FACULTY OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND AGRICULTURE.
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY & ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
GEOGRAPHIC THOUGHT & METHODOLOGY
GEO 5121
Ms. Maponya M.G
grace.maponya@univen.ac.za
WEEK THREE: Modern Developments in Geography
3.1 Introduction
A paradigm shift is a fundamental change in the basic assumptions, concepts, and
ways of thinking that underlie a particular field of study or knowledge system. It often
involves a significant departure from existing theories, methodologies, and practices
and may result in a new way of understanding and approaching a given subject. The
term “paradigm shift” was first coined by the philosopher and historian of science
Thomas Kuhn in his influential book “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” (1962).
Kuhn argued that scientific progress does not occur through a gradual accumulation
of knowledge but rather through sudden and discontinuous changes in the dominant
ways of thinking and doing science. Paradigm shifts can occur in various fields,
including science, technology, philosophy, and social sciences. Multiple factors may
drive them, such as discoveries or evidence that challenge existing theories, shifts in
cultural or political contexts, or changes in the values and beliefs of individuals or
communities.
3.2 What is a paradigm shift in geography, and what has influenced it?
In geography, a paradigm shift refers to a significant change in the basic assumptions,
concepts, and methods that guide the discipline. This shift may involve new ways of
thinking about space, place, and environment, as well as new approaches to
research and analysis. Some of the factors that influence paradigm shifts in
geography include:
1. Technological advances: New technologies, such as remote sensing, GIS, and
digital mapping tools, have revolutionised how geographers study and
understand the world. These advances have made it possible to collect and
analyse vast amounts of spatial data and have opened up new avenues for
research and analysis.
2. Changing social and political contexts: Geographers are increasingly aware
of how social and political factors shape the environment and influence
human behaviour. As a result, there is growing interest in issues such as
environmental justice, globalisation, and the impacts of climate change on
vulnerable populations.
3. Shifts in theoretical perspectives: Over time, geography has been influenced
by various theoretical perspectives, including positivism, Marxism, feminism,
and postmodernism. Each view has led to new ways of thinking about space,
place, and environment. This has contributed to the ongoing evolution of the
discipline.
4. Interdisciplinary approaches: Geography has become increasingly
interdisciplinary, with geographers working closely with scholars from other
fields such as anthropology, sociology, economics, and ecology. This has led
to the development of new research questions, methods, and theoretical
frameworks that have helped to push the discipline in new directions.
Overall, paradigm shifts in geography are driven by a complex mix of social, cultural,
political, and intellectual factors, often resulting from ongoing debates and
discussions within the discipline.
3.3 Geography’s theoretical perspectives
3.3.1 Positivism
Positivism is a philosophical and methodological approach that emerged in the 19th
century, emphasising the importance of empirical observation, scientific methods,
and knowledge verification through objective and quantitative data. Positivists
believe that scientific knowledge should be based on facts and evidence and that
theories should be testable and verifiable through observation and experimentation.
The positivist approach has significantly impacted many fields of study, including
natural science, social science, and philosophy. Positivists argue that scientific
knowledge is the most reliable form of knowledge and that the scientific method
provides a rigorous and systematic way of understanding the world. However, critics
of positivism argue that it has limitations, such as the potential for observer bias and
the difficulty of achieving truly objective observations. Some argue that it prioritises
quantifiable data over other forms of knowledge, such as qualitative or experiential
knowledge. As a result, there has been an ongoing debate within various fields about
the role of positivism in shaping research methods and knowledge production.
3.3.2 Marxism
Marxism is a theoretical perspective developed by the German philosopher and
economist Karl Marx in the mid-19th century. It is a social, political, and economic
theory that seeks to understand and critique the capitalist system and to promote the
development of a more equitable and just society. At its core, Marxism argues that
the mode of production shapes social relations, or how goods and services are
produced and distributed. According to Marx, the capitalist mode of production is
characterised by labour exploitation. The workers are paid less than the value of the
goods and services they produce. The profits are taken by the capitalists who own the
means of production. Marxism has significantly impacted the development of
geography as a discipline, particularly in critical and radical geography. Marxist
geography argues that social relations are spatially organised and that the capitalist
production mode produces specific inequality and exploitation geographies.
Marxist geographers have focused on understanding how capitalism shapes cities,
regions, and countries’ spatial organisation and how these spatial structures
perpetuate social and economic inequalities. Marxist geographers have also been
critical of the state’s role in reproducing and legitimising capitalist social relations. They
argue that the state plays a vital role in shaping spatial organisation and access to
resources and that the state serves the ruling class’s interests. Marxist geography has
been influential in promoting the study of social and spatial inequality and advocating
for radical social change. It has also been a key influence in developing critical
geography concerned with understanding and challenging societal power relations
and inequalities. However, Marxist geography has also been criticised, particularly for
its historical determinism and tendency to overlook the complexities and diversity of
social and cultural factors that shape spatial organisation.
3.3.3 Feminism
Feminism is a theoretical perspective that seeks to understand and challenge the
social, cultural, and political inequalities and injustices experienced by women and
other marginalised groups. Feminist geography is a subfield that applies feminist
theories and methodologies to study the relationship between gender and space.
Feminist geography argues that gender is an essential social and cultural factor that
shapes the spatial organisation of society and that spaces are gendered and reflect
gendered power relations. Feminist geographers have focused on understanding
how women experience and negotiate space and examining how gender intersects
with other social factors such as race, class, and sexuality. Feminist geography has
made significant contributions to the discipline of geography, particularly in social
and cultural geography.
It has helped to highlight the role of gender in shaping social and spatial inequality
and has challenged traditional assumptions about the neutral and objective nature
of geographic knowledge. Feminist geography has also led to the development of
new research methods and approaches, such as participatory mapping and feminist
ethnography, which prioritise the perspectives and experiences of marginalised
groups. It has also contributed to developing intersectionality theory, which
recognises the complex and intersecting nature of social identities and power
relations. However, feminist geography has also been criticised, particularly for its
focus on gender, excluding other social and cultural factors, and for its tendency to
overlook diverse experiences and perspectives within different groups. Nonetheless,
feminist geography has been a significant force in shaping the discipline of
geography and has contributed to the ongoing development of critical and radical
perspectives in geography.
3.3.4 Postmodernism
Postmodernism is a philosophical and cultural movement that emerged in the late
20th century. It is characterised by scepticism towards the grand narratives or
totalising systems that claim to have a universal or objective truth. In geography,
postmodernism has influenced the development of critical and cultural geography.
Postmodern geography is vital to traditional geography, which it sees as being based
on a positivist, rationalist, and objective approach that masks the power relations and
social constructions that underlie geographic knowledge. Postmodern geographers
argue that learning is always situated and contextual and is shaped by the social and
cultural context in which it is produced. Postmodern geography has focused on the
production and consumption of geographic knowledge and how power relations
shape this knowledge.
It has also led to new research methods, such as critical cartography and cultural
geography, which seek to uncover the social and cultural meanings embedded in
maps and other forms of geographic representation. Postmodern geography has
been criticised for rejecting objective knowledge, which some argue can lead to
relativism that undermines the possibility of social and political critique. Nonetheless,
postmodernism has significantly impacted the development of critical and cultural
geography, and it has helped promote a more reflexive and critical approach to the
study of space and place.
3.4 The Regional Geographic Paradigm
The regional paradigm shift in geography for Africa refers to the evolving ways
geographers and other scholars conceptualise and study the African continent. In the
past, the dominant paradigms in African geography were often characterised by a
focus on colonialism, development, and resource extraction and tended to view
Africa as a passive recipient of external influences. However, there has been a shift
towards more nuanced and context-specific approaches to African geography in
recent decades. Several factors have driven this shift, including increased attention
to local knowledge and perspectives, the recognition of the diversity and complexity
of African societies and environments, and a growing awareness of the impacts of
globalisation and climate change on the continent. Some key themes in this new
paradigm include the importance of understanding the connections between social
and ecological systems, the need to challenge Western-centric assumptions and
knowledge systems, and the recognition of the agency and resilience of African
peoples and environments in the face of change and uncertainty.
3.5 Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS)
Indigenous knowledge systems refer to the knowledge, skills, and practices
developed and transmitted through generations by local communities and cultures.
These knowledge systems are often grounded in a deep understanding of the
environment and the interactions between humans and nature. In geography studies
in Africa, indigenous knowledge systems are vital because they provide insights into
how local communities have interacted with and adapted to their environments over
time. Indigenous knowledge systems can offer valuable perspectives on resource
management, land use, and conservation and help inform policies and practices
promoting sustainable development.
Indigenous knowledge systems are also crucial for decolonising the study of
geography in Africa. Traditional geographic knowledge has often been dominated
by Western epistemologies and methodologies, which can overlook the contributions
and perspectives of local communities. By incorporating indigenous knowledge
systems into geographic research and teaching, scholars can promote more inclusive
and equitable forms of knowledge production that reflect the diversity of experiences
and perspectives in Africa. Furthermore, indigenous knowledge systems have been
recognised as necessary for preserving cultural heritage, biodiversity, and ecosystem
services. Incorporating indigenous knowledge in conservation efforts can help
promote sustainable and just forms of environmental management that recognise the
intrinsic value of local knowledge and practices.
Overall, studying indigenous knowledge systems is vital to geography studies in Africa.
This is because it can help to promote more inclusive and equitable forms of
knowledge production. It informs policies and practices that promote sustainable
development and recognises local communities’ contributions to managing and
conserving natural resources.
3.6 Environmental deterministic approach
Environmental determinism is a now-discredited theory suggesting that the physical
and geographical environment ultimately determines human societies’ behavior,
culture, and intelligence. According to this theory, people in different regions develop
specific characteristics and behaviours as a result of their environment, and this
environment is seen as an active and deterministic force that shapes human life and
history. The theory of environmental determinism was popular in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries and was used to justify colonialism, racism, and other forms of
discrimination. For example, some proponents of environmental determinism argued
that certain races or ethnic groups were biologically and intellectually suited to
specific environments and that this explained why certain groups were more
successful than others. Today, environmental determinism is widely rejected as an
oversimplified and reductionist theory that ignores the complex ways in which social,
cultural, and economic factors interact with the physical environment to shape
human behaviour and history. Instead, most contemporary geographers recognise
the importance of human agency, social structures, and cultural practices in shaping
human-environment interactions. They seek to understand these interactions in a
more nuanced and context-specific way.
3.7 Environmental possibilism approach
Environmental possibilism is an approach to geography that suggests that while the
physical environment does not entirely determine human behaviour and culture, it
does set certain constraints and opportunities that shape the range of possible human
actions. According to environmental possibilism, humans have some agency and can
adapt to environmental conditions by developing different technologies, social
structures, and cultural practices. However, these adaptations are not unlimited and
are constrained by the natural environment, which limits what is possible or feasible.
This approach offers a more nuanced and context-specific understanding of human-
environment interactions than the deterministic approach of environmental
determinism. Instead of assuming that the environment ultimately determines human
behaviour, environmental possibilism recognises the importance of social and cultural
factors in shaping human responses to the environment. Environmental possibilism has
been used to explain various phenomena, such as the distribution of different types
of agriculture, the development of varying settlement patterns, and the spread of
different disease patterns. However, it has also been criticised for being too focused
on the physical environment and neglecting the role of power relations, politics, and
economics in shaping human-environment interactions.
3.8 Conclusion
Several modern developments in geography have emerged in recent decades.
Some of the key developments are:
1. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GIS uses computer technology to store,
analyse, and visualise geographic data. GIS has revolutionised the field of
geography by providing powerful tools for mapping and spatial analysis and
has applications in a wide range of areas, including environmental
management, urban planning, and public health.
2. Critical geography: Critical geography is a perspective that emphasises the
importance of power relations and social justice in shaping human-
environment interactions. Critical geographers seek to challenge dominant
narratives and ideologies reinforcing social inequalities and environmental
degradation and promote more equitable and sustainable forms of
geographic knowledge and practice.
3. Cultural geography: Cultural geography is a subfield of geography that
focuses on how cultural practices, beliefs, and values shape human-
environment interactions. Cultural geographers study a wide range of topics,
including the cultural meanings of landscapes, the production and
consumption of food, and the politics of place-making and identity.
4. Environmental justice: Environmental justice is a movement that seeks to
address the disproportionate impacts of environmental degradation and
pollution on marginalised communities. Environmental justice advocates argue
that environmental risks and benefits are unequally distributed and call for
more equitable and democratic forms of environmental governance.
5. Political ecology: Political ecology is a perspective that examines the complex
interactions between social and ecological systems. Political ecologists study
how power relations, institutions, and ideologies shape environmental change
and seek to promote more sustainable and just forms of environmental
management and conservation.
Overall, these modern developments in geography reflect the increasing recognition
of the importance of social, political, and cultural factors in shaping human-
environment interactions and the need for more inclusive and equitable forms of
geographic knowledge and practice.
