Electoral Corruption in Bangladesh

Introduction: Electoral corruption stands as a pervasive threat to the integrity of democratic

processes worldwide, and Bangladesh is no significant exception. At its core, electoral
corruption encompasses a spectrum of illegal, unethical, or unfair practices designed to distort
the free and fair expression of the popular will through the ballot box. Its insidious effects are
far-reaching, fundamentally weakening the foundations of democracy, eroding public trust in
institutions, and often paving the way for authoritarian tendencies. In Bangladesh, allegations of
electoral corruption are unfortunately widespread and persistent, surfacing with alarming
regularity not only during high-stakes general elections but also in local government polls and
even student union elections, indicating a deeply embedded systemic issue. This analysis will
delve into the multifaceted nature of electoral corruption in Bangladesh, exploring its theoretical
underpinnings, its manifestation across the electoral cycle, its root causes, profound
consequences, and potential avenues for reform.

2. Definition by Theorists

To understand the nuances of electoral corruption, it is vital to ground our discussion in

established theoretical definitions.

Andreas Schedler (2002)

📘 “The Menu of Manipulation”

“Electoral corruption refers to any effort to manipulate electoral outcomes through illegal or
unethical means such as fraud, coercion, or distortion.”

Susan Rose-Ackerman (1999)

📘 “Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and Reform”

“Electoral corruption is the distortion of voter choice through bribery, coercion, or the misuse of
state resources in elections.”

Transparency International (TI)

🌐 (Global Corruption Report)

“Electoral corruption includes practices like vote buying, ballot stuffing, and manipulation of
voter registration to influence election outcomes unfairly.”

Norris, Pippa (2014)

📘 “Why Electoral Integrity Matters”

“Electoral corruption involves violations of electoral law or ethical norms that undermine the
fairness and legitimacy of elections.”

3. Theoretical Framework

Understanding electoral corruption requires a robust theoretical lens to analyze its causes,
manifestations, and implications.

 Clientelism Theory (Kitschelt & Wilkinson): Clientelism describes a political system

characterized by an asymmetric, reciprocal exchange relationship between patrons (e.g.,
political parties, candidates) and clients (e.g., voters). In this arrangement, voters receive
material benefits (e.g., cash, goods, jobs, access to services) in exchange for their
political loyalty, specifically their vote. This theory is particularly potent in explaining
electoral corruption in developing countries like Bangladesh, where widespread poverty
and dependence on state provisions (or state-linked patronage networks) make voters
vulnerable to such inducements. Clientelism subverts the democratic ideal of voters
making choices based on policy platforms or ideological alignment, instead reducing
elections to transactional exchanges. Examples abound in Bangladesh, from direct cash
payments for votes to promises of infrastructure development for specific communities in
exchange for electoral support. This "vote-buying" is a direct form of electoral corruption
and thrives where institutional oversight is weak and economic insecurity is high.
 Institutional Decay: This framework points to the weakening, erosion, or politicization
of state institutions that are designed to uphold democratic norms and ensure fairness.
When electoral commissions become biased, law enforcement agencies are
compromised, and the bureaucracy is politicized, the checks and balances vital for free
and fair elections collapse. Such decay provides fertile ground for electoral fraud to
flourish without fear of meaningful accountability. In Bangladesh, concerns have long
been raised about the Election Commission's impartiality, the perceived politicization of
the police force, and the use of government machinery by the ruling party. This
institutional decay directly enables the various forms of electoral corruption, as the very
bodies tasked with preventing and prosecuting such acts are either unwilling or unable to
do so effectively.

4. Framework of Electoral Corruption

Electoral corruption is not a singular event confined to polling day; it is a systemic process that
unfolds across the entire electoral cycle. Recognizing this three-part framework—pre-electoral,
election day, and post-electoral corruption—is crucial for a comprehensive understanding.

 A. Pre-Electoral Corruption: This phase involves manipulative practices occurring

before voting even begins, often laying the groundwork for predetermined outcomes.
o Manipulated voter lists: This can involve the deletion of opposition supporters,
the inclusion of non-existent voters, or the registration of underage voters, all
designed to inflate or deflate vote counts in specific areas.
o Biased recruitment of polling officers: When officials responsible for managing
polling stations are recruited based on political affiliation rather than neutrality,
 they become complicit in electoral fraud. They might ignore irregularities,
facilitate ballot stuffing, or simply be absent during crucial moments.
o Unfair use of state resources (cars, media, etc.): The incumbent government
often leverages state machinery, vehicles, media outlets (especially state-
controlled ones), and public funds for partisan campaign purposes, creating an
uneven playing field. This provides a massive advantage over opposition parties
which do not have access to such resources.
o Example: In the run-up to the 2018 General Elections in Bangladesh, opposition
parties frequently alleged they were systematically denied permission for rallies,
public gatherings, and campaigning activities, while the ruling party and its allies
were observed to campaign freely and extensively, often utilizing government
vehicles and facilities. This created a significant disparity in campaign
opportunities and reach, a clear instance of pre-electoral corruption designed to
stifle opposition visibility and mobilization.
 B. Election Day Corruption: This refers to illicit activities that take place directly
during voting hours, directly impacting the ballot casting and immediate counting.
o Vote rigging and booth capture: This involves organized groups (often linked to
political parties) taking control of polling stations, preventing legitimate voters
from casting ballots, and instead stuffing ballot boxes with pre-marked ballots.
o Fake voting: Individuals may impersonate legitimate voters or vote multiple
times.
o Intimidation of voters and agents: Voters perceived as opposition supporters
may be threatened or physically prevented from entering polling stations.
Similarly, opposition party agents, who are crucial for observing the process, may
be intimidated or forcibly removed from polling booths.
o Example: A widely reported and highly controversial allegation following the
2018 election was the pervasive "overnight ballot-stuffing." Numerous reports
and testimonies from voters, local journalists, and human rights organizations
suggested that ballot boxes were filled with votes for the ruling party before
polling day officially began, effectively rendering the actual voting process a
mere formality in many constituencies. This grave allegation, if true, represents
the most extreme form of election day corruption, completely undermining the
integrity of the vote.
 C. Post-Electoral Corruption: This phase occurs after voting concludes, manipulating
the final outcome or the aftermath of the election.
o Biased counting and delayed result declaration: Deliberate miscounting of
votes, altering tally sheets, or delaying the announcement of results can create
opportunities for manipulation, especially in close contests.
o Misuse of the legal system to disqualify opponents: This involves filing
spurious legal cases against winning or influential opposition candidates to
disqualify them or tie them up in lengthy legal battles, preventing them from
taking office or continuing their political activities.
o Example: Following elections in Bangladesh, there have been instances where
legal challenges, sometimes perceived as politically motivated, are initiated
against opposition candidates, even after they have won. The aim might be to
invalidate their victory, suppress their political activities, or prevent them from
 standing in future elections. While specific widespread examples from 2018 are
less about post-election legal cases for disqualification and more about the
immediate suppression of post-election protests and dissent, the general principle
of using state power (including the judiciary) to suppress opposition in the
aftermath of a flawed election is consistent with this type of corruption.

This three-part framework clearly demonstrates that electoral corruption is not a one-day event
but rather a cyclical and systemic phenomenon, requiring a holistic approach to understanding
and addressing it.

5. Causes of Electoral Corruption in Bangladesh

Drawing upon the theoretical frameworks, we can pinpoint several concrete causes for the
persistence of electoral corruption in Bangladesh:

 Executive Dominance over Institutions (Elite Theory): A fundamental cause is the

overwhelming power concentrated in the executive branch, which often exerts undue
influence over nominally independent state institutions. This includes the judiciary, law
enforcement agencies, and crucial regulatory bodies like the Election Commission. This
dominance, as explained by Elite Theory, allows the ruling elite to bend these institutions
to their political will, effectively neutralising their intended role as checks and balances.
When the executive can appoint, transfer, or sideline officials in these bodies based on
political loyalty rather than merit or impartiality, the integrity of the electoral process is
severely compromised.
 Politicization of the Election Commission: The Election Commission (EC) is
constitutionally mandated to conduct free and fair elections. However, persistent
allegations suggest its politicization, with appointments perceived as leaning towards the
ruling establishment. A politicized EC is often seen as unwilling or unable to enforce
electoral laws rigorously, investigate complaints impartively, or sanction offenders,
thereby emboldening perpetrators of corruption. This institutional decay directly
facilitates fraud.
 Patron-Client Political Culture (Clientelism): As discussed under Clientelism Theory,
Bangladesh has a deeply ingrained patron-client political culture. Political parties and
individual candidates often engage in vote-buying, offering cash, food, jobs, or other
benefits in exchange for votes. This transactional relationship undermines the democratic
ideal, as citizens vote not based on policy or ideology but on immediate material gain.
This culture thrives on poverty and a lack of robust social safety nets, making voters
vulnerable to such inducements.
 Lack of Enforcement of Electoral Laws: Bangladesh possesses a legal framework for
elections, but the effectiveness of these laws is severely hampered by a lack of strict and
impartial enforcement. Perpetrators of electoral fraud often go unpunished, creating a
culture of impunity. This absence of accountability signals that illicit electoral practices
carry little risk, thus encouraging their perpetuation. This points directly to institutional
decay.
 Absence of Internal Democracy in Parties: Many political parties in Bangladesh lack
robust internal democratic processes for candidate selection, leadership succession, and
 policy formulation. This often leads to a highly centralized and top-down decision-
making structure. Without internal democracy, party leaders may prioritize loyalty over
merit, and candidates may be chosen based on their ability to mobilize resources
(including illicit ones) rather than their popular appeal or commitment to democratic
norms. This lack of internal accountability within parties can spill over into their conduct
during general elections.
 Widespread Illiteracy and Voter Poverty: While literacy rates are improving, a
significant portion of the population, particularly in rural areas, may have limited access
to information and education. Coupled with widespread poverty, this makes voters
particularly susceptible to manipulation, intimidation, and the material inducements
offered through clientelistic networks. Economic vulnerability can force individuals to
prioritize immediate survival over democratic principles, making them targets for vote-
buyers and political coercion.

6. Consequences of Electoral Corruption

The consequences of pervasive electoral corruption are dire and far-reaching, fundamentally
undermining the democratic fabric of a nation.

 Delegitimization of Elections → Voter Apathy: When elections are widely perceived

as rigged or unfair, the public loses faith in the electoral process as a legitimate means of
choosing leaders. This leads to profound voter apathy, as citizens feel their vote does not
matter and that the outcome is predetermined. Low voter turnout and a sense of
disillusionment become common, eroding the very basis of representative democracy.
 Entrenched Authoritarianism → Ruling Parties Consolidate Power: Electoral
corruption, especially when sustained over time, is a hallmark of "electoral
authoritarianism," where elections are held but serve primarily to legitimize the ruling
party's power rather than to facilitate genuine competition. This allows incumbent parties
to consolidate their hold on power, often indefinitely, by systematically eliminating or
weakening opposition through fraudulent means. This directly violates Linz and Stepan's
Democratic Consolidation Theory, as the possibility of an opposition legitimately
winning power is removed.
 Suppressed Opposition → Reduced Competition: A corrupt electoral system
systematically disadvantages and suppresses opposition parties. Through pre-election
restrictions, election-day fraud, and post-election legal challenges, the opposition is
denied a level playing field. This leads to a reduction in genuine political competition,
transforming the political landscape into a de facto one-party dominant system,
irrespective of constitutional provisions for multiparty democracy.
 Youth Frustration and Migration → Brain Drain: When young people perceive that
political participation is meaningless, that merit is irrelevant, and that opportunities are
determined by political connections rather than ability, they become deeply frustrated.
This frustration, coupled with a lack of economic prospects in a system where patronage
reigns, can lead to increased emigration of talented and educated youth, contributing to a
significant "brain drain" that depletes the country's human capital.
 Civil Unrest → Street Violence, Protests: The suppression of democratic avenues for
expressing dissent and changing leadership can push frustrated citizens towards extra-
 constitutional means. When the ballot box is seen as ineffective, street protests,
demonstrations, and even violence can erupt as a means of expressing grievances and
demanding change. This instability further undermines social cohesion and economic
development.

7. Case Study: 2018 General Elections

The 2018 General Elections in Bangladesh serve as a stark and widely cited case study
illustrating the various facets of electoral corruption discussed above.

 Allegations of Massive Pre-Poll and Day-of Fraud: Leading up to and during the
election, opposition parties, civil society organizations, and international human rights
groups lodged widespread and serious allegations of systematic fraud. Pre-poll
irregularities included allegations of mass arrests of opposition activists, denial of
campaigning spaces, and the strategic deployment of biased law enforcement. On
election day, the most damaging allegations centered on "overnight ballot-stuffing" –
where ballot boxes were purportedly filled with votes for the ruling party well before
polling stations opened to the public. There were also numerous reports of voter
intimidation, expulsion of opposition polling agents, and widespread irregularities at
polling booths.
 Human Rights Groups Noted Media Bias, Police Crackdowns: Organizations like
Human Rights Watch documented a repressive pre-election environment characterized by
restrictions on freedom of assembly and expression. State-controlled media and even
some private outlets were accused of exhibiting significant bias towards the ruling party,
limiting critical reporting. The police were widely perceived as acting as agents of the
ruling party, engaging in mass arrests and crackdowns on opposition activities.
 Outcome: One Party Gained Overwhelming Majority, Raising Legitimacy
Concerns: The election results saw the ruling Awami League and its allies secure an
overwhelming victory, winning nearly all parliamentary seats. While this outcome was
officially declared, the sheer scale of the victory, amidst credible allegations of
widespread irregularities, led to significant questions about the legitimacy of the electoral
process both domestically and internationally. Many observers concluded that the
election failed to meet international standards for freeness and fairness.
 Violation of Linz’s Framework of Democratic Consolidation: The 2018 election,
through its alleged pervasive irregularities, arguably violated Linz and Stepan's
framework of democratic consolidation. For democracy to be consolidated, there must be
a genuine possibility of alternation in power through free and fair elections. When the
electoral process is systematically manipulated to ensure a predetermined outcome, as
alleged in 2018, it undermines the very essence of electoral competition and suggests that
democracy is far from consolidated, remaining vulnerable to authoritarian tendencies
disguised under an electoral veneer. The lack of genuine electoral competition essentially
removes the "only game in town" aspect, as the rules of the game themselves are
perceived to be rigged.

8. Reform Measures / Way Forward

Addressing electoral corruption in Bangladesh requires a multi-pronged, systemic reform
strategy that tackles both the symptoms and the root causes.

 Make the Election Commission Constitutionally Independent and Functionally

Autonomous: The EC must be truly independent in its appointments, funding, and
operational decisions, free from executive interference. This would involve a transparent
and impartial selection process for commissioners (perhaps involving parliamentary
oversight or a neutral body) and guarantees of financial autonomy. A truly independent
EC would be empowered and willing to enforce electoral laws without fear or favor,
investigate allegations rigorously, and impose strict penalties on offenders, thus reversing
institutional decay.
 Digital Transparency in Voting (EVMs with Audit Trails): While Electronic Voting
Machines (EVMs) can reduce certain types of fraud (like ballot stuffing), their
implementation must be accompanied by robust transparency measures, crucially
including an accessible paper audit trail (Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail - VVPAT).
This allows for manual verification of electronic results, builds public trust, and makes it
harder to manipulate vote counts post-casting. The use of technology must enhance
accountability, not obscure it.
 Limit State Resource Abuse During Campaigns: Strict, enforceable laws must be put
in place to prevent the incumbent government from misusing state resources—vehicles,
public funds, media, and administrative machinery—for partisan campaigning.
Independent bodies should monitor such abuses, and severe penalties should be imposed
for violations. This is crucial for creating a level playing field during the pre-electoral
phase.
 Strict Ceiling and Audit of Campaign Spending: Introducing and rigorously enforcing
a strict ceiling on campaign spending, coupled with mandatory public disclosure and
independent audits of campaign finances, can curb the influence of money in politics and
reduce clientelistic practices. This helps prevent candidates from buying votes or using
illicit funds to gain an unfair advantage.
 Civic Education Programs to Empower Voters: Investing in comprehensive civic
education programs can empower voters by increasing their awareness of their rights, the
importance of their vote, and how to identify and report electoral malpractices. Educated
and aware voters are less susceptible to intimidation and clientelistic inducements,
making them more resilient to manipulation.
 Media Neutrality and Protection of Press Freedom: A vibrant, independent, and free
media is essential for monitoring elections, reporting irregularities, and holding powerful
actors accountable. Laws protecting journalists from harassment, censorship, and
arbitrary arrests must be strictly enforced. Promoting media pluralism and ensuring
equitable access to state media for all political parties during elections are also critical.

9. Conclusion

Electoral corruption in Bangladesh is not merely a procedural violation; it is a profound and

systemic barrier to genuine democratic progress. Its prevalence reflects a complex interplay of
factors, including the ingrained dominance of political elites, the debilitating weakness and
politicization of key state institutions, and a pervasive lack of democratic accountability within
the political system. As articulated by Schedler, Rose-Ackerman, and the broader theoretical
frameworks of Elite Theory, Clientelism, and Institutional Decay, these factors create an
environment where elections, though held, consistently fall short of being free, fair, or genuinely
competitive. The case of the 2018 General Elections serves as a stark illustration of how these
systemic issues manifest, raising serious questions about democratic consolidation as per Linz
and Stepan's framework.