IoT Access Technologies

The methods for gaining access to an IoT system

➔ Wired/ wireless
➔ Wireless - Cellular Technologies or Non –Cellular Technologies
➔ Cellular - 2G, 3G, LTE etc
➔ Non –Cellular - WIFI, zigbee, LoRA etc
The methods for gaining access to an IoT system
 Common Information Set
➔ Standardization and alliances: The standards bodies that
maintain the protocols for a technology
➔ Physical layer: The wired or wireless methods and relevant
frequencies
➔ MAC layer: Considerations at the Media Access Control (MAC)
layer, which bridges the physical layer with data link control
➔ Topology: The topologies supported by the technology
➔ Security: Security aspects of the technology
 IEEE 802.15.4
➔ wireless access technology - wireless personal area networks
➔ low-cost and low-data-rate devices that are powered or run on
batteries.
➔ Easy installation using a compact protocol stack while
remaining both simple and flexible
➔ Applications - Home and building automation, Automotive
networks, Industrial wireless sensor networks, Interactive toys
and remote controls
➔ Eg.- ZigBee, 6LoWPAN etc
 IEEE 802.15.4
Standardization and Alliances - IEEE 802.15 Task Group 4
➔ They decide the PHY and MAC layer specifications
Physical Layer
➔ 2.4 GHz, 16 channels, with a data rate of 250 kbps - world wide
➔ Modulation Techniques employed
1) BPSK PHY: This is DSSS (Direct sequence spread spectrum)
PHY, employing binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation.
BPSK specifies two unique phase shifts as its data encoding
scheme.
IEEE 802.15.4

Not a
part of
ECT445
 IEEE 802.15.4
Physical Layer
➔ Modulation Techniques employed
2) OQPSK PHY - offset quadrature phase-shift keying modulation
four unique bit values that are signaled by phase changes. An
offset function that is present during phase shifts allows data to be
transmitted more reliably.
IEEE 802.15.4

Not a part
of
ECT445
 IEEE 802.15.4

Not a
part of
ECT445
 IEEE 802.15.4
Physical Layer
➔ Modulation Techniques employed
2) ASK PHY: This is parallel sequence spread spectrum (PSSS)
PHY.PSSS is an advanced encoding scheme that offers increased
range, throughput, data rates, and signal integrity compared to
DSSS. ASK uses amplitude shifts instead of phase shifts to signal
different bit values.
 Computer communication model

Not a part
of ECT445
OSI Model

Not a
part of
ECT445
 IEEE 802.15.4
Physical Layer
➔ IEEE 802.15.4 PHY Format

Preamble- sequence of bits for synchronization.

PHY Header - It lets the receiver know how much total data to
expect
 IEEE 802.15.4
MAC Layer
➔ Manages access to the PHY channel by defining how devices
perform multiple access
➔ Scheduling and routing of data frames are coordinated
➔ Network beaconing (continuous transmission of small
packets) for devices acting as coordinators
➔ PAN association and disassociation by a device
➔ Device security
➔ Reliable link communications between two peer MAC entities
 IEEE 802.15.4
MAC Layer
Types of MAC frames
➔ Data frame: Handles all transfers of data
➔ Beacon frame: Used in the transmission of beacons from a
PAN coordinator
➔ Acknowledgement frame: Confirms the successful reception
of a frame
➔ MAC command frame: Responsible for control communication
between devices
IEEE 802.15.4
 IEEE 802.15.4
MAC Layer
➔ The MAC Header field is composed of the Frame Control,
Sequence Number and the Addressing fields.
➔ The Frame Control field defines attributes such as frame
type, addressing modes, and other control flags.
➔ The Sequence Number field indicates the sequence identifier
for the frame.
➔ The Addressing field specifies the Source and Destination
PAN Identifier fields as well as the Source and Destination
Address fields.
 IEEE 802.15.4
MAC Layer
➔ The MAC Payload field varies by individual frame type.
➔ Beacon frames have specific fields and payloads related to
beacons,
➔ MAC command frames have different fields present.
➔ MAC Footer field is a frame check sequence (FCS) that is used
by the receiving side to confirm the integrity of the data in the
frame
 IEEE 802.15.4
MAC Layer
Security
➔ The IEEE 802.15.4 specification uses Advanced Encryption
Standard (AES) with a 128-bit key length
➔ AES in 802.15.4 also validates the data that is sent by a
message integrity code (MIC), which is calculated for the
entire frame using the same AES key that is used for
encryption
➔ This is done by changing the frame format slightly and
consumes some of the payload.
AES

Not a part of ECT445

 IEEE 802.15.4
MAC Layer - Security enabled frame format
 IEEE 802.15.4
Topology
➔ Networks can be built as star, peer-to-peer, or mesh topologies
➔ Reduced-function devices (RFDs) are confined to star topology
➔ A minimum of one Full-function devices(FFD) acting as a PAN
coordinator is required to deliver services that allow other
devices to associate and form a cell or PAN.
➔ Path selection within the MAC layer done at Layer 2 and is
known as mesh-under
➔ All the nodes in the same 802.15.4 network should use the
same PAN ID
IEEE 802.15.4
Topology
 IEEE 802.15.4
➔ The IEEE frequently makes amendments to the core 802.15.4
specification, before integrating them into the next revision
➔ When it is done, a lowercase letter is appended.
IEEE 802.15.4e
➔ Expands the MAC layer feature for addressing problems related
to MAC reliability, unbounded latency, and multipath fading
➔ To better cope with certain application domains, such as
factory and process automation and smart grid
➔
 IEEE 802.15.4e
➔ MAC layer capabilities in the areas of frame format, security,
determinism mechanism, and frequency hopping
➔ In IEEE 802.15.4e amendment is not applicable to the PHY
layer, it is pertinent to the MAC layer
➔ This amendment enhances the MAC layer through various
functions, which may be selectively enabled based on various
implementations of the standard.
Enhancements to the MAC layer in IEEE 802.15.4e
➔ Time-Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH) - utilizes different
channels for transmission at different times
combination of Time division multiple access and
Frequency-division multiple access mechanisms
 IEEE 802.15.4e
➔ TSCH divides time into fixed time periods, or “time slots,”
which offer guaranteed bandwidth and predictable latency. In a
time slot, one packet and its acknowledgement can be
transmitted, increasing network capacity because multiple
nodes can communicate in the same time slot
➔ Information elements (IEs) allow for the exchange of
information at the MAC layer in an extensible manner, either as
header IEs (standardized) and/or payload IEs (private) - carry
additional data beyond the basic frame structure
 IEEE 802.15.4e
➔ Enhanced beacons (EBs): EBs extend the flexibility of IEEE
802.15.4 beacons to allow the construction of
application-specific beacon content. This is accomplished
by including relevant IEs in EB frames. - interference, handle
collisions, improve reliability,Improved security, power-saving
➔ Enhanced beacon requests (EBRs): The IEs in EBRs allow
the sender to selectively specify the request of information.
➔ Enhanced Acknowledgement: It allows for the integration of
a frame counter for the frame being acknowledged. It
provides security when Acknowledgement frames are
spoofed
 IEEE 802.15.4g
IEEE 802.15.4g
➔ The focus of this specification is the smart grid (Advanced
Metering, Grid Automation and Control, Energy
Storage,Demand Response, Data Analytics and Control
Systems) more specifically,
➔ New PHY definitions are introduced, as well as some MAC
modifications needed to support their implementation
➔ maximum PSDU or payload size of 127 bytes was increased
to 2047 bytes -provides a better match for the greater packet
sizes found in many upper-layer protocols.
Use real-time information to adjust electricity flows and
ensure better energy efficiency
 IEEE 802.15.4g
IEEE 802.15.4g
➔ Supports multiple data rates in bands ranging from 169 MHz
to 2.4 GHz
➔ Modulation scheme followed were the following
● Multi-Rate and Multi-Regional Frequency Shift Keying
(MR-FSK): Offers good transmit power efficiency due to the
constant envelope of the transmit signal
● Multi-Rate and Multi-Regional Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (MR-OFDM): Provides higher data rates but may
be too complex for low-cost and low-power devices
 IEEE 802.15.4g
IEEE 802.15.4g
■ Multi-Rate and Multi-Regional Offset Quadrature Phase-Shift
Keying (MR-OQPSK): making multi-mode systems more
cost-effective and easier to design
➔ In IEEE 802.15.4g majority of changes were made only in
PHY layer and not MAC
 IEEE 802.15.4
IEEE 802.15.4g
Applications
➔ Distribution automation and industrial supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA)
Public lighting, Environmental wireless sensors in smart cities
Electric vehicle charging stations, Smart parking meters,
Microgrids, Renewable energy
 IEEE 802.15.4
Security
Both IEEE 802.15.4g and 802.15.4e inherit their security attributes
from the IEEE 802.15.4-2006 specification.
The encryption is provided by AES, with a 128-bit key
In addition to the Auxiliary Security Header field initially defined
in 802.15.4-2006, a secure acknowledgement and a secure
Enhanced Beacon field complete the MAC layer security
IEEE 802.15.4
Security
 Modbus
➔ It is an industrial protocol that was developed in 1979 to
make communication possible between automation devices
➔ It was created by the first programmable logic controller (PLC)
vendor, Modicon
➔ It is a request-response protocol implemented using a
master-slave relationship
➔ In a master-slave relationship, communication always occurs in
pairs—one device must initiate a request and then wait for
a response—and the initiating device (the master) is
responsible for initiating every interaction
 Modbus

➔ Typically, the master is a human machine interface (HMI) or

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system and
the slave is a sensor, programmable logic controller (PLC), or
programmable automation controller (PAC)
➔ Modbus is transmitted over serial lines between devices. The
simplest setup would be a single serial cable connecting the
serial ports on two devices, a Client and a Server.
Modbus
 ZigBee

➔ It is a Protocol Stack Utilizing IEEE 802.15.4

➔ Promoted through the ZigBee Alliance, ZigBee defines
upper-layer components (network to application) as well as
application profiles.
➔ Common profiles include building automation, home
automation, and healthcare
➔ ZigBee also defines device object functions, such as device
role, device discovery, network join, and security
➔ ZigBee solutions are aimed at smart objects and sensors that
have low bandwidth and low power needs
 ZigBee

Applications
➔ Industrial and commercial automation - measuring
temperature and humidity to tracking assets
➔ Home automation - control lighting, thermostats, and security
functions
➔ ZigBee Smart Energy - brings together a variety of
interoperable products, such as smart meters, that can monitor
and control the use and delivery of utilities, such as electricity
and water
ZigBee Protocol Stack (Architecture)
ZigBee Protocol Stack
PHY Layer (Physical Layer)
● Based on IEEE 802.15.4 standard.
● Handles the radio transmission and reception of data.
● Manages modulation, demodulation, channel selection, and
signal strength.
● Operates in 2.4 GHz (global), 915 MHz (Americas), and 868
MHz (Europe).
● DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) – Used for
interference reduction.
● O-QPSK (Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) – Modulation
scheme used for 2.4 GHz ZigBee communication.
ZigBee Protocol Stack
MAC Layer (Medium Access Control Layer)
● Also part of IEEE 802.15.4.
● Controls how devices access the wireless channel.
● Uses CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance) to prevent data collisions.
● Supports device addressing, frame validation, and beacon
synchronization.
ZigBee Protocol Stack

Network and Security Layer

● Defines the routing, addressing, and network formation.
● Supports different network topologies:
● Handles security features like encryption (AES-128),
authentication, and key management.
● AODV (Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing)
● Trust Center (TC) Security Protocol – Manages encryption
keys and authentication for ZigBee devices.
ZigBee Protocol Stack

Application Support Layer

Bridges the network layer with the application layer.
Provides device discovery, service discovery, and binding
mechanisms.
Ensures interoperability between different ZigBee devices.
ZigBee Protocol Stack

Application/Profiles Layer
Contains specific ZigBee application profiles, such as:
ZigBee Home Automation (smart lighting, HVAC, security).
ZigBee Smart Energy (energy monitoring, smart meters).
ZigBee Health Care (medical monitoring devices).
Can be customized by vendors for proprietary solutions
 ZigBee Protocol Stack

➔ ZigBee utilizes the IEEE 802.15.4 standard at the lower PHY

and MAC layers
➔ ZigBee specifies the network and security layer and
application support layer that sit on top of the lower layers
➔ The network and security layer provides mechanisms for
network startup, configuration, routing, and securing
communications.
➔ This includes calculating routing paths in what is often a
changing topology, discovering neighbors, and managing
the routing tables as devices join for the first time.
 ZigBee Protocol Stack

➔ The network layer is also responsible for forming the

appropriate topology, which is often a mesh but could be a star
or tree as well.
➔ It using the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with a
128-bit key and also provides security at the network and
application layers
➔ ZigBee predefines many application profiles for certain
industries, and vendors can optionally create their own custom
ones at this layer.
➔ Home Automation and Smart Energy are two examples of
popular application profiles
 ZigBee Protocol Stack

➔ ZigBee uses Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV)

routing across a mesh network.
➔ This routing algorithm does not send a message until a route
is needed.
➔ Assuming that the next hop for a route is not in its routing table,
a network node broadcasts a request for a routing connection.
This causes a burst of routing-related traffic, but after a
comparison of various responses, the path with the lowest
number of hops is determined for the connection
 LoRaWAN

➔ It is a LPWAN (Low-Power Wide-Area) protocol designed to

connect battery operated 'things' to the internet particularly
well adapted for long-range
➔ LoRa (Long Range Radio) was developed by a French
company named Cycleo.
➔ Later was acquired by Semtech
➔ It is a wireless modulation
technique (chirp spreading) for
long range communication -frequency
shift chirp modulation
 LoRaWAN

➔ LoRaWAN Layers
 LoRaWAN

➔ Physical Layer
Semtech LoRa modulation is based on chirp spread spectrum
modulation which trades a lower data rate for receiver sensitivity
to significantly increase the communication distance
it allows demodulation below the noise floor, offers robustness to
noise and interference, and manages a single channel
occupation by different spreading factors
Chirp signal
 LoRa

➔ Physical Layer
● When encoding a '0' or '1' bit, LoRa adjusts the rate of change
in the chirp signal's frequency (chirp rate) according to a
predefined modulation scheme.
● The chirp signal might gradually increase in frequency for a
'0' bit and decrease for a '1' bit. The specific modulation
scheme, spreading factor, and bandwidth settings determine
the exact rate of frequency change for each bit
 LoRaWAN

Processing Gain
Chirp BW / Data Rate
● Higer PG - High Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
● With higher PG, the signal is spread over a wider frequency
band, making it less affected by narrowband interference.
 LoRaWAN

➔ Physical Layer
Chipping Factor - the rate at which the data signal is spread in
the frequency domain (across the available bandwidth)
Chipping Factor = Chip Rate / Data Rate
It determines the number of chips per symbol and influences
the signal bandwidth
A higher Chipping Factor results in a more robust (less
interference) but slower transmission.
 LoRaWAN

➔ Physical Layer
Spreading Factor - determines the spreading of data symbols in
the time domain
It affects the data rate, communication range, and robustness of
transmissions.
LoRaWAN uses Spreading Factors ranging typically from SF7 to
SF12. Higher SF values mean more spreading in time, resulting
in longer communication ranges but slower data rates.
 LoRaWAN

➔ Physical Layer
LoRaWAN 1.0.2 regional specifications describe the use of the
main unlicensed sub-GHz frequency bands of 433 MHz, 779–787
MHz, 863–870 MHz, and 902–928 MHz, as well as regional profiles
for a subset of the 902–928 MHz bandwidth.
For example, Australia utilizes 915–928 MHz frequency bands,
while South Korea uses 920–923 MHz and Japan uses 920–928
MHz.
 LoRaWAN

➔ LoRa gateways
It is deployed as the center hub of a star network architecture
It uses multiple transceivers and channels and can demodulate
multiple channels at once or even demodulate multiple signals on
the same channel simultaneously.
LoRa gateways serve as a transparent bridge relaying data
between endpoints, and the endpoints use a single-hop wireless
connection to communicate with one or many gateways.
 LoRaWAN

➔ LoRa gateways
 LoRaWAN

➔ LoRa gateways
The data rate in LoRaWAN varies depending on the frequency
bands and adaptive data rate (ADR).
ADR is an algorithm that manages the data rate and radio signal
for each endpoint.
It ensures that packets are delivered at the best data rate
possible and that network performance is both optimal and
scalable.
 LoRaWAN

➔ LoRa gateways - ADR algorithm

Endpoints close to the gateways with good signal values
transmit with the highest data rate, which enables a shorter
transmission time over the wireless network, and the lowest
transmit power. Meanwhile,
endpoints at the edge of the link budget communicate at the
lowest data rate and highest transmit power
Data rate - distance - signal strength- power
 LoRaWAN

MAC Layer
➔ This layer takes advantage of the LoRa physical layer and
classifies LoRaWAN endpoints to optimize their battery life
and ensure downstream communications to the LoRaWAN
endpoints.
➔ Functions - Device Identification & Addressing, Packet
Formatting, Security & Encryption, Flow control, Class
Management
➔ The LoRaWAN specification documents three classes of
LoRaWAN devices
LoRaWAN

MAC Layer
● Class A: This class is the default implementation. Optimized
for battery-powered nodes.
● Bidirectional communications, - node is able to receive
downstream traffic after transmitting.
● Two receive windows are available after each transmission.
● Devices initiate uplink transmission and wait for two short
downlink windows. - maximize reliability and flexibility
● Class A, a device can never receive without first
transmitting .
 LoRaWAN

MAC Layer
Class A
● Highest latency - do not have scheduled downlink slots - If the
network wants to send a downlink message, it must wait for
the next uplink from the device.
● No guaranteed time slots for downlink communication
 LoRaWAN

MAC Layer
Class B: A Class B node or endpoint should get additional receive
windows compared to Class A
● Devices wake up periodically at scheduled times to receive
downlink messages
Class C: This class is particularly adapted for powered nodes.
This classification enables a node to be continuously listening by
keeping its receive window open when not transmitting
 LoRaWAN

MAC Layer
LoRaWAN messages, either uplink or downlink, have a PHY
payload composed of a 1-byte MAC header (Message Type), a
variable-byte MAC payload, and a MIC that is 4 bytes in length.
The MAC payload size depends on the frequency band and the
data rate, ranging from 59 to 230 bytes for the 863–870 MHz band
and 19 to 250 bytes for the 902–928 MHz band
 LoRaWAN

LoRaWAN utilizes six MAC message types

1. join request and join accept messages for over-the-air (OTA)
activation and joining the network
2. Unconfirmed data - need not be acknowledged
3. Confirmed data - messages need to be acknowledged
4. Uplink data- messages are sent from endpoints to the network
server
5. Downlink - messages flow from the network server to a single
endpoint
6. Multicast
 LoRaWAN

LoRaWAN endpoint addressing

➔ Device EUI (DevEUI): globally unique 64-bit identifier assigned
to each LoRaWAN device during manufacturing
➔ Device Address (DevAddr): A 32-bit (4-byte) network-specific
identifier assigned to a device after joining a network
➔ The 7 most significant bits are the network identifier (NwkID),
which identifies the LoRaWAN network. The 25 least significant
bits are used as the network address (NwkAddr) - Assigned by
the network server to uniquely identify a device within that
network.
 LoRaWAN

LoRaWAN endpoint addressing

➔ Both addresses serve distinct purposes within the LoRaWAN
network.
➔ DevEUI uniquely identifies the device on a global scale
➔ DevAddr is used for routing and addressing within the
LoRaWAN network for efficient communication between the
device and the network server.
LoRaWAN

Topology - star of stars

LoRaWAN

Topology - star of stars

LoRaWAN

Topology - star of stars

● End devices (sensors, actuators, etc.) communicate directly
with one or more centralized gateway(s), forming a star-like
structure with a central hub (gateway) and multiple endpoints..
● Gateways connect to the backend network using standard
IP connections, and endpoints communicate directly with one
or more gateways
● End devices use a star topology to connect to gateways.
● Gateways then form another star topology, all linking to a
central network server
 LoRaWAN

Topology - star of stars

➔ The application data is contained in upper protocol layers
which is not managed by the LoRa Alliance
➔ These upper layers could just be raw data on top of the
LoRaWAN MAC layer, or the data could be stacked in multiple
protocols like MQTT, CoAP etc.
➔ LoRaWAN gateways act as bridges that relay between
endpoints and the network servers.
➔ Multiple gateways can receive and transport the same packets
 LoRaWAN

Security
➔ LoRaWAN endpoints must implement two layers of security
Network Layer Security (for protecting network communication)
Application Layer Security (for protecting end-to-end user data)
Security (for protecting end-to-end user data)
➔ Network security - applied at the MAC layer, guarantees the
authentication of the endpoints.
➔ Also, it protects LoRaWAN packets by performing encryption
based on AES
 LoRaWAN

Security
➔ Each endpoint implements a network session key
(NwkSKey), used by both itself and the LoRaWAN network
server.
➔ It ensures data integrity through computing and checking the
MIC (Message Integrity Check) of every data message as well
as encrypting and decrypting MAC-only data message
payloads.
 LoRaWAN

Security
➔ Application Layer Security - application session key
(AppSKey), which performs encryption and decryption functions
between the endpoint and its application server.
➔ Furthermore, it computes and checks the application-level
MIC, if included. This ensures that the LoRaWAN service
provider does not have access to the application payload if it is
not allowed that access
➔ Endpoints receive their AES-128 application key (AppKey) from
the application owner
 Remember

LoRa is the physical layer (hardware & modulation

technique) - Chirp Spread Spectrum (CSS) - Semtech
LoRaWAN is the network protocol (how devices
communicate & manage data)
 IoT and Cellular networks

➔ Existing cellular technologies, such as GPRS, Edge, 3G, and

4G/LTE, are not particularly well adapted to battery-powered
devices and small objects specifically developed for the IoT
➔ IoT requires low throughput, low power consumption,
decrease the complexity and cost of devices
➔ This resulted in the definition of the LTE-M work item
➔ But LTE-M device category was not sufficiently close to LPWA
(Low Power Wide Area) capabilities,
➔ So Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT) was proposed
 IoT and Cellular networks

Standardization and Alliances

➔ 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is the
standardization organization cellular networks
➔ Many service providers and vendors make up 3GPP
➔ IoT-related contribution is handled by either 3GPP or the GSM
EDGE Radio Access Networks (GERAN) group
 IoT and Cellular networks

LTE-MTC or LTE-M -Long Term Evolution Machine Type

Communication
➔ The first enhancements to better support IoT devices in 3GPP
occurred in LTE Release 12 - A new user equipment (UE)
category, Category 0, was added
➔ It includes important characteristics to be supported by both
the network and end devices
➔ These Cat 0 characteristics include Power saving mode
(PSM) and Half-duplex mode
 LTE-M

Characteristics of the LTE-M

➔ Lower receiver bandwidth: Bandwidth has been lowered to
1.4 MHz vs usual 20 MHz. This further simplifies the LTE
endpoint.
➔ Lower data rate: Data is around 200 kbps for LTE-M,
compared to 1 Mbps for Cat 0
➔ Half-duplex mode: Just as with Cat 0, LTE-M offers a
half-duplex mode that decreases node complexity and cost
 LTE-M

Characteristics of the LTE-M

➔ Enhanced discontinuous reception (eDRX): This capability
increases from seconds to minutes the amount of time an
endpoint can “sleep” between paging cycles.
➔ A paging cycle is a periodic check-in with the network.
➔ This extended “sleep” time between paging cycles extends the
battery lifetime for an endpoint significantly
 NB-IoT

➔ Recognizing that the definition of new LTE device categories

was not sufficient to support LPWA IoT requirement, 3GPP
specified Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT)
➔ Proposals pushed by various vendors before NB-IoT (Just for
information)
1. Extended Coverage GSM (EC-GSM), Ericsson
2. Narrowband GSM (N-GSM), Nokia
3. Narrowband M2M (NB-M2M), Huawei
4. Narrowband OFDMA - Qualcomm
5. Cooperative Ultra Narrowband (C-UNB), Sigfox
6. Narrowband LTE (NB-LTE) - Alcatel-Lucent
 NB-IoT

➔ Consolidation occurred with the agreement to specify a single

NB-IoT version based on orthogonal frequency-division
multiple access (OFDMA) in the downlink and a couple
options for the uplink
➔ OFDMA is a modulation scheme in which individual users are
assigned subsets of subcarrier frequencies.
➔ This enables multiple users to transmit low speed data
simultaneously.
 NB-IoT - Deployment Options

Three modes of operation are applicable to NB-IoT

Standalone: A GSM carrier is used as an NB-IoT carrier, enabling
reuse of 900 MHz or 1800 MHz - not shared with LTE or other
networks
➔ No interference from LTE – NB-IoT has exclusive spectrum
➔ Can be optimized for IoT – No need to adjust LTE parameters.
➔ Better coverage – No competition with LTE traffic.
➔ Not cost-efficient due to exclusive spectrum
 NB-IoT - Deployment Options

Three modes of operation are applicable to NB-IoT

In-band: Part of an LTE carrier frequency band(1920 MHz -2170
MHz) is allocated for use as an NB-IoT frequency.
➔ Spectrum-efficient – Uses existing LTE frequencies.
➔ Easier for operators – No need for additional frequency
allocation.
➔ Can reuse LTE infrastructure, reducing costs.
➔ Slightly higher interference risk from LTE traffic.
➔ Coverage might be slightly weaker than Standalone NB-IoT.
 NB-IoT - Deployment Options

Three modes of operation are applicable to NB-IoT

Guard band:
● Operates in the guard band of an LTE carrier, which is normally
unused spectrum between LTE channels
● It utilizes small gaps in LTE frequencies to minimize
interference
● Efficient spectrum use – Uses existing LTE guard bands.
● No impact on LTE users – Operates in otherwise unused
space.
● Cost-effective – No need for additional spectrum.
NB-IoT - Deployment Options
NB-IoT - Deployment Options
 NB-IoT

➔ NB-IoT operates in half-duplex frequency-division duplexing

(FDD) mode with a maximum data rate uplink of 60 kbps and
downlink of 30 kbps
➔ In an LTE network, resource blocks are defined with an
effective bandwidth of 180 kHz, while on NB-IoT, tone or
subcarriers replace the LTE resource blocks.
➔ The uplink channel can be 15 kHz or 3.75 kHz or multi-tone
(n*15 kHz, n up to 12).
 IP Based Protocols

Advantages of the IP suite for the Internet of Things

1. Open and standards-based
➔ Users can leverage a large set of devices and functionalities
while guaranteeing interchangeability and interoperability,
security, and management - open, standards-based solutions
➔ IP is a universal standard for networking, meaning IoT devices
can seamlessly communicate with existing internet
infrastructure.
➔ Works across different manufacturers and ecosystems,
reducing fragmentation.
 IP Based Protocols

Advantages of the IP suite for the Internet of Things

2. Versatile
➔ A large spectrum of access technologies is available to offer
connectivity of “things”
➔ The layered IP architecture is well equipped to cope with any
type of physical and data link layers
➔ This makes IP ideal as a long-term investment because
various protocols at these layers can be used in a deployment
now and over time, without requiring changes to the whole
solution architecture and data flow
 IP Based Protocols

Advantages of the IP suite for the Internet of Things

3. Ubiquitous
➔ All recent operating system releases, from general-purpose
computers and servers to lightweight embedded systems
(TinyOS, Contiki, and so on), have an integrated dual (IPv4 and
IPv6) IP stack that gets enhanced over time
➔ IP is the most pervasive protocol considering what is supported
across the various IoT solutions and industry verticals
 IP Based Protocols

Advantages of the IP suite for the Internet of Things

4. Manageable and highly secure
➔ One of the benefits that comes from 30 years of operational IP
networks is the well-understood network management and
security protocols, mechanisms, and toolsets that are widely
available.
5. Stable and resilient
6. Consumers’ market adoption
 IP Based Protocols

Adoption or Adaptation of the Internet Protocol

➔ Two possible models while IP based protocols are used in IoT
➔ Adaptation means application layer gateways (ALGs) must be
implemented to ensure the translation between non-IP and IP
layers.
➔ Adoption involves replacing all non-IP layers with their IP
layer counterparts, simplifying the deployment model and
operations - Using IP "as-is" in IoT networks.
 IP Based Protocols

Factors to determine which model is best suited

➔ Bidirectional versus unidirectional data flow
Unidirectional devices like a switch, it is not necessarily worth
implementing a full IP stack
➔ Overhead for last-mile communications paths
If data overhead in the form of extra header (20- TCP, 8- UDP)
cannot be tolerated, IP adoption model is not a good option
 IP Based Protocols

Factors to determine which model is best suited

➔ Data flow model
IP adoption model works on the end-to-end nature of
communications - Any node can easily exchange data with any
other node.
In many IoT solutions, a device’s data flow is limited to one or two
applications (not end to end). In this case, the adaptation model
can work
 IP Based Protocols

Factors to determine which model is best suited

➔ Network diversity
One of the drawbacks of the adaptation model is a general
dependency on single PHY and MAC layers. For example,
ZigBee devices must only be deployed in ZigBee network islands.
Therefore, a deployment must consider which applications have to
run on the gateway connecting these islands and the rest of the
world.
This is not a relevant consideration for the adoption model.
 Optimizing IP for IoT

➔ While the Internet Protocol is key for a successful Internet of

Things, constrained nodes and constrained networks mandate
optimization at various layers and on multiple protocols of the
IP architecture
➔ The model for packaging IP into lower-layer protocols is
often referred to as an adaptation layer
Optimizing IP for IoT
 Optimizing IP for IoT

➔ Unless the technology is proprietary, IP adaptation layers are

typically defined by an IETF working group and released as a
Request for Comments (RFC)
➔ An adaptation layer designed for IoT may include some
optimizations to deal with constrained nodes and networks
➔ The main examples of adaptation layers optimized for
constrained nodes or “things” are the ones under the
6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area
Networks) working group and its successor, the 6Lo working
group
 Optimizing IP for IoT
Comparison of an IoT Protocol Stack Utilizing 6LoWPAN and

an IP Protocol Stack - The 6LoWPAN protocol does not support IPv4

Optimizing IP for IoT

6LoWPAN
● IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks
● A technology that allows IPv6 to be used over low-power
wireless networks.
● It bridges the gap between the internet (which uses IPv6) and
resource-constrained devices in a WPAN
 Optimizing IP for IoT

6LoWPAN header stack variations

 Optimizing IP for IoT

6LoWPAN header stack variations

➔ Header Compression
● This capability shrinks the size of IPv6’s 40-byte headers and
User Datagram Protocol’s (UDP’s) 8-byte headers down as low
as 6 bytes combined
● Reduction in header size is implemented by omitting some
standard header fields by assuming commonly used values
and by by taking advantage of shared information known by
all nodes from their participation in the local network
Optimizing IP for IoT

Header Compression
 Optimizing IP for IoT

Fragmentation
➔ The maximum transmission unit (MTU) for an IPv6 network
must be at least 1280 bytes
➔ For IEEE 802.15.4, 127 bytes is the MTU
➔ IPv6, with a much larger MTU, is carried inside the 802.15.4
frame with a much smaller one
➔ To remedy this situation, large IPv6 packets must be
fragmented across multiple 802.15.4 frames at Layer 2
 Optimizing IP for IoT

Fragmentation
➔ The 6LoWPAN layer at the sender splits the larger IPv6
packet into smaller fragments.
➔ Each fragment is encapsulated in an 802.15.4 frame
➔ A special header is added to each fragment to identify it as
part of a larger packet
➔ The fragment header utilized by 6LoWPAN is composed of
three primary fields -
 Optimizing IP for IoT

Fragmentation
➔ Datagram Size - Specifies the length of the fragment's payload
➔ Datagram Tag - A unique identifier to associate fragments
belonging to the same original packet.
➔ Datagram Offset - Indicates the position of the fragment within
the original packet
 Optimizing IP for IoT

Fragmentation
➔ Datagram Size, Datagram Tag, and Datagram Offset
 Optimizing IP for IoT

Fragmentation
➔ The 1-byte Datagram Size field specifies the total size of the
unfragmented payload.
➔ Datagram Tag identifies the set of fragments for a payload.
➔ Datagram Offset field delineates how far into a payload a
particular fragment occurs
➔ Fragmentation header field itself uses a unique bit value to
identify that the subsequent fields behind it are fragment fields
as opposed to another capability, such as header compression
 Optimizing IP for IoT

Mesh Addressing
➔ The purpose of the 6LoWPAN mesh addressing function is to
forward packets over multiple hops.
Three fields are defined for this header:
➔ Hop Limit- provides an upper limit on how many times the
frame can be forwarded -Each hop decrements this value by 1
as it is forwarded. Once the value hits 0, it is dropped and no
longer forwarded
➔ , Source Address, and Destination Address
Optimizing IP for IoT

Mesh Addressing
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

➔ It is a new distance-vector routing protocol for IPv6 for use

by IP smart objects
➔ In an RPL network, each node acts as a router and becomes
part of a mesh network.
➔ Routing is performed at the IP layer.
➔ Each node examines every received IPv6 packet and
determines the next-hop destination based on the information
contained in the IPv6 header.
➔ No information from the MAC-layer header is needed to
perform next-hop determination
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

➔ To cope with the constraints of computing and memory the

protocol defines two modes
1. Storing mode: All nodes contain the full routing table of the
RPL domain. Every node knows how to directly reach every
other node
2. Non-storing mode: Only the border router(s) of the RPL
domain contain(s) the full routing table. All other nodes in the
domain only maintain their list of parents and use this as a
list of default routes toward the border router. This
abbreviated routing table saves memory space and CPU
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

Non-storing mode:
Here a node always forwards its packets to the border router,
which knows how to ultimately reach the final destination
➔ RPL is based on the concept of a directed acyclic graph
(DAG). A DAG is a directed graph where no cycles exist.
➔ This means that from any vertex or point in the graph, you
cannot follow an edge or a line back to this same point.
➔ All of the edges are arranged in paths oriented toward and
terminating at one or more root nodes
RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

A Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG)

 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

Routing Process
➔ A basic RPL process involves building a destination-oriented
directed acyclic graph (DODAG).
➔ A DODAG is a DAG rooted to one destination.
➔ DAG has multiple roots, whereas the DODAG has just one
➔ In RPL, this destination occurs at a border router known as the
DODAG root
➔ In a DODAG, each node maintains up to three parents that
provide a path to the root
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

Routing Process
➔ Typically, one of these parents is the preferred parent, which
means it is the preferred next hop for upward routes toward the
root
➔ The routing graph created by the set of DODAG parents across
all nodes defines the full set of upward routes.
➔ RPL protocol implementation should ensure that routes are
loop free by disallowing nodes from selected DODAG parents
that are positioned further away from the border router.
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

Routing Process
➔ Upward routes in RPL are discovered and configured using
DAG Information Object (DIO) messages.
➔ Nodes listen to DIOs to handle changes in the topology that
can affect routing.
➔ The information in DIO messages determines parents and the
best path to the DODAG root
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

Routing Process
➔ Nodes establish downward routes by advertising their parent
set toward the DODAG root using a Destination Advertisement
Object (DAO) message.
➔ DAO messages allow nodes to inform their parents of their
presence and reachability to descendants
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

Routing Process
➔ In the case of the non-storing mode of RPL, nodes sending
DAO messages report their parent sets directly to the DODAG
root (border router), and only the root stores the routing
information.
➔ The root uses the information to then determine source routes
needed for delivering IPv6 datagrams to individual nodes
downstream in the mesh
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

Routing Process
➔ For storing mode, each node keeps track of the routing
information that is advertised in the DAO messages.
➔ While this is more power- and CPU-intensive for each node, the
benefit is that packets can take shorter paths between
destinations in the mesh.
➔ The nodes can make their own routing decisions; in non-storing
mode, on the other hand, all packets must go up to the root to
get a route for moving downstream
RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

➔ An objective function (OF) defines how metrics are used to

select routes and establish a node’s rank
➔ The rank is a rough approximation of how “close” a node is to
the root and helps avoid routing loops and the count-to-infinity
problem.
➔ Nodes can only increase their rank when receiving a DIO
message with a larger version number.
➔ However, nodes may decrease their rank whenever they have
established lower-cost routes
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

RPL Metrics
➔ Expected Transmission Count (ETX): Assigns a discrete
value to the number of transmissions a node expects to make
to deliver a packet
➔ Hop Count: Tracks the number of nodes traversed in a path.
Typically, a path with a lower hop count is chosen over a path
with a higher hop count.
➔ Latency: Varies depending on power conservation. Paths with
a lower latency are preferred
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

RPL Metrics
➔ Link Quality Level: Measures the reliability of a link by taking
into account packet error rates caused by factors such as signal
attenuation and interference.
➔ Link Color: Allows manual influence of routing by
administratively setting values to make a link more or less
desirable
➔ Node State and Attribute: Identifies nodes that function as
traffic aggregators and nodes that are being impacted by high
workloads
 RPL - Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks

RPL Metrics
➔ Node Energy: Avoids nodes with low power, so a
battery-powered node that is running out of energy can be
avoided and the life of that node and the network can be
prolonged.
➔ Throughput: Provides the amount of throughput for a node link.
Often, nodes conserving power use lower throughput. This
metric allows the prioritization of paths with higher throughput