Data Acquisition System(DAQs)

Fig.3.1 DAQ system

 Data Acquisition System(DAQs)
• The term data acquisition, or DAQ, is used for the process of taking data from
sensors and inputting that data into a computer for processing.
• The sensors are connected, generally via some signal conditioning, to a data
acquisition board which is plugged into the back of a computer (Fig.3.1(a)).
• The DAQ board is a printed circuit board that, for analogue inputs, basically provides
a multiplexer, amplification, analogue-to-digital conversion, registers and control
circuitry so that sampled digital signals are applied to the computer system.
• Fig.3.1(b) shows the basic elements of such a board.
• Computer software is used to control the acquisition of data via the DAQ board.
• When the program requires an input from a particular sensor, it activates the board by
sending a control word to the control and status register.
• Such a word indicates the type of operation that the board has to carry out.
• As a consequence, the board switches the multiplexer to the appropriate input
channel.
 Data Acquisition System(DAQs)
• The input from the sensor connected to that input channel is then passed via an
amplifier to the ADC. After conversion the resulting digital signal is passed to the
data register and the word in the control and status register changes to indicate that
the signal has arrived.
• Following that signal, the computer then issues a signal for the data to be read and
taken into the computer for processing.
• This signal is necessary to ensure that the computer does not wait doing nothing while
the board carries out its acquisition of data, but uses this to signal to the computer
when the acquisition is complete and then the computer can interrupt any program it
is implementing, read the data from the DAQ and then continue with its program.
• A faster system does not involve the computer in the transfer of the data into memory
but transfers the acquired data directly from the board to memory without involving
the computer, this being termed direct memory address (DMA).
 Analog-to-Digital Converter(A/D)

Fig.3.2 Functions Of Analog-to-digital Conversion

Although most of the sensors provide a direct signal output, a large number of transducers
convert a dynamic variable into an analog electric signal. It is necessary to use an analog-
to-digital converter (ADC) to transform an analog voltage into a binary number through a
process called quantization.
Quantization:- Quantization is a process of taking continuous analog signals and breaking
it into a number of discrete steps. The conversion is discrete and takes place one at a time.
The A/D converter has two sides: one is the analog side and the other is the digital side. The
analog-side specification includes a full-scale reference voltage range (VR). The A/D
converter will operate under this range. The digital side is specified in terms of the number
of bits of its register. A n-bit A/D converter will output n-bit binary numbers. The three
functions of sampling, quantizing, and encoding are involved in this process, which are
shown in Fig3.2.
 Analog-to-Digital Converter(A/D)
The conversion process involves:
• Sampling the continuous signal.
• Storing this voltage, and, before the next sample is taken.
• Converting the stored number to the binary number, which typically consists of
a n-bit binary output word length.
The quantization of a sampled analog signal involves the assignment of a finite
number of amplitude levels corresponding to discrete values of input signals VX
between the range of 0 and the full-scale value of VR. If the A/D converter has a
range of 10 bits, 1024 (2^10) different values of the input voltage can be
represented. A typical voltage range for these systems is 10 V. Therefore, the
resolution would be 10/1024 or about 10 mV, which yields about 0.1% accuracy.
Sampling Rate:- This parameter determines how often conversions can take place. A
faster sampling rate acquires more data in a given time and therefore often can form a
better representation of the original signal.
 Analog-to-Digital Converter(A/D)
Resolution:- The number of bits that the ADC uses to
represent the analog signal is the resolution. The higher the
resolution, the larger the number of divisions the range is
broken into and, therefore, the smaller the detectable
voltage change. Fig.3.3 shows a sine wave and its
corresponding digital image as obtained by an ideal 3-bit
ADC. A 3-bit converter (as a simple example) divides the
analog range into 2^3, or eight divisions. Each division is
represented by a binary code between 000 and 111. The
resolution of the A/D converter is the number of bits used to
digitally approximate the analog value of the input. The
number of possible states is equal to the number of bit
combinations that results from the converter (which is equal
to 2^n, where n is the number of bits). Clearly, the digital
representation is not a good representation of the original
analog signal, because information has been lost in the
conversion. By increasing the resolution to 16 bits,
Fig.3.3 Digitized Sine Wave With A
however, the number of codes from the ADC increases from
Resolution Of Three Bits
8 to 65536 to obtain an extremely accurate digital
representation of the analog signal.
 Analog-to-Digital Converter(A/D)
Successive Approximation Type of A/D Converter
Successive approximations is probably the most
commonly used method. Fig.3.4 illustrates the
subsystems involved. A voltage is generated by a
clock emitting a regular sequence of pulses which are
counted, in a binary manner, and the resulting binary
word converted into an analogue voltage by a DAC.
This voltage rises in steps and is compared with the
analogue input voltage from the sensor. When the
clock-generated voltage passes the input analogue
voltage, the pulses from the clock are stopped from
being counted by a gate being closed. The output from
the counter at that time is then a digital representation
of the analogue voltage. While the comparison could
be accomplished by starting the count at 1, the LSB,
and then proceeding bit by bit upwards, a faster Fig3.4 Successive Approximation Type
method is by successive approximations. This of A/D Conversion
involves selecting the MSB that is less than the
analogue value, then adding successive lesser bits for
which the total does not exceed the analogue value.
 Analog-to-Digital Converter(A/D)
Flash Type of A/D Converter
The flash ADC is very fast. For an n-bit converter,
2^n-1 separate voltage comparators are used in
parallel, with each having the analog input voltage
as one input (Fig.3.5). A reference voltage is
applied to a ladder of resistors so that the voltage
applied as the other input to each comparator is 1
bit larger in size than the voltage applied to the
previous comparator in the ladder. Thus, when the
analogue voltage is applied to the ADC, all those
comparators for which the analogue voltage is
greater than the reference voltage of a comparator
will give a high output and those for which it is
less will be low. The resulting outputs are fed in
parallel to a logic gate system which translates Fig.3.5 Flash Type of A/D Conversion
them into a digital word.
 Analog-to-Digital Converter(A/D)

Ramp Type of A/D Converter

The ramp form of ADC involves an analogue voltage
which is increased at a constant rate, a so-called ramp
voltage, and applied to a comparator where it is compared
with the analogue voltage from the sensor. The time taken
for the ramp voltage to increase to the value of the sensor
voltage will depend on the size of the sampled analogue
voltage. When the ramp voltage starts, a gate is opened
which starts a binary counter counting the regular pulses
from a clock. When the two voltages are equal, the gate
closes and the word indicated by the counter is the digital
representation of the sampled analogue voltage. Fig.3.6 Fig.3.6 Ramp Type of A/D Conversion
indicates the subsystems involved in the ramp form of
ADC.
 Digital-to-Analog Converter(D/A)
A simple form of DAC uses a summing amplifier to
form the weighted sum of all the non-zero bits in the
input word (Fig.3.7). The reference voltage is connected
to the resistors by means of electronic switches which
respond to binary 1. The values of the input resistances
depend on which bit in the word a switch is responding
to, the value of the resistor for successive bits from the
LSB being halved. Hence the sum of the voltages is a
weighted sum of the digits in the word. Such a system is
referred to as a weighted-resistor network. The
function of the op-amp circuit is to act as a buffer to
ensure that the current out of the resistor network is not
affected by the output load and also so that the gain can
be adjusted to give an output range of voltages
appropriate to a particular application.
A problem with the weighted-resistor network is that
accurate resistances have to be used for each of the Fig.3.7 Weighted-resistor DAC
resistors and it is difficult to obtain such resistors over
the wide range needed. As a result this form of DAC
tends be limited to 4-bit conversions.
 Digital-to-Analog Converter(D/A)

Fig.3.8 R–2R ladder DAC

Another, more commonly used, version uses an R–2R ladder network (Fig.3.8). This
overcomes the problem of obtaining accurate resistances over a wide range of values, only two
values being required. The output voltage is generated by switching sections of the ladder to
either the reference voltage or 0 V according to whether there is a 1 or 0 in the digital input.
 Filtering Process

Fig.3.9 Characteristics of ideal filters: (a) low-pass, (b) high-pass, (c) band-pass, (d) band-stop
 Filtering Process
• The term filtering is used to describe the process of removing a certain band of frequencies from
a signal and permitting others to be transmitted.
• The range of frequencies passed by a filter is known as the pass band, the range not passed as the
stop band and the boundary between stopping and passing as the cut-off frequency.
• Filters are classified according to the frequency ranges they transmit or reject. A low-pass filter
(Fig. 3.9(a)) has a pass band which allows all frequencies from zero up to some frequency to be
transmitted.
• A high-pass filter (Fig.3.9(b)) has a pass band which allows all frequencies from some value up
to infinity to be transmitted.
• A band-pass filter (Fig.3.9(c)) allows all the frequencies within a specified band to be
transmitted.
• A band-stop filter or notch filter (Fig.3.9(d)) stops all frequencies with a particular band from
being transmitted.
• In all cases the cut-off frequency is defined as being that at which the output voltage is 70.7% of
that in the pass band.
• The term attenuation is used for the ratio of input and output powers, this being written as the
ratio of the logarithm of the ratio and so gives the attenuation in units of bels.
• Since this is a rather large unit, decibels (dB) are used and then attenuation in dB 5 10 lg(input
power/output power).
• Since the power through an impedance is proportional to the square of the voltage, the attenuation
in dB 5 20 lg(input voltage/ output voltage).
• The output voltage of 70.7% of that in the pass band is thus an attenuation of 3 dB.
 Operational Amplifier
A circuit that accepts an input signal and produces an output signal in the same way as the input but
has a larger magnitude is known as an amplifier circuit. (Fig.3.10), the voltage gain of the amplifier
being the ratio of the output and input voltages when each is measured relative to the earth. The
input impedance of an amplifier is defined as the input voltage divided by the input current, the
output impedance being the output voltage divided by the output current.

Fig.3.1 Amplifier
The basis of many signal conditioning modules is the operational amplifier. The operational
amplifier is a high-gain d.c. amplifier, the gain typically being of the order of 100 000 or more, that
is supplied as an integrated circuit on a silicon chip. It has two inputs, known as the inverting input
(2) and the non-inverting input (1). The output depends on the connections made to these inputs.
There are other inputs to the operational amplifier, namely a negative voltage supply, a positive
voltage supply and two inputs termed offset null, these being to enable corrections to be made for
the non-ideal behaviour of the amplifier.
 Operational Amplifier
Fig.3.11 shows the pin connections for a 741-type operational amplifier.

Fig.3.11 Pin connections for a 741 operational amplifier

An ideal model for an operational amplifier is as an amplifier with an infinite gain, infinite input
impedance and zero output impedance, i.e. the output voltage is independent of the load. The
following indicates the types of circuits that might be used with operational amplifiers when
used as signal conditioners.
 Inverting Amplifier
Fig.3.12 shows the connections made to the amplifier when used as
an inverting amplifier. The input is taken to the inverting input
through a resistor R1 with the non-inverting input being connected
to ground. A feedback path is provided from the output, via the
resistor R2 to the inverting input. The operational amplifier has a
voltage gain of about 100,000 and the change in output voltage is
typically limited to about ±10V. The input voltage must then be
between +0.0001 and -0.0001 V. This is virtually zero and so point
X is at virtually earth potential. For this reason, it is called a
virtual earth. The potential difference across R1 is (Vin - VX ).
Hence, for an ideal operational amplifier with an infinite gain, and
hence VX=0, the input potential Vin can be considered to be across
R1. Thus
Vin=I1R1
The operational amplifier has a very high impedance between its
input terminals; for a 741 about 2MΩ. Thus, virtually no current
flows through X into it. For an ideal operational amplifier, the input Fig.3.12 Inverting amplifier
impedance is taken to be infinite and so there is no current flow
through X. Hence the current I1 through R1 must be the current
through R2 . The potential difference across R2 is (VX–Vout) and
thus, since VX is zero for the ideal amplifier, the potential
difference across R2 is -Vout.
 Inverting Amplifier

Thus -Vout=I1R2 . Dividing these two equations,

Thus the voltage gain of the circuit is determined solely by

the relative values
of R2 and R1 . The negative sign indicates that the output is
inverted, i.e. 180°
out of phase, with respect to the input.

Fig.3.12 Inverting amplifier

 Non-Inverting Amplifier

Figure 3.13 shows the operational amplifier connected as a

non-inverting amplifier. The output can be considered to be
taken from across a potential divider circuit consisting of R1
in series with R2 fraction R1/(R1+R2) of the output voltage,
i.e. The voltage VX is then the

Since there is virtually no current through the operational

amplifier between the two inputs there can be virtually no
potential difference between them. Thus, with the ideal
operational amplifier, we must have VX=Vin. Hence

Fig.3.13 Non-Inverting amplifier

 Summing Amplifier
Figure 3.14 shows the circuit of a summing amplifier. As
with the inverting amplifier, X is a virtual earth. Thus, the
sum of the currents entering X must equal that leaving it.
Hence
I=IA+IB+IC
But IA=VA/RA, IB=VB/RB and IC= VC/RC.
Also, we must have the same current I passing through the
feedback resistor. The potential difference across R2 is (VX-
Vout). Hence, since VX can be assumed to be zero, it is -
Vout and so
I=-Vout/R2. Thus

The output is thus the scaled sum of the inputs, i.e.

Fig.3.14 Summing amplifier
 SCADA Systems

Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)

It is a system of software and hardware elements that allows industrial organizations to:
• Control industrial processes locally or at remote locations
• Monitor, gather, and process real-time data
• Directly interact with devices such as sensors, valves, pumps, motors, and more through
human-machine interface (HMI) software
• Record events into a log file
Typical definitions of a SCADA system:
• SCADA is the technology that enables a user to collect data from one or more distant
facilities and/or send limited control instructions to those facilities.
• A system operating with coded signals over communication channels so as to provide
control of RTU (Remote Terminal Unit) equipment.
Architecture SCADA Systems

Fig.3.2 Typical Architecture of SCADA System

Architecture
SCADA Systems
 SCADA Systems

SCADA System Security

The threats that occur in SCADA systems include the following.
• Hackers
• Terrorists
• Malware
• Error Inside
The weakness of SCADA security mainly occurs because of the following
reasons.
• Poor Training
• Loopholes Development of App
• Issues while Monitoring
• Less Maintenance
 SCADA Systems
Properties:
 SCADA Systems
Properties:
The SCADA system is linked to external networks, corporate IT operations, and remote,
possibly insecure, access points such as modems.
• Because standard hardware and software are used, the equipment is vulnerable to the same
attacks that historically have been mounted against PCs and Windows.
• A successful, unauthorized penetration of a SCADA system could result in:
1. An intruder taking control of a master or slave unit
2. Disrupting critical processes
3. Falsifying data
4. Initiating actions that could result in the loss of human life and destruction of the plant
under control.

1. Adequacy:
The capacity to meet system operating specifications within major component ratings in the
presence of scheduled and unscheduled outage of system components or facilities
2. Security:
A system’s capability to withstand system disturbances arising from faults or unauthorized
internal or external actions without further loss of facilities, compromise of human safety, and
loss of production.
 SCADA Systems
Applications:
1. Generation and Distribution of Power
2. Water and Sewage System
3. Manufacturing
4. Industries & Buildings
5. Communication Networks
6. Oil & Gas Industries
7. Power generation, transmission, and distribution
8. Water distribution and reservoir system
9. Public buildings like electrical heating and cooling system.

Advantages:
1. The quality of service can be improved
2. Reliability can be improved
3. Maintenance cost is less
4. The operation can be reduced
5. Large system parameters can be monitored
6. Manpower can be reduced
 SCADA Systems
Advantages:
7. Repair time can be reduced
8. Fault detection & fault localization
9. It stores a large amount of data
10.As per the user requirement, it displays the data in various formats.
11.Thousands of sensors can be interfaced with SCADA for controlling and
monitoring
12.Real data simulations can be obtained by operators
13.Gives fast response
14.It is flexible as well as scalable while adding extra resources.
15.The SCADA system provides onboard mechanical and graphical
information
16.The SCADA system is easily expandable.
17.The SCADA system is able to operate in critical situations.
Disadvantages:
1. It is complex in terms of dependent modules & hardware units.
2. It needs analysts, programmers & skilled operators to maintain
3. High installation cost
4. Unemployment rates can be increased
5. This system supports hardware devices and restricted software’s