Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А.

Theme03 2024/25 1

Derivative of a function at a point

The value of a function and its limit are local numerical characteristics
that make it possible to quantitatively describe the function both at a
certain point and in its small vicinity.
However, these characteristics are not enough when it is necessary to
evaluate not only the function values themselves, but also the relative
magnitude of their change. To do this, a special quantitative method is
used. This characteristic of a function is called derivative of a function at
a point. Let’s give its definition.
Definition 3.1. The derivative of a function at a point is the limit
of the ratio of the increment in the value of the
function to the increment of its argument, when the
last increment tends to zero.
In other words, for a function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) its derivative at the point 𝑥0 ,
is denoted as 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) or 𝑦𝑥′ (𝑥0 ), is equal to

𝑓 (𝑥0 + 𝑡) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = lim . (3.1)
𝑡→0 𝑡
Indeed, if the value of the argument was 𝑥0 , and became 𝑥0 + 𝑡 , then its
increment is obviously equal to ∆𝑥 = (𝑥0 + 𝑡) − 𝑥0 = 𝑡. Similarly, if the
function value was 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) and it became 𝑓 (𝑥0 + 𝑡) , then its corresponding
increment is ∆𝑓 = 𝑓 (𝑥0 + 𝑡) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) .
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 2

From this definition it follows that the function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) must have
values in some neighborhood of the point 𝑥0 , and also be continuous at
point 𝑥0 .
The last condition is necessary (but not sufficient!) for the existence of
a derivative of a function at a point, since only for continuous functions
the limit of the increment of the value of the function is equal to zero as
the increment of the argument tends to zero.
However, even for a continuous function the limit (3.1) is an uncertainty
0
of the form « ». That is, a conclusion about the existence (or non-
0
existence) of a derivative at a point can be made only after the «disclosure»
of this uncertainty.
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 3

Let us explain Definition 3.1 with the following examples.

Example 3.1. Find the derivative of the function 𝑦 = 𝑥3 at the point

𝑥0 = 2.

First, let’s solve this problem for an arbitrary fixed point 𝑥0 . Let
the increment of the argument at point 𝑥0 be equal to 𝑡, Let’s find the
corresponding increment in the value of this function using the formula
«cube of the sum of two numbers»,

∆𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥0 +𝑡)−𝑓 (𝑥0 ) =

= (𝑥0 + 𝑡)3 − 𝑥30 = 𝑥30 + 3𝑥20 𝑡 + 3𝑥0 𝑡2 + 𝑡3 − 𝑥30 = 3𝑥20 𝑡 + 3𝑥0 𝑡2 + 𝑡3 .

(︀ )︀

Then
3𝑥20 𝑡 + 3𝑥0 𝑡2 + 𝑡3
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = lim = lim 3𝑥20 + 3𝑥0 𝑡 + 𝑡2 = 3𝑥20 .
(︀ )︀
𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑡→0

Substituting 𝑥0 = 2 into the resulting expression, we find that the desired

value of 𝑦𝑥′ (2) for the function 𝑦 = 𝑥3 at the point 2 is 12.
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 4

√
Example 3.2. Find the derivative of function 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 at the point
𝑥0 = 3.

As in the previous example, we first solve this problem for an arbitrary

fixed point 𝑥0 . Let the increment of the argument at point 𝑥0 be equal to
𝑡. Let’s find the corresponding increment in the value of function
√ √
∆𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥0 + 𝑡) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) = 𝑥0 + 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑥0 + 1 .

Then, after multiplying by the conjugate expression, we get

√ √
′ 𝑥0 + 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑥0 + 1
𝑓 (𝑥0 ) = lim =
𝑡→0 𝑡
1 1
= lim √ √ = √ .
𝑡→0 𝑥0 + 𝑡 + 1 + 𝑥0 + 1 2 𝑥0 + 1
Substituting 𝑥0 = 3, into the resulting √ expression we find, that the
desired value is 𝑦𝑥′ (3) for the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 at point 3 will be equal
to 41 .
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 5

Example 3.3. Find the derivative of function 𝑦 = |𝑥| at the point 𝑥0 = 0.

This function is continuous at the zero point. Moreover, due to 𝑥0 = 0

|𝑥0 + 𝑡| − |𝑥0 | |𝑡|

{︂
′ 1 , if 𝑡 > 0,
𝑓 (𝑥0 ) = lim = lim = lim (3.2)
𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑡→0 −1 , if 𝑡 < 0.

How can we conclude that the function in question does not have a
derivative at 𝑥0 = 0.
Indeed, it is possible to specify two different numerical sequences, for
example,
{︃ }︃ {︃ }︃
1 1
𝑡𝑛 = −→ 0 and 𝜏𝑛 = − −→ 0 ,
𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞

such that
(︃ )︃ (︃ )︃
′ ′ 1 ′ ′ 1
𝑓 (𝑡𝑛 ) = 𝑓 −→ 1 and 𝑓 (𝜏𝑛 ) = 𝑓 − −→ −1 .
𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞

This means that limit (3.1) does not exist due to the denial of the Heine
definition of the limit.
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Note that from the existence of the derivative of function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) at

the point 𝑥0 the continuity of this function follows at 𝑥0 . Indeed, let there
be a finite limit
𝑓 (𝑥0 + 𝑡) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 )
𝐴 = lim .
𝑡→0 𝑡
Then
𝑓 (𝑥0 + 𝑡) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) = 𝐴𝑡 + 𝑜(𝑡) , (3.3)
𝑓 (𝑥0 + 𝑡) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 )
since the value − 𝐴 infinitely small. And passing in
𝑡
equality (3.3) to the limit at 𝑡 → 0 , we obtain the fulfilled continuity
condition lim 𝑓 (𝑥0 + 𝑡) = 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) .
𝑡→0

The converse is not true. From the continuity of function the existence
of derivative at a point may not follow (see Example 3.3).

Concluding the discussion of Definition 3.1, we note that mathematical

texts use various methods of notation derivative of a function at a point.
In addition to those used above, the most commonly used designations are
⃒
′ 𝑑𝑦 ⃒⃒
𝑦𝑥 (𝑥)|𝑥=𝑥0 , , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)|𝑥=𝑥0 .
𝑑𝑥⃒
⃒
𝑥=𝑥0
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 7

The concept of derivative of a function at a point allows its geometric

interpretation, the meaning of which is illustrated by the task constructing
a tangent to the graph of a function at some point.
Let’s say we need to draw⃦ a tangent
⃦ to the graph of function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥)
⃦ 𝑥0 ⃦
at point 𝐴 with coordinates ⃦⃦
⃦ . Let’s select another point 𝐵 , having
⃦
⃦ 𝑦0 ⃦
⃦ 𝑥1 ⃦
a coordinate representation ⃦⃦ 𝑦1 ⃦ . Since both of these points lie on the
⃦

graph, then the equalities 𝑦0 = 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) and 𝑦1 = 𝑓 (𝑥1 ) are valid.

Let us draw the secant 𝐴𝐵 through the selected points (see Fig. 1.)
It is easy to see that the equation of line passing through these points is
𝑦1 − 𝑦0
𝑦 = 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0 , where the value of slope 𝑘 = = tg 𝛼 .
𝑥1 − 𝑥0
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 8

Let’s start now, «sliding» according to the plot, bring point 𝐵 closer
to point 𝐴 .
Then 𝑥1 −→ 𝑥0 and, therefore, 𝑡 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 −→ 0 . At the end this
secant will become the desired tangent, the value of slope for which is equal
to
𝑦(𝑥) − 𝑦(𝑥0 ) 𝑓 (𝑥0 + 𝑡) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 )
𝑘 = lim = lim = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) .
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑡→0 𝑡
Thus, we come to the conclusion that the value of the derivative of the
function at a point is equal to slope of the tangent at this point.
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 9

Fig.1. Geometric meaning of the derivative of a function at a point

In conclusion, we note that the horizontality of tangent to the plot of

function at its extreme points is geometrically obvious.
From the above considerations it follows that the value of the derivative
of the function equals zero at these points (if, of course, this derivative
exists).
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 10

Derived function

Finding the values of derivative functions at points using definition 3.1

usually is quite a difficult task.
In practice it is more convenient to use a different approach based on
the following considerations.
In definition 3.1, the passage to the limit is performed with respect to
the auxiliary variable 𝑡, while the value 𝑥0 is a fixed numeric parameter.
If we change 𝑥0 , then the value of the limit (3.1), generally speaking,
it will change. However, for each specific 𝑥0 it is one, because if the limit
exists, then it is unique.
Therefore, definition 3.1 can be considered as a rule according to which
each value 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 is assigned unique number 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) . In other words, here
some new function is specified whose value at points 𝑥 is equal to 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) .
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 11

This function is usually called derivative function of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) and

denoted as 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) .
Search of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) for known 𝑓 (𝑥) is called differentiation. In the case
when for 𝑓 (𝑥) there exists 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) , they also say, that the function 𝑓 (𝑥) is
differentiable.
On the other hand, a function 𝑦 = 𝐹 (𝑥) such that 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥), is
called antiderivative for 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥). The operation of finding it for known
𝑓 (𝑥) is called integration.
For example, using the solution to Example 3.1, we can state that the
derivative function of 𝑦 = 𝑥3 is 𝑦 = 3𝑥2 .
On the other hand, if we know the derivative function for 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥),
then the values of its derivative at each point 𝑥0 are also known.
Derivative functions of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) are also usually denoted as 𝑦𝑥′ or
𝑑𝑦
.
𝑑𝑥
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 12

There are cases where a function depends on more than one variable.
The identifier of the variable with respect to which the derivative is taken
can be indicated explicitly as a subscript. For example, for a function
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑝) depending on 𝑥 and 𝑝, the notation 𝑓𝑥′ (𝑥, 𝑝) means the derivative
with respect to the variable 𝑥. Variable 𝑝 is considered as a fixed parameter
here.
𝜕𝑓
This derivative is called partial derivative and denoted as .
𝜕𝑥
It is also worth noting that in Russian mathematical texts the concepts
«derivative of a function at a point» and «derivative function» are often
denoted by the same word «derivative», assuming that it is clear from the
context what is being said.
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 13

Obviously, it is much more convenient to use derivatives of functions

to find the values of the derivative of a function at a point, rather than
to use definition 3.1 for this purpose. But then the question arises: how to
find derivatives of functions?
The answer is: you need to use
1) table of derivatives for some small set of elementary functions
obtained directly using definition 3.1,
and
2) differentiation rules expressing derivatives of some functions through
derivatives of others.
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 14

Table 3.1

𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

𝑥𝑎 𝑎𝑥𝑎−1

𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥

𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ̸= 1 𝑎𝑥 ln 𝑎

1
ln |𝑥|
𝑥

1
log𝑎 |𝑥|, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ̸= 1
𝑥 ln 𝑎

sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥

1
arcsin 𝑥 √
1 − 𝑥2

1
arctg 𝑥
1 + 𝑥2

An example of the first table is numbered 3.1.

Obviously, this table is not enough, to obtain derivatives of any
functions given by formulas. That’s why Table 3.2 should also be used,
expressing derivatives from some functions, through derivatives from
others.
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Table 3.2

′
1∘ ( 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑔 ′ (𝑥)

′
2∘ ( 𝐶 · 𝑓 (𝑥) ) = 𝐶 · 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) , where 𝐶 – const

′
3∘ ( 𝑓 (𝑥) · 𝑔(𝑥) ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) · 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓 (𝑥) · 𝑔 ′ (𝑥)

′
4∘ ( 𝑓 (𝑔(𝑥)) )𝑥 = 𝑓𝑔′ (𝑔) · 𝑔𝑥′ (𝑥)
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 16

Let us illustrate the use of tables 3.1 and 3.2 with the following
examples.

Example 3.4. Suppose we need to find the derivatives of functions

√
3 √
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 sin 𝑥
𝑦= , 𝑦= and 𝑦 = 𝑒arccos 𝑥 .
𝑥 𝑥
Solution.
1) A comparison of rules 1∘ and 3∘ of Table 3.2 convinces that it is easier
to differentiate the sum of functions than their product. Therefore,
first we will perform term-by-term division, that is, we will look for
the derivative of the function
(︃ √3 √ )︃′
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 (︁ 1 1
)︁′
= 𝑥− 3 + 𝑥− 2 + 𝑥−1 =
𝑥

and, using the first formulas from Tables 3.1 and 3.2, we get

1 4 1 3 1 1 1
= − · 𝑥− 3 − · 𝑥− 2 − 𝑥−2 = − √ − √ − .
3 2 3𝑥 3 𝑥 2𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 17

2) Table 3.2 does not contain a formula for differentiating a fraction,

although you can find it in many textbooks. Therefore, we first
transform this function into a product, and only then apply rule 3∘
of Table 3.2
(︃ )︃′
sin 𝑥 )︀′
= (sin 𝑥) · (𝑥−1 ) = (sin 𝑥)′ · (𝑥−1 ) + (sin 𝑥) · (𝑥−1 )′ =
(︀
𝑥

cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥

= (cos 𝑥) · 𝑥−1 + (sin 𝑥) · (−𝑥−2 ) = − 2 = .
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2
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3) First, recall that

𝜋
𝑔(𝑥) = arccos 𝑥 = − arcsin 𝑥 ,
2
and therefore, according to the first rule of Table 3.2 and the last
line of Table 3.1, we have

1
𝑔𝑥′ (𝑥) = − √ .
1 − 𝑥2
Then, (︁ )︁′
′ ′
𝑦𝑥′ = (𝑒arccos 𝑥 )𝑥 = 𝑒𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑒𝑔 )𝑔 · 𝑔𝑥′ (𝑥) =
𝑥
(︃ )︃
𝑔 ′ 𝑔 1 𝑒arccos 𝑥
= 𝑒 · 𝑔𝑥 (𝑥) = 𝑒 · − √ = −√ .
1 − 𝑥2 1 − 𝑥2
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 19

Derivatives of functions
defined in a special way

Derivative of the inverse function

If the function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) is continuous and strictly monotone in some

neighborhood of the point 𝑥0 and if this function has a non-zero derivative
at the point 𝑥0 , then function 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) ( inverse to 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) ) has a
derivative at the point 𝑦0 = 𝑓 (𝑥0 ). The value of which
⃒
𝑑𝑓 −1 ⃒⃒ 1
= ⃒
𝑑𝑦 ⃒
⃒
𝑦=𝑦0
𝑑𝑓 ⃒
⃒
𝑑𝑥 ⃒
⃒
𝑥=𝑥0
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Example. Consider two inverse functions 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑥 = arcsin 𝑦

in a small (guaranteeing
{︃ strict monotonicity)
}︃ neighborhood
𝜋 1
of the point 𝑥0 = , 𝑦0 = √ .
4 2

At this point we have

𝜋 1
𝑦(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑦𝑥′ = cos 𝑥 𝑥0 = 𝑦𝑥′ (𝑥0 ) = √
4 2
1 1 √
𝑥(𝑦) = arcsin 𝑦 𝑥′𝑦 = √︀ 𝑦0 = √ ′
𝑥𝑦 (𝑦0 ) = 2 .
1 − 𝑦2 2
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 21

Derivative of a function specified parametrically

Let the functions 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) are defined in some

neighborhood of the point 𝑥0 = 𝑥(𝑡0 ) and parametrically define the
function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) .
If, in addition, 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) have derivatives at the point 𝑡0
𝑦𝑡′ (𝑡0 )
and 𝑥′𝑡 (𝑡0 ) ̸= 0 , so then 𝑦𝑥′ (𝑥0 ) = ′ .
𝑥𝑡 (𝑡0 )
{︂
𝑥 = 𝑅 cos 𝑡 ,
Example. Let
𝑦 = 𝑅 sin 𝑡 .

In this case 𝑥0 = 𝑅 cos 𝑡0 ∀𝑡0 ̸= 𝑘𝜋, where 𝑘 ∈ (𝑍)

And
𝑅 cos 𝑡0
𝑦𝑥′ (𝑥0 ) = − = − ctg 𝑡0 .
𝑅 sin 𝑡0
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 22

Derivative of a function specified implicitly

Let a function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) be differentiable on the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) is given

implicitly by the condition 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦(𝑥)) = 0 . Then 𝑦𝑥′ (𝑥) is found from the
equation
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 ′
+ 𝑦 (𝑥) = 0 .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑥

Example. Let 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) be defined implicitly by the condition

√ √
𝑥+ 𝑦 =3 𝑥 ∈ (0, 9) .

Find 𝑦𝑥′ (4) , if 𝑦(4) = 1 .

Because the
𝜕𝐹 1 𝜕𝐹 1
= √ and = √ ,
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝑦
That √︃ ⃒
𝑦 ⃒⃒ 1
𝑦𝑥′ (4) = − =− .
𝑥⃒ 2
⃒
𝑥 = 4
𝑦 = 1
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 23

Higher order derivatives

Suppose that the function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) has a derivative function, which is

also differentiable. Then the derivative function of the derivative is called
second-order derivative for 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥) and is denoted as
⃒
′′ 𝑑2 𝑦 ⃒⃒
𝑦𝑥=𝑥0 ; ; 𝑦 ′′ (𝑥)|𝑥=𝑥0 .
𝑑𝑥2 ⃒
⃒
𝑥=𝑥0

Searching for the value of this numerical characteristic comes down to

calculating a limit of the form

𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 + 𝑡) − 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥0 ) = lim . (3.4)
𝑡→0 𝑡
Since the second derivatives of a function at a point (as the limits of the
function) are uniquely defined, then you can define a new function whose
values are the numbers obtained from formula (3.4).
This function (the derivative of the derivative) is called the second
derivative function of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥). To find it, you should use
the same rules as for the first derivative of a function.
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 24

1
For example, if 𝑦 = ln |𝑥|, then according to Table 3.1 𝑦′ = . In
𝑥
1
turn, the derivative function of = 𝑥−1 according to the same Table
𝑥
1 1
3.1 is equaled to (−1)𝑥−2 = − 2
. That is, (ln |𝑥|)′′ = − 2 .
𝑥 𝑥
Using similar reasoning, we can give a definition of a derivative of order
𝑛. We will denote this derivative as
⃒
𝑛 ⃒
(𝑛) 𝑑 𝑦 (𝑛)
⃒
𝑦𝑥=𝑥 ; ; 𝑦 (𝑥) .
⃒ ⃒
0
𝑑𝑥𝑛 ⃒
⃒ ⃒
𝑥=𝑥0
𝑥=𝑥0
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 25

When calculating higher order derivatives, the following formulas are

often useful:

1) (𝑎𝑥 )(𝑛) = 𝑎𝑥 ln𝑛 𝑎

in particular (𝑒𝑥 )(𝑛) = 𝑒𝑥 ,
(︃ )︃
(𝑛) 𝑛 𝜋𝑛
2) (sin 𝛼𝑥) = 𝛼 sin 𝛼𝑥 + ,
2
(︃ )︃
(𝑛) 𝑛 𝜋𝑛
3) (cos 𝛼𝑥) = 𝛼 cos 𝛼𝑥 + ,
2
(︁ )︁(𝑛)
4) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑝 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑝(𝑝 − 1) . . . (𝑝 − 𝑛 + 1)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑝−𝑛
(︃ )︃(𝑛)
1 (−1)𝑛 𝑛!
in particular = ,
𝑥−𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛+1

(−1)𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1)!
5) (log𝑎 |𝑥|)(𝑛) =
𝑥𝑛 ln 𝑎
(−1)𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1)!
in particular (ln |𝑥|)(𝑛) = ,
𝑥𝑛

Finally, we present a formula called «Leibniz formula». This is the

formula for the 𝑛-th derivative of the product of two functions 𝑢(𝑥) and
𝑣(𝑥), each of which has derivatives up to order 𝑛 inclusive:
(︁ 𝑛
)︁(𝑛) ∑︁
6) 𝑢(𝑥) · 𝑣(𝑥) = 𝐶𝑛𝑘 𝑢(𝑛−𝑘) 𝑣 (𝑘) .
𝑘=0
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 26

Let’s look at examples of using these formulas

𝑥+5
Problem 3.1. Find 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) for 𝑓 (𝑥) = .
𝑥2 − 2𝑥 − 3

𝑥+5
Solution. We have 𝑓 (𝑥) = . Let’s decompose this
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)
𝐴 𝐵
function into simple fractions 𝑓 (𝑥) = + .
(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 3)
Then
{︂
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 1,
𝐴(𝑥 − 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 + 5 =⇒
−3𝐴 + 𝐵 = 5.

Where 𝐴 = −1 and 𝐵 = 2 .
For function
1 2
𝑓 (𝑥) = − + ,
(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 3)

using the linearity of the differentiation operation and a

special case of formula 4), we obtain
(︃ )︃
(𝑛) 𝑛 2 1
𝑓 (𝑥) = (−1) 𝑛! − .
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑛+1) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑛+1)
Introduction to CALCULUS Umnov А.Е., Umnov Е.А. Theme03 2024/25 27

Problem 3.2. Find 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) for 𝑓 (𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)2 sin 3𝑥 .

Solution. Let’s apply formula 6) (i.e. Leibniz’s formula). In this

problem we put 𝑢(𝑥) = sin 3𝑥 and 𝑣(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)2 .
Then

𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) = 𝐶𝑛(0) 𝑢(𝑛) (𝑥)𝑣 (0) (𝑥) +

+ 𝐶𝑛(1) 𝑢(𝑛−1) (𝑥)𝑣 (1) (𝑥) + 𝐶𝑛(2) 𝑢(𝑛−2) (𝑥)𝑣 (2) (𝑥) ,
since 𝑣 (𝑘) (𝑥) = 0 for 𝑘 ≥ 3 .
According to formula 2) we have
(︃ )︃
𝜋𝑛
(sin 3𝑥)(𝑛) = 3𝑛 sin 3𝑥 + ,
2
(︃ )︃
𝜋𝑛 𝜋
(sin 3𝑥)(𝑛−1) = 3𝑛−1
sin 3𝑥 + − ,
2 2
(︃ )︃
𝜋𝑛
(sin 3𝑥)(𝑛−2) = 3𝑛−2 sin 3𝑥 + −𝜋 ,
2

In addition, we have

𝑣 (0) (𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)2 , 𝑣 (1) (𝑥) = 2(𝑥 + 1) , 𝑣 (2) (𝑥) = 2 ,

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
𝐶𝑛0 = 1 , 𝐶𝑛1 = 𝑛 , 𝐶𝑛0 = .
2
This ( when using trigonometric reduction formulas ) finally
gives
(︃ )︃
(𝑛) 𝑛 2
𝜋𝑛
𝑓 (𝑥) = 3 (𝑥 + 1) sin 3𝑥 + −
2
(︃ )︃
𝜋𝑛
− 3𝑛−1 2𝑛(𝑥 + 1) cos 3𝑥 + −
2
(︃ )︃
𝜋𝑛
− 3𝑛−2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) sin 3𝑥 + .
2