.
7) Manure with less than 20 percent solids has the consistency of thick slurry. It must be
collected in a tank or pit but is too thick to handle effectively with pumps. It must be diluted
with water to less than 15 percent solids before it can be pumped with a conventional
centrifugal pump. If diluted in order to use irrigation equipment for spreading liquid manure,
the content of solids must be below 4 percent.
8) The amount of manure and the composition vary depending upon factors such as feeding,
milk yield, animal weight, position in the lactation period and the health of the animal. Cattle
fed on ‘wet silage or grass produce more urine. Table 10.8 shows the manure production in
relation to the weight of the animals.
9) To estimate the volume of manure and bedding, add the volume of manure from Table 10.8
to half the volume of bedding used. Heavy rain requires the removal of liquid for stacked
manure during the storage period. The storage capacity must then be increased by about 50
percent, or a roof should be built over the storage for slurry or liquid manure.

PIGGERY STRUCTURES.
Construction of a Pig House /Pig Stay
Factors to consider when selecting a site for pig stay
1. Adequate drainage –We need a sloppy or rolling ground and the house should be built
on the high spots. A sandy and loam soil is the best for this otherwise the floor should
be paved (concrete)
2. Exposure – The pig house should be exposed to sunlight which is essentials for visibility
and aid s in keeping the pig house clean and fresh
3. The pigs should be protected from excessive heat.
4. They should be protected from chilly storms - in addition to the pig house itself other
buildings , fences , wind breaks trees and shrubs will assist to protect the pigs from
chilly winds an storms
5. Location- It should be located at least 70- 100m away from the dwelling units and it
should be built at the direction of the wind.
6. They should be protected from diseases infection by building the house away for public
roads , rail roads and inter farms drainage and traffic channels.

The requirement of a pig house

1. Sufficient warmth
2. Dryness – provide water tight construction of good floor roof proper
ventilation and exposure to sunlight.
3. Sanitation – We need good ventilation, smooth floors for easy
cleaning good drainage and exposure to sunlight
4. Adequate space allowance- This is to avoid overcrowding
5. They require safety and comfort In cold places they need heating
devices they need fenders creeps adequate door way properly
serviced floor s etc
6. Convenience or arrangement e.g. for feeding and cleaning which
is the essential for economic management.
7. The design –it should be pleasing in appearance it should reflect the
purpose indicate
8. The cost –the cost of the house should keep with production returns.
9.Accessibility:- easy access to a good all-weather road; well drained ground; and sufficient
distance from residential areas to avoid creating a nuisance from odour and flies.
10.Direction of external forces.:-An east-west orientation is usually preferable to minimize
exposure to the sun. A prevailing wind during hot weather can sometimes justify a slight
deviation from the east-west orientation.
11.Nature of soils:- A fairly light, well-drained soil is preferable, and usually the highest part of
the site should be selected for construction.
12.Ventilation:-Pig houses should be simple, open-sided structures because maximum
ventilation is needed.

The types of pig house

1) The community house - several pigs are grouped in one pen or grouped in two rows under
one roof.
2) Individual house - we have pig sheltered in its own pen.

Community house advantage

a) It saves time and labor in caring for the herd
b) Better construction is possible
c) Better sunlight exposure can be provided
d) Ventilation is more easily available
e) Equipment cost are better
f) The herds men has better protection and more convenience
g) Feed storage heating lighting and water supply are more readily
provided
h) The structure has a wide range of use
i) The appearance is more pleasing and has a better advertising value.

Individual pig housing

It has the following advantage.
1) Its position may easily be changed to secure sanitation
2) Isolation of the herd is readily attainable
3) The building may be moved to another range in search of pasture and shelter
4) Construction is much simpler fire risk is minimized
5) Adaptable to tenants farming and beginners
6) They are build of timber or with wooden planks floor the start frame
ventilating guard nails for piglets provided all round .The roof may be flat
shade. The dimension should 2.5 mX2.5 m (8x8 roof material can be iron.
Management and improvements of piggery units.
They include:
1. Fenced paddocks with shade and water where:
(a) Pigs are protected from direct sun, which will cause sunburn and sometimes sunstroke,
particularly with white-skinned pigs.
(b) Pigs can be fed supplementary feed secure from neighbouring pigs.
(c) Some basic measures to control disease and parasites are possible to reduce the often very
high mortality rate and to improve the poor reproductive and growth performance and inferior
quality of meat found in traditional pig production in the tropics. The paddock can be subdivided
into four to six smaller areas to enable pigs to be moved from one enclosure to another at two-
week intervals.
(d) Sows can be bred to selected sires.
2. Simple sem-icovered pens constructed of rough timber with a thatched roof and concrete floor.
An earth floor can be used, but is more difficult to keep clean and sanitary. Several pens can be
arranged in a row as required. The main disadvantage with this type of accommodation is the
relatively high labour requirement for cleaning.
3. Wallows or sprinklers can be provided to alleviate heat stress. Being unable to sweat
sufficiently, pigs have a natural instinct to wallow to increase the evaporative cooling from the
skin.

RABBIT HUTCH STRUCTURE.

A Rabbit hatch will house a doe and a buck it should be 1200mm*600mm high.

The following are the features of the rabbit hatch.

1 .It should have a feeding and watering area
2 Arresting and exercise area
3 It should have a floor of wile netting of 1cm mesh or wooden scats speed at
1cm a part. This will allow the fence to drop freely with 25mm
4 A hinged door for easy and free opening and closing.
5 .The cases should be fitted on legs about 0.6 m above the ground. This is to prevent rat from
climbing (rat’s guards)
6 It must have water troughs and nest box inside the cage.
7 The hatch should be placed under shade and away from prevailing winds.

Hutches
While there are a great many types of hutch, any well designed hutch should provide certain
essential features:
1. Enough space for the size of the rabbit.
2. Fresh air and light, but exclusion of direct rays from the sun.
3. Protection from wind and rain.
4. Sanitary conditions and ease of cleaning.
5. Sound but cheap construction; free from details that could injure the animals.6. Convenience
of handling.
7. A cage for each adult rabbit.

Space requirements
Each adult rabbit must have its own cage or compartment. Domestic rabbits vary in weight from
2–7 kilograms, depending on the breed, so the size of cage may be determined by allowing 1
200–1 500 cm2 of clear floor space per kilogram of adult weight. This means that a cage for a
medium-breed buck should provide a minimum of 80 × 80 cm. However, cages for females
should allow extra space for the nest box and the litter, hence 80 cm by 115 cm should be
regarded as the minimum for a medium breed doe.
Young rabbits reared for meat can be kept in groups of 20–30 animals until they reach four
months of age.
The weaned young kept in one group should be about the same age and weight. Such colony
pens should allow 900–1 200 cm2 of floor space per kilo of live weight.
The cages should not be deeper than 70–80 cm for ease of reaching a rabbit at the back of the
cage. The floor-to-ceiling height of the cages should be minimum 45–60 cm, and it is desirable
to have the floor of the cages 80–100 cm off the ground to handle the rabbits comfortably.
Hutch modules
Any size rabbit unit is conveniently made up from two doe or four-doe modules. The number of
cages required in each of these modules.
The small-scale producer may only have one such module, covered with its own roof placed
directly on the cages, as shown in Figures 10.59 and 5.60, while the medium- to large-scale
producer may have several modules placed under a separate roof on posts or in a shed, as shown
in Figure 10.61.
Construction details.
Proper ventilation of the rabbitry is essential. The walls, roof and door of the hutch can be
covered with chicken-wire netting (37 mm mesh), or made from wood or bamboo placed 20 mm
apart.
In high altitude areas with lower temperatures, it may be desirable to have a solid wall in the
direction facing the prevailing wind. Temporary protection from strong winds, low temperatures
and rain can be provided with curtains of hessian, reeds, grass, plastic, etc. The roof of the rabbit
unit should be leak proof and can be made of thatch or metal sheets with some insulation
underneath.
Ease of management depends to a great extent on the construction of the floor. It may be solid,
perforated, or semisolid. Each has its advantages and disadvantages:
Example 2.
SHEEP AND GOATS HOUSING.

Sheep and goats are important sources of milk and meat. Both readily adapt to a wide range of
climates and available feed supplies. They also have similar housing requirements and will
therefore be treated together.
Management systems for sheep and goats.
Depending primarily on the availability and use of land, three systems of production are
practiced:
1. Subsistence, in which a few animals are tethered during the day and put into a protective
shelter at night.
2. Extensive, in which the flock/herd grazes over large areas of marginal land unsuitable for
agriculture. The flock is usually shut into a yard at night. Both these systems are practiced
extensively in East Africa.
3. Intensive, in which the animals are confined to yards and shelters, and feed is brought to the
flock. This system offers the greatest protection for the flock from both predators and parasites.
Although it may make the best use of limited land resources, this system also increases labour
and the capital investment required for facilities.

Housing
Housing in tropical and semitropical regions should be kept to a minimum, except for the more
intensive systems of production.
 .

Parasite control for sheep and Goats.

A dipping tank and crush are essential in the layout for a large flock, or for a community facility
for the use of many smallholders. A typical dipping tank is shown in Figure 10.57. In areas
where the bont tick is a problem, simple walk-through tanks or footbaths may
be needed. Figure 10.58 shows plans for a footbath.
POULTRY STRUCTURE.

The deep litter /the poultry housing

Poultry refers to domesticated birds kept for eggs or meat .
The following are design factors you will consider when designing a poultry house
1. The place for the house
2. The facilities to fit in it e.g troughs
3. The type of birds
4. The size and the number of birds
5. The available material
6. The environment factors (weather)
7. The purpose for which the birds are kept i.e. eggs or meat.
The layout factors for poultry house.
1. It should be in a well guarded surrounded
2. The land should be raised and moderately level
3. It should be placed in a place where water is readily available
4. Should have adequate ventilation through windows.
5. It should be protected from prevailing winds
Site location in the farm
1. It should be located on the downwards side from the surrounding dwelling side. This is to
avoid a dour or bad smell from the house unit.
2. They should be 10m from each other to minimize disease spread.
3. Should be 30m from other poultry buildings to avoid the spread of diseases
4. The best environment for poultry unit is on which is cool shaded and has a good supply of
fresh air.

The following are the qualification of a good poultry house

1. Should provide a good material environment for the birds.
2. The house should be well ventilated
3. The house should be free from roof radiation and indirect radiation from bear ground or floor
4. It should be well-protected from wind and low temperature
5. The walls and roofs should provide adequate protection from predators, thief’s and rodent .
6. It should have adequate light e.g.a 15m2 floor space needs at least a 40w li
The construction work of the floor
1. The floor should be of smooth concrete for durability .It should be easy to
clean and disinfect.
2. It should be made of concrete thickness 100 mm and a cement sand, ballast
ratio 1:2;4 or 1:3:5 which is provides a firm base of about 150 mm hardcore
and should be raised 100 mm above the ground.

The walls-the level of the solid wall should be about 1m above the ground level’s front of the
building and 2m up to the wall plate at the side and the back of the building. The post should be
strong and fleeted and should be set in concrete to a depth of about 0.5m to support the roof the
opening should be covered by 18mm wire mesh to keep of the wild birds and rodents
The roof-I t should be sheltered with corrugated iron sheet or asbestos and should allow a roof
overhung of 0.5 m so as to protect the walls from the rains and sun heat.
NB: A deep litter house confines the birds a building that offers good reasonable investment, if
well design with low masonry wall set or concrete floor and wire to complete the upper part of
the walls the building will exclude rats and birds. The principal advantage of this system
1. It has easy access for feeding water and eggs gathering
2. It has a good protection and reasonable investment
Disadvantage
1. It needs a high quality litter, which should be changed frequently.
2.

CATTLE DIP
A DIP is build to immerse sheep, cattle and goats .The aim of dipping is to cut off
parasites like ticks fleas and lice .The following are the factors to be considered when selecting
a side for the cattle dip:
1. In a central position to the farm with good access and with maximum available area of
80 X30m
2. It should be near a good source of water it may be from tap, dams, well etc for mixing
acaricide, but the most important in the animal to drink before being dipped.
3. It should be in a place where the liquid waste can easily disposed without causing pollution
4. The ground should have the following features
a) It should be slightly sloppy and hard as possible but not rocky
b) It should be resistance to erosions by water, wind and animal trucks.
c) The ground stone firmly support the structure of the deep
d) It should be well drained.

Important components of a cattle dip.

1. The collecting pen: This is where the animals are collected before dipping .Allows
space `of 2m2 per cow and 0.3 to 0.4m2 per sheep and goat. A pen should have drinking troughs.
They are building of concrete floor
2. The foot bath-This is to wash the feet of the animals before entering the dipping tank
.It should be 4.5x0.25 wide and 0.15 m deep and fluid depth of 0.1m. These troughs are build of
concrete floor. Such a floor provide grip and assist to remove mud from the animal hooves.
3. The jump – This is narrow steep flight of short steps which ensures
a) That the animal can grip and jump centrally to the dip.
b) That the head of the animal are lower than the rumps and take off.
c) It ensures that the animal jump one at a time
d) It also ensures that the deep wash splash return to the dip.
e) The jump should be 35-45cm above the dip wash.
4. The dipping tank- A good dipping tank should have the following features
a) Its shape and size should be fit a jumping animal with or without horns.
b) It should be large enough to allow the heads of the animal to be re-immersed by the operation
as they swim
c) It should provide easy climb for the cow towards the exit point
d) It should avoid the loss of accaricide by seepage through cracks and pot holes
e) It must be free of cracks and pot holes
f) It must be durable- needing little maintenance
g) It must be constructed with good quality materials
h) It must have cut walks and hand rails to allow a person to walk between the
splash walls for rescuer to rescue the animal from in trouble
5. The drainage race the drainage race allows excess dip wash to drain back to the dipping tank.
It is made smooth water tight and has no cracks or potholes it should be long enough to increase
the back flow rate. The floor should slope towards the dip tank
6. The silt trap out let:- The silt trap , traps mud and dung from the dip wash before it flows
back to the dip tank’ The inlet and outlet should be such that there is no direct
crossing flow provisions should be made to direct rain water from the deep wash.
7. The deep tank shelter besides providing the shade over the tank the roof serves the following
a) To reduce evaporation of the tank wash
b) To prevent distillation of the deep wash by rain
c) To harvest rain water for storage
d) To provide shade for the animal being dipped as the operation
e) It prevents the loss of accaricides to splash
8. The water source clean – clean water is required for watering the animal and mixing
accaricide
a) Water pit- The waste is required for dumping sediments from the
dipping tank it should be located 80-100m from the source of water to
avoid pollution.
Maintenance requirement of cattle dip

1. Clean the dip tank regularly when sediments have accumulate to acceptable level
2. All cracks in collecting pens foot baths, dipping tank, silt tap, drainage race and walk should
be repaired at once
3. The shelter roof should not leak otherwise it will dilute the accaricide.
4. Fernery structure of the dip must be well maintained
5. Keep the source of water out of pollution and freely available in the animals.
6. Check the acaricides strength regularly and top up.

THE SPRAY RACE

A spray race in a farm structure especially designed for the control of ticks. There are types of
spray race.
1. The mechanical spray race
2. The manual spray race.

1. The manual spray race

It consists of hand spray pump with nozzle, which is used to through wet and animal that is
stained in the race. The sprayer structure consists of post and nails build for fencing the sides’
slopes gently to allow free movement of animals. The width of the race should be correct so that
the animal can move easily around without turning i.e. it should be 500-700mm between the
nails though this will depend on the size of the animals .The entire length of the race should be
floored with concrete. Races on the slopping side should have a solid wall of 600mm from the
bottom to reduce the risk of leg injury should the cow slip.
The mechanical spray race
This spray race consist the following features
a) The race measures 6m long by 1m wide
b) It has a concrete floor and concrete wall.
c) It has a spray pipe system which consist of about 20-30 nozzle placed in the floor walled
causing the nozzle shower the animal as it walks the length on the tunnel.
d) It has centrifugal pump that causes the acaricides to circulate under pressure at
80liters per minute .The pump can be operated by petrol or electric mortar or stationary engine.
e) It has the guard rails
f) It has controlled valves to control the direction of the spray liquids that is being pumped
g) The pump or reservoir to contain the liquid that is being pumped
h) Agitations pipe – to stir the acaricide
i) The junction pipe and foot valves that sucks the liquid from reservoir
j) It may have filters or reservoir sieves dung from blocking the nozzles
k) It may have the pressure gauge for measuring the operation pressure of the pump
l) It has galvanized corrugated iron room.

ANIMAL HOLDING STRUCTURES.

A crush: A crush is a farm structure used in animal herding with holding yard and fenced
narrow passage in which animals are restrained for the routine animal husbandry practice
such as
1) Hand spray (manual)
2) Injecting or treating animals against internal diseases e.g. vaccination & de-honing
3) For artificial insemination
4) For apply identification marks and ear tagging
5) For dehorning
6) For milking.
Crush that accommodates two cows
The length of a crush is influenced by farmer choice of the number of cattle he wishes to handle
at a go.
A crush consists of posts and the nails build for fencing. It has a head pail at the end of the crush
and a side opening gate of the crush at the last panel of the crush to improve access to the side of
the animal the gate can be split horizontally in halves so that the top. half restrains the animal A
sliding gate or tail bar at the entrance of the gauge holds the animal back and give easier access
to the rear part of the animal in the crush The head end has vertical a bar used to fix the head of
the animal during operation. Horizontally and vertical bar help to fix head during dehorning.

MODERN CRUSH.

WOODEN METTALIC CRUSH.

BEEHIVES CONSTRUCTIONS.

7 Key Things to Consider when Choosing a Location for a Beehive

 7 Key Things to Consider when Choosing a Location for.. ...

 1 Consider your Neighbours. .
 2 Consider Access to your Hive. ...
 3 Exposure to the wind. ...
 4 Exposure to the sun. ...
 5 Moisture and Ventilation. ...
 6 Flat and Firm Ground. ...
 7 Near Water.

Components of beehive system.

 The total hive system consists of
 Bottom board with an entrance for the bees,
 Boxes which containing frames for brood
 Honey and inner and external covers for weather protection.

Types of beehives.

3 Best Types of Hives

1. Langstroth Hive:

The Langstroth hive is the most common style in use today and a favorite for new beekeepers.
Langstroth hives consist of boxes that stack on top of each other.

Parts of a Langstroth Hive

 Outer/Telescoping Cover — Keeps the whole hive dry from rain. Similar to a roof on
a house.
 Inner Cover — The inner cover fits between the top hive box and the outer cover. It
provides insulation and prevents frames from sticking to the outer cover. It can be used with
a bee escape when harvesting honey.
 Shallow/Honey Super — Shallow supers are most the commonly used size for
honey production.
 Queen Excluder — Allows only worker bees to pass through, keeping the queen and drones
away from the honey. This is an optional piece of equipment that prevents the queen from
laying eggs in the honey collection supers. Not every beekeeper uses an excluder.
 Frames — Removable frames (wooden or plastic) fit into the hive boxes. Frames come in
different sizes to fit the three different sizes of supers. Bees build honeycomb inside the
 wooden frames (often using beeswax foundation/plastic foundation as a guide.) The comb
cells hold young bees, pollen, nectar, and honey.
 Foundation — Most beekeepers use sheets of beeswax (or plastic) foundation as a guide
inside the frames. This helps to encourage the bees to build straight comb inside the frames.
 Brood Chamber (Also called: deep super or brood box) — The brood box contains larger
frames than the shallow super. Here, the queen lays eggs for the next generation of bees. In
this maternity ward, nurse bees care for the young.
 Bottom Board — The base of the hive. Bottom boards are available as a solid bottom or
with a screened bottom.

2.Warré Hive

The Warré is another top bar design. Instead of being a long horizontal top bar hive, the Warré
hive is referred to as a vertical top bar hive. Identically sized stacked boxes have no frames or
foundation sheets. Bees build honeycomb down from top bars placed within each box.

Beekeepers using the Warré style often “bottom-super” their hive: instead of putting empty
boxes on top to give the colony more overhead room, empty boxes are placed at the bottom of
the stack. They feel this arrangement better mimics bee life in the wild.These are the three most
popular hive designs, but every style has pros and cons! It is up to you to decide which type of
beehive best suits your goals and management style. Closely follow plan directions if you choose
to build your own bee hive of any style. Improperly built bee hives result in wayward comb,
difficult inspections, and angry bees (and soon, stung beekeepers).

3. Top Bar Hive

The top bar hive is the oldest hive design in the world. A horizonal top bar hive features
wooden bars that are laid along the top of the long box. One-piece bars are used instead of the 4-
sided wooden frames of the Langstroth design. The honey bees build comb down from the top
bars. No foundation is required, but the hive should be elevated off the ground with some sort
of stand.

Different parts of Top bar hive and their definitions

For the purpose of easy understanding of some parts in the process of beehive Construction, the
following definitions were adopted.
Bee Space
 Bee space is path or corridor bees need to move between the combs and around the nest, a
vital path to allow bees walk freely.
 In Modern frame hives, bee space is the distance between the outside end of each frame and
inner hive wall opposite to it, between adjacent surface of completed and sealed worker
brood combs, and between the top of frames in the lower box and the bottom of the frames in
the upper box.
 Bee space is an optimum distance between two surfaces in a beehive essential for
the normal movement and functioning of bees.

1.Comb/ frame spacing

Comb spacing or frame spacing in a modern box hive is the distance between the adjacent comb
midribs or sheets of foundation in the frames. It is determined by the bee space, which in turn is
determined by the size of bee races under consideration.
2.Brood chamber
Brood chamber is a four-sided wooden box of rectangular cross-section without a top or a
bottom, in which the brood frames are placed. It holds 10 frames in which foundation sheet fixed
on which bees build wax onto for various purposes.
4.Honey chambers/supers
Honey chambers are four-sided wooden box of rectangular cross-section without a top or a
bottom in which the frames of similar size are placed. It is similar to the brood chamber but
placed above it when in use. It holds 10 similar frames with that of brood chamber where the
bees will store honey. One can stack as many honey supers on top of the hive as needed but at
least two for one hive.

5.Frame
A frame is a structure made up of a top bar, a bottom bar and two sidebars in which the bees
develop comb to rear brood, store pollen, nectar and/or honey. Frames are constructed in such a
way that a series of them may be placed in a vertical position in the brood chamber or the honey
chambers/supers so as to leave space bee space) in between themselves and hive body for bees to
move freely.

6.Bottom board and Mite floor

Bottom board is a four-sided wooden box of rectangular cross-section screened with 3 x 3 mm
wire greed at the middle and with perfectly sealed bottom, on which all hive parts placed to keep
bees for all the required activities. It has ledge around three sides that raises the hive parts
leaving an open slit in the front, which is primary covered by the entrance block (Fig 10).
Mite floor is a four-sided rectangular board for different pest management. It is prepared from
waterproof plywood, on which sticky glue will be placed to trap particularly small pests like
varroa mites and larvae of small hive beetle that crawling out intended for pupation process in
the soil as part of protecting bees from re-infestation of the pests.

7.Entrance Reducer
Entrance reducer is a small piece of wood block at the hive entrance usually provided with slot
of suitable size for bees to enter and leave the hive for foraging and other activities. It fits
between the bottom board and the first super (brood chamber) and to protect bees against bigger
pests and robbers.

8.Outer cover
Outside lid is a wooden plate with four sides covered by smooth metal sheet of 0.5 mm and
always placed on the last upper hive chamber (brood or super). The outside cover/ roof lid is
wider than the rest of the hive chambers with an overhang of 65 mm so that water drips beside
the hive rather than running down the side of the hive chambers or possibly into the hive
9.Inner/inside cover
Inside cover is a four-sided box of rectangular cross-section without a top and bottom with a
water proof plywood separator screen at the middle with a passage hole for the bees to visit
upper part of the inner cover. The inner cover will serve as a feeder to supply bees with sugar
syrup or pollen patty during dearth period and also for various beekeeping activities. The size of
the passage hole can be with a dimension of 50 mm x 80, but can be of different size.

Frame and its dimension

The proposed dimensions of different frame parts of beehives.
The top bar shall extend equally on both sides of the frame. A frame shall
have top bar, two sidebars and bottom

Top bar
 From the different workshops the average length of top bars is almost 480 mm. To determine
the width of a top bar.
 The average comb thickness is about 25 mm and this can be considered as the width of top
bar. So the top bar shall be 20 mm thick, 25 mm wide and 480 mm long.
 It shall be made of well-seasoned wood to prevent swelling and shrinking. Cutting notch of 5
mm deep on the two sides and 10 mm deep on the bottom at 35 mm from the two ends to fit
the top bars into the side bars.
 Then the ends of the top bars shall be joined into the side bars by these notches for
facilitating hang for the frames.
 It is important to use grooved top bar frames to facilitate fixing of foundation, which
otherwise warp if not inserted into the 5 mm deep groove.

Bottom bars
Based on the top bar size, the bottom bar shall be 20 mm wide, 10 mm thick and 440 mm long. It
shall be made of well-seasoned wood as well. To fit perfectly to the side bars, cutting notch of
2.5mm deep on the two sides at 15 mm from the two ends is important to fit the bottom bars into
the side bars. Then the ends of the bottom bars shall be joined into the side bars by these notches.
Side bars
 The side bars are important parts of the frame to determine the bee space in the hive. So the
side bars should be of shoulder type. It shall be 15 mm thick 36 mm wide at the top and 27
mm wide at the bottom to provide the required bee space.
 This space is in similar range for honeybees’ natural comb spacing result. It should have a
total length of 230 mm having four holes for wire reinforcement at 57.5 mm.
 The hole shall be made at the center of the two side bars. This will give the holes at 37.5 mm
away from the top bar and 47.5 mm away from bottom bar while the remaining holes shall be
at distance of 57.5 mm from each other.
 To facilitate the fitting of top and bottom bars with the side bars, cut two 10 mm deep at 15
mm wide from the center and remove the cut from the center by leaving of two forks on the
sides.

Dimensions and requirements of brood and honey chambers

 The dimension of brood and honey chambers and their quality have direct impact on the bee
colonies and increasing productivity of beekeepers. These hives provide simplicity of
construction and ease of manipulation, permitting rapid inspection and interchange of hive
parts.
 In terms of wood quality, the required lumber shall be from all season wood like pine and
Juniper for all construction with the finished wood thickness of 20mm, except for the top
cover and floor.

Entrance block dimension

 Entrance block is a block placed in front of the hive on the bottom board to reduce entrance
gate of the beehive. Its dimensions are 390 mm long 50 mm high and 19 mm wide for the
Longstroth.
 For the entrance pass for the bees, 15mm wide and 150 mm long cut shall be made in the
middle of the 390 mm length. Entrance block can be removed during the hot season for air
circulation.
Bottom board dimension
Bottom board is simple design of flat rectangular box on which hive body rests.
For Longstroth hive cut two pieces of wood 585 mm long and 40 mm high and one piece of
wood 370 long and 40 mm high. Create a 5 mm wide and 5 mm deep groove 10 mm from the
edge of the pieces slotting for placing mite board.
Also cut one piece of wood 370 long and 25 mm high but no groove here. This 25 mm wide
wood piece is to create an open back silt at bottom back of the bottom board designed primary to
be covered by placing mite board made of 5 mm thick plywood on which a sticky glue will be
paced for pest control like varroa mite and larvae of small hive beetle.

Roof or Top cover/lid

The dimensions of the top cover are given in table 4. The key feature is that the cover is
telescopic and extends down the sides of the hive body on which it is placed (Figure 4). This
provides maximum protection and reduces the risk of rain seeping into the top chamber. The top
covers side wall shall be from all weather quality wood, with the wood thickness of 20 mm.
Inner cover/lid
The dimension of the inner cover consists of plywood dimension to perfectly fit with wooden
rims dimensions, similar to the outer hive chambers.
For Langstroth hive, the wooden rims consists of two pieces of dimensions 505 mm long, 40
mm high and 20 mm wide and two pieces of dimensions 365 mm long, 40 mm high and 20 mm
wide. Then by using table saw make a 10 mm deep by 5 mm wide groove at 10 mm distance
from the edge of 40 mm high wood pieces. The groves are just to slide the 5 mm thick plywood
into that groove. This gives wooden rims on one side (inside) is 10 mm thick which equals the
bee space.
The 25 mm high wooden rim on the outside shall be to provide sufficient room for pollen patty
or sugar syrup feeding to bees on the top surface. At the center of the inner cover, a rectangular
space of about 50 mm x 80 mm is cut and a tight ledge of 15 mm high and 30 mm wide erected
to facilitate provision of feeds. This open space allows bees’ access to the space between the
inner cover and the hive lid during feeding.

Assembling a beehive
The most important parts of Longstroth and Topbar beehive are:
 A loose bottom board
 A bottomless brood chamber, in front of which is entrance block with the entrance passage
for the bees; the brood chamber holds 10 frames, which are kept separated at the right
distance by means of side bars
 Above the brood chamber is a queen excluder (not absolutely necessary), placed
horizontally on top of the brood chamber
 Based on the population of the colony are one or more honey supers with 10 frames are
placed on top of the brood chamber or on the queen excluder
 On top of the honey chambers is placed an inner cover of 5 mm thick
 The total hive system is then covered by an outer cover made of wood, covered with zinc or
aluminum sheet. This outer cover should fit easily over the honey super or brood chamber.
Management of beehives.
 There are four phases of hive management, which are common to beekeeping operation in
any part of the world.
 The first phase is ensuring that the foraging capacity of bees in the colony is built up at the
right time for the collection of nectar and pollen
 The second phase is providing space for the storage and bees population expansions to
accommodate the full growth cycle of the colony in the season,
 The third phase is removing honey from the hive and extracting it from the combs
 The fourth phase is preparing the colony to withstand the dearth period.

BUILDINGS FOR MACHINERY AND SUPPLIES

This type of building is designed solely to afford protection from the weather, mainly rain.
Machinery storage should have as much surface as possible between the interior posts, without
being too deep, so that each machine can be taken out easily. The best solution is a clear-span
shed, wood or metal-framed, 25 to 35 feet (eight to 10 metres wide), open on one side and 15
feet (4.5 metres) high under the gutter. At the end of the shed, one bay is reserved for repair and
maintenance and another for tools. This part is equipped with sliding or overhead doors. The
same shed, or another, can be used for storing the fertilizers, seeds, and pesticides..

Crop storage
Wheat, barley, shelled corn (maize), and other cereals can be stored in farm bins if the moisture
is below a certain limit (from 10 to 15 percent). In some cases artificial drying is necessary
before storage, though it is possible to store wet grain, especially shelled corn, in airtight silos for
animal fodder. The most common methods of storage of dry grain are (1) in piles of five to 10
feet (1.5 to three metres) on a waterproof floor in a building with reinforced walls; (2) in square
or round bins erected within a building, usually of timber, plywood, corrugated steel, or wire
mesh lined with waterproof paper; and (3) in watertight bins, often of corrugated metal, with
their own roofs, for outside erection. Ear corn is dried by natural ventilation through a crib of
limited width, located in a building or outside. Loose or baled hay is stored and sometimes dried
by ventilation with fresh or heated air, either under sheds or in special installations called hay
towers. Silage is made to conserve moist fodders, such as corn, sorghum, and grass. There are
two types of silos. The horizontal silo is parallel-piped, either cut into the ground (trench silo) or
built aboveground (bunker silo). The floor is natural earth or concrete. The walls can be concrete,
timber or plywood, or sheet steel. The capacity varies but can be large. The tower silo is an
above ground cylinder, with 20- to 30-foot (six- to nine-metre) diameter and a 50- to 65-foot (15-
to 20-metre) height.
Ordinary silos, which are only watertight, are of wood, concrete, masonry staves or blocks, or
steel. Special airtight silos with steel walls and a fused-glass surface are used for storage of high
dry-matter silage, called “haylage.” Fruit and vegetable storage for family consumption is
usually in caves or cellars. For crops to be marketed, conditioning and storage generally are
handled by commercial enterprises, but some large specialized farms have their own storage. The
buildings are insulated, and temperature control is assured either by ventilation with outside air
(i.e., for potatoes and onions) or by refrigeration (i.e., for apples).

Special-purpose structures.
Many secondary farm structures, such as smokehouses and well houses, are a leftover of the past,
but some are necessary in specialized farms. A typical example is the tobacco barn, built for
static air circulation.

Bright leaf tobacco leaves hanging to dry in an open-air barn in Kentucky, U.S.
Barn
A barn is an agricultural building usually located on farms and used for various purposes. In the
North American area, a barn refers to structures that house livestock, including cattle and horses,
as well as equipment and fodder, and often grain.[2] As a result, the term barn is often qualified
e.g. tobacco barn, dairy barn, sheep barn, potato barn. In the British Isles, the term barn is
restricted mainly to storage structures for unthreshed cereals and fodder, the terms byre or
shippon being applied to cow shelters, whereas horses are kept in buildings known as stables.[2]
[3] On the Continent, however, barns were often part of integrated structures known as
byre-dwellings (or housebarns in US literature). In addition, barns may be used for equipment
storage, as a covered workplace, and for activities such as threshing.

THE END OF THE NOTES.

These notes are researched, compiled and edited by Eng. Evans.S.O.Omondi, Lecturer at
Rift Valley Technical Training Institute, Department of Agriculture and Environmental
Studies..

Email: evansowayodi@gmail.com.