1. What is Discourse?

➤ Definition:
Discourse means language in use — written or spoken — that goes beyond isolated sentences. It
involves how sentences connect to make meaning in real communication.
🔹 Discourse and the Sentence
 A sentence is a grammatical unit, but discourse is meaningful language in context.
 Example:
o Sentence: "She is tired."
o Discourse: "She didn’t sleep all night. She is tired." (More meaningful)
🔹 Grammar Within and Beyond the Sentence
 Grammar within the sentence: Traditional grammar (subject, verb, object).
 Beyond the sentence: How sentences are linked together to form meaning (discourse
grammar).
Example: Use of cohesive devices like "however", "because", etc.
🔹 Language in and out of Context
 In context: Real communication, considering speaker, listener, place, culture.
 Out of context: Language analyzed in isolation.
 Meaning always depends on context in discourse.
🔹 Spoken vs. Written Discourse
Feature Spoken Written
Style Informal, interactive Formal, structured
Grammar Incomplete, repetitive Full sentences
Planning Spontaneous Pre-planned
Example Dialogue Essay

🔹 Cohesion and Coherence

 Cohesion: Linguistic links between sentences (e.g., pronouns, conjunctions).
 Coherence: Logical flow of ideas. Even if cohesive, a text may lack coherence if the
ideas don’t make sense.
2. Formal & Contextual Links
🔹 Formal Links
These help connect sentences in discourse:
 Parallelism: Similar structure in sentences.
o Example: "She likes dancing, singing, and reading."
 Referring Expressions: Use of "he", "she", "this", etc.
 Repetition: Repeating key words to maintain focus.
 Lexical Chains: Words from the same topic.
 Substitution: Using "do so", "one", etc., instead of repeating.
 Ellipsis: Leaving out parts of the sentence when meaning is understood.
 Conjunction: Words like "but", "so", "because", etc.
🔹 Contextual Links
 Reference: Using words to refer back (anaphora) or ahead (cataphora).
 Presupposition: Unstated assumptions.
o Example: "Have you stopped smoking?" (Presupposes you smoked before.)
 Implicature: Indirect meaning.
o Example: "Can you pass the salt?" (Implied: Please pass the salt.)
 Inference: The listener/reader figures out meaning from context.

Conversational Principles
1. Cooperative Principle (Grice’s Maxims)
Proposed by: Philosopher H.P. Grice
Grice said that when people speak, they usually follow a cooperative principle. It means:
"Make your contribution as required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted
purpose of the conversation."
To follow this, Grice gave four maxims:
🔹 a. Maxim of Quantity
 Give the right amount of information.
 Don’t give too little (which makes the listener confused) or too much (which becomes
boring or irrelevant).
Example:
A: Where do you live?
B: In Lahore. ✅ (Correct)
B: I live in Lahore, near Gulberg, next to the big market, and our house has three floors… ❌
(Too much information)
🔹 b. Maxim of Quality
 Be truthful.
 Don’t say something that is false or without evidence.
Example:
Saying "The moon is made of cheese" is a violation of this maxim.
🔹 c. Maxim of Relation (Relevance)
 Be relevant to the topic.
 Do not change the subject unnecessarily.
Example:
A: Are you coming to the party?
B: I have a lot of homework. ❌ (Not relevant)
B: No, I can’t. I have to study. ✅ (Relevant)
🔹 d. Maxim of Manner
 Be clear, brief, and orderly.
 Avoid ambiguity (unclear meaning) and long-winded speech.
Example:
Instead of saying: “My sibling who is older than me but younger than my eldest sibling,”
Say: “My middle brother.”
Sometimes, speakers break these maxims on purpose — this is called a “flout” — to create
sarcasm, humor, or indirect meaning.

2 B. Politeness Theory

🔹 Introduced by: Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson in 1987

Main Idea:
People use polite language to protect each other’s face (social image or self-respect). In
conversations, we try not to embarrass or threaten others.

🔹 Two types of face:

1. Positive Face – Our need to be liked and accepted

2. Negative Face – Our need to be free and not feel forced

🔹 Face Threatening Acts (FTAs):

Any act that might insult or embarrass someone
Example: Saying “You’re wrong” directly can hurt someone’s positive face.

🔹 Politeness Strategies:

1. Bald on-record – Direct (e.g., “Do it now.”)

2. Positive politeness – Show friendship (e.g., “You’re good at this — can you help me?”)
3. Negative politeness – Be indirect/respectful (e.g., “Sorry to bother you, but could
you…?”)
4. Off-record – Indirect and hinting (e.g., “It’s a bit hot here...” = Please open the fan)

(Geoffrey Leech)
Leech added another important aspect: Politeness.
In real conversations, we also try to maintain social harmony and avoid offending others.
He gave two main types of politeness:
🔹 a. Positive Politeness
 Showing friendliness, interest, or respect.
 Making the listener feel liked or accepted.
Example:
“You look great today! Can you help me with this?”
Here, the speaker compliments first to make the request polite.
🔹 b. Negative Politeness
 Showing respect by not imposing.
  Being indirect or formal.
Example:
“Would you mind if I opened the window?”
This shows care and permission before acting.
3. Speech Act Theory (Austin & Searle)
J.L. Austin and later John Searle proposed that when we speak, we are not just saying things —
we are also doing actions.
A single sentence performs three levels of speech acts:
🔹 a. Locutionary Act
 The actual words spoken (surface meaning).
Example:
“It is hot in here.”
🔹 b. Illocutionary Act
 The intended meaning behind the words.
Example:
“It is hot in here” could mean:
→ Please turn on the fan.
→ Open the window.
(These are requests or suggestions depending on context.)
🔹 c. Perlocutionary Act
 The effect the sentence has on the listener.
Example:
If listener opens the window, the speech act caused action.
Types of Illocutionary Acts:
 Assertives (statements, claims)
 Directives (orders, requests)
 Commissives (promises)
 Expressives (thanks, apologies)
 Declarations (changing the state, e.g., “I resign”)
4. Constatives and Performatives
Austin also divided speech into two kinds:
🔹 a. Constatives
 Sentences that describe something or give information.
 Can be true or false.
Example:
“It is raining.”
“It’s Tuesday today.”
🔹 b. Performatives
 Sentences that perform an action when spoken.
 Saying it does the action.
Examples:
 “I apologize.” (Performs apology)
 “I now pronounce you husband and wife.” (Marriage declaration)
 “I name this ship the Titanic.”
They cannot be true or false — they do something in real life.
5. Pragmatics, Discourse Analysis & Language Teaching
This part shows how pragmatics and discourse analysis are helpful in teaching language and
communication.
🔹 Pragmatics
 Study of language in context.
 Focuses on what the speaker means, not just what they say.
Example:
“Can you pass the salt?”
Not a question of ability — it’s a polite request.
🔹 Discourse Analysis
 Study of language in use, especially beyond sentence level.
 Focuses on how real conversations work — structure, flow, politeness, turn-taking, etc.
🔹 Use in Language Teaching:
 Helps students:
o Understand how real communication works.
o Learn pragmatic skills like politeness, sarcasm, indirect speech.
o Move beyond grammar rules to actual use of language.
 o Handle different contexts, such as formal vs informal, native vs non-native
speakers.
Example in teaching:
Students can role-play requests, apologies, debates, etc., to learn the function of speech in real
life.

Section 4: Views on Discourse Structure

📌 Introduction to Discourse Structure
Discourse structure refers to how larger units of language—like paragraphs, dialogues, or entire
texts—are organized to convey meaning.
Unlike grammar, which focuses on sentence-level rules, discourse analysis looks at how people
use language in real communication—how they speak, write, understand, and interact.
There are four major views that scholars have developed to understand discourse structure:
1. Discourse as Product
2. Discourse as Process
3. Discourse as Dialogue
4. Information Structure in Discourse

1. Discourse as Product
🔹Explanation:
In this view, discourse is treated as a finished text or document—a product that can be studied
just like a physical object. This approach focuses on the structure of the text, such as
paragraphs, headings, cohesion, coherence, and organization.
🔹Example:
An essay or a news article can be seen as a discourse product. For example, in a newspaper
editorial, you can observe how the writer uses:
 Connectors (however, therefore)
 Referencing (he, she, it)
 Topic sentences to introduce ideas
The goal here is to look at the final form of discourse—not how it was created or used.
2. Discourse as Process
🔹Explanation:
In contrast to viewing discourse as a product, this approach focuses on the dynamic creation of
discourse—how people produce and understand language in real-time.
🔹Example:
Think about a spoken conversation between two people:
A: "Do you want some tea?"
B: "Yes, please. Do you have green tea?"
A: "Yes, let me bring it."
This is not a finished product—it’s an ongoing process. People build it turn by turn, reacting to
what was said, and deciding how to respond.
It’s especially useful in studying spoken discourse, such as interviews, casual talks, or
classroom discussions.

3. Discourse as Dialogue
🔹Explanation:
This view sees discourse as a combined interaction between participants. It focuses on how
meaning is co-constructed by two or more people during communication.
This view is closely linked with sociolinguistics and pragmatics.
🔹Example:
Teacher: "What is the capital of France?"
Student: "Paris."
Teacher: "Good. And what about Germany?"
Student: "Berlin, I think?"
Here, each person’s response is shaped by the other’s. The discourse depends on interaction.
It helps us analyze how relationships are managed through language.

4. Information Structure in Discourse

🔹Explanation:
This view looks at how information is organized and presented in discourse—what is given
importance, what is left implicit, and how speakers guide the listener’s attention.
This view is important for understanding how communication is made effective, especially in
teaching, storytelling, and public speaking.
🔹Example:
"As for the exam, the results will be announced next week."
Here:
 Topic: The exam
 Comment/New Info: Results next week
This is useful for analyzing:
 Political speeches
 Academic writing
 News reports
 Classroom discourse

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

CDA is an approach to studying language that focuses on how power, ideology, and social
inequality are expressed and maintained through discourse. It looks beyond the surface meaning
of words to uncover the hidden messages that serve the interests of powerful groups. CDA
argues that language is not neutral; it is shaped by and shapes social structures. This method is
closely linked with sociolinguistics, pragmatics, and social theory, and often draws on the
work of scholars like Norman Fairclough, van Dijk, and Ruth Wodak.
CDA usually involves analyzing real-world texts (speeches, news articles, ads, legal documents,
etc.) to reveal how language constructs social realities. This approach is useful in fields like
media, politics, law, gender studies, and education.

1. Political Discourse
Definition:
Political discourse refers to the language used by politicians, political institutions, or political
activists in speeches, debates, policies, and campaigns.
CDA Perspective:
In CDA, political discourse is analyzed to show how politicians use language to gain or maintain
power. Techniques like persuasion, manipulation, and rhetorical strategies are examined to
reveal ideological biases.
Examples and Analysis:
 A politician might use the phrase “collateral damage” instead of “civilian deaths” to
soften the impact of military actions and control public perception.
 In campaign speeches, leaders often create us vs. them binaries, like “we, the
hardworking citizens” vs. “them, the corrupt elites,” which polarizes public opinion.
Important CDA Aspects in Political Discourse:
 Nominalization (turning actions into nouns to hide agency, e.g., “tax increase” instead of
“the government increased taxes”)
 Modality (expressing certainty or doubt: “must,” “might”)
 Framing (presenting issues in a particular way to control interpretation)
Conclusion:
CDA in political discourse helps uncover how language is used to shape ideology, influence
citizens, and maintain power structures.
2. Media Discourse
Definition:
Media discourse includes all the language used in print, broadcast, and digital media,
including newspapers, TV, social media, and advertisements.
CDA Perspective:
CDA studies media discourse to show how media outlets influence public opinion, promote
specific ideologies, or serve political/economic interests. Media is not just a mirror of reality—it
constructs reality through language.
Examples and Analysis:
 A headline saying “Migrants flood the border” uses metaphorical language (“flood”) to
suggest danger or threat, creating fear and negative attitudes.
 News channels may give more voice to certain groups (e.g., elites) while silencing
others (e.g., marginalized communities).
Key CDA Tools:
 Lexical choice (using certain loaded words: “terrorist” vs. “freedom fighter”)
 Transitivity analysis (Who is shown as doing the action vs. being acted upon?)
  Visual discourse (Images that reinforce certain narratives or stereotypes)
Conclusion:
Through CDA, media discourse reveals hidden ideologies, biases, and the manipulative power
of language in shaping public attitudes.
3. Feminist Discourse
Definition:
Feminist discourse analysis focuses on how gender, particularly women’s roles and
representation, is shaped and maintained through language.
CDA Perspective:
From a CDA angle, feminist discourse explores how language reinforces patriarchy or
challenges gender norms. It examines how women are represented in texts, and how gender
inequality is reproduced through seemingly normal language.
Examples and Analysis:
 In job ads: “We’re looking for a strong leader” may imply male preference due to
gendered language.
 In literature: Female characters are often passive, while males are shown as active or
dominant.
Features CDA Looks At:
 Use of pronouns and titles (e.g., “Mr. Smith” vs. “Mrs. John Smith”)
 Stereotypical representations (women shown as emotional, nurturing, dependent)
 Silencing strategies (women’s voices or opinions ignored or not quoted)
Conclusion:
Feminist CDA shows how language both reflects and shapes gender roles, and promotes
awareness of how discourse can either challenge or uphold sexism in society.
4. Legal Discourse
Definition:
Legal discourse is the language used in laws, courtrooms, contracts, and legal documents.

Legal language often presents itself as objective and neutral, but CDA reveals how it can
reflect power relations, especially between the state and the individual.
Examples and Analysis:
  A contract may say, “The party of the first part agrees to...” which is impersonal and
complex, making it hard for ordinary people to understand.
 In courtroom discourse, the use of questioning, interruption, and status terms (e.g.,
“Your Honor,” “the accused”) shows institutional authority.
CDA Focus Areas in Legal Discourse:
 Passive constructions (e.g., “the defendant was found guilty” hides the agent)
 Jargon and technicality (used to exclude the layperson and maintain elite control)
 Turn-taking and power in courtroom interaction (judges control the discourse flow)