LIGHT

• Nature has endowed the human eye (retina) with

the sensitivity to detect electromagnetic radiation
within a certain range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

• The range (400 nm-750 nm) of the electromagnetic

spectrum which the eye can detect is called Light.

• Two things about light:

1. Travels in a straight line,
2. Travels with enormous speed.
𝐜 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
A ray of light

A beam of light
 RAY OPTICS
AND
OPTICAL
INSTRUMENT
LAWS OF REFLECTION

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. 𝑖. 𝑒 ∠𝑖 = ∠𝑟

2. The incident ray, normal and the reflected ray to the reflecting surface at the point
of incidence lie in the same plane.

➢ These laws are valid at each point of any reflecting surface.

In Spherical Mirrors:

• Centre of a spherical mirror → Pole (P).

• Line joining the pole(P) and the centre of curvature(C)

→ Principal Axis.

In Spherical Lens:

• Centre of a spherical lens → Optical Centre.

• Line joining the optical centre with the principal focus

→ Principal Axis.
Sign Convention
❖All distances have to be measured from the Pole/Optical centre.

❖Distances measured:
:In the direction of incident light → Positive.
: Opposite to the direction of incident light → Negative.

❖Heights taken with respect to the principal axis

: Upwards → Positive.
: Downwards → Negative.
Focal Length of a Mirror
➢Consider a parallel beam of light incident on a concave mirror.
➢Assume that the rays are para-axial;
➢That is, they are incident at points close to the pole, P and
make small angles with the principal axis.
➢Observe, that the reflected rays converge at a point, F on the
principal axis.
➢Point F is called the Principal Focus of the mirror.

➢For a convex mirror, the reflected ray appear to diverge from

a point F on it’s principal axis.

➢The distance between the focus F and the pole P of the mirror
is the Focal Length (f).
• If a parallel para-axial beam of light were
incident, making some angle with the principal
axis, the reflected rays would converge at a
C F
point, in a plane passing through F, and normal P

to the principal axis.

• This plane is called the focal plane.

• Consider a concave spherical mirror.
• Let C be the centre of curvature of the mirror.
• A ray parallel to the principal axis strikes the mirror at M.
• CM is perpendicular to the mirror at M.
• MD is perpendicular to the principal axis.
• Let ∠𝑖 = 𝜃,
• Then ∠𝑀𝐶𝑃 = 𝜃, ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 = 2𝜃.
𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
• Now, in ∆𝑀𝐶𝐷 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = and ∆𝑀𝐹𝐷 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 = …………………(1)
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷
• For small Ɵ, which is true for par-axial rays, tan Ɵ ≈ Ɵ, tan 2Ɵ ≈ 2Ɵ.
𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷 𝐶𝐷
• Therefore Equation (1) becomes, =2 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝐷 = …………….(2)
𝐹𝐷 𝐶𝐷 2
• For small Ɵ, point D is very close to point P. Therefore, Equation 2 becomes;
𝑹
𝒇= (Since FD =FP = f and CD = CP = R)
𝟐
• If rays emanating from a point actually meet at another
point after reflection and/ refraction, that point is called
the image of the first point.
➢The image is real → if the rays converge to the point.
➢The image is virtual → if they appear to diverge from the
point produced backwards.
• An image is thus a point-to-point correspondence with the
object established through reflection / or refraction.

1) The ray which is parallel to the principal axis→ reflected ray goes through the focus of
the mirror.
2) The ray passing through the centre of curvature→ reflected ray retraces the path.
3) The ray incident at any angle on the pole→ reflected ray follows Laws of reflection.
The Mirror Equation
A
Object distance = u, Image distance = v, Focal length = f M
The two right angled triangles A’B’F and MPF are similar.
B’
B′ A′ B′ F F P
= B C f
PM FP
A’ v
B′ A′ B′ F
= (since PM=AB) …………. (1)
BA FP u
Since ∠APB =∠ A’PB’ , the right angled triangles A’B’P and ABP are also

B′ A′ B′ P
similar. Therefore, = …………….(2)
BA BP

B′ F (B′ P−FP) B′ P
Comparing equations (1) and (2) = =
FP FP BP

Applying sign convention, B’P = -v, FP = - f, BP = - u. Using these, we get

−v−(−f) −v v−f v
= or =
−f −u f u

Cross multiply and divide the equation on both sides by uvf

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝐯 𝐮 𝐟

This relation is known as the mirror equation.

LINEAR MAGNIFIATION (m)
• The ratio of the height of the image (h’) to the height of the object (h).
ℎ′
𝑚=
ℎ A
M
In triangles A’B’P and ABP, we have
𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑃 B’
= F P
𝐵𝐴 𝐵𝑃 B C f
Using sign convention, we get A’ v
−ℎ′ −𝑣 u
=
ℎ −𝑢
So that
ℎ′ 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
𝑚= =− = =
ℎ 𝑢 𝑓−𝑢 𝑓
• With the proper use of sign convention, the mirror equation and the magnification
formula are valid for all the cases of reflection by a spherical mirror(concave or convex).
REFRACTION
• When a beam of light encounters another transparent medium,
a part of the light gets reflected back into the first medium while
the rest enters the other.

• The direction of propagation of an obliquely incident ray that

enters the other medium, changes at the interface of the two
media.

• This phenomenon is called refraction of light.

Laws of Refraction
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface
at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
sin 𝑖
2. = 𝑛21 ……………………… (1)
sin 𝑟
𝑛21 =constant, called refractive index of the 2𝑛𝑑 medium w.r.t the 1st.
Equation (1) is the Snell’s law of refraction.

From equation (1),

➢If 𝑛21 ˃ 1, ----------- r ˂ i, ---------- refracted ray bends towards the normal.
Then medium 2 is denser than medium 1.
➢ If 𝑛21 ˂ 1, ----------- r ˃ i, ---------- refracted ray bends away from the normal.
This is the case when incident ray in a denser medium refracts into a rarer medium.

1
❑ Note : 𝑛12 =
𝑛21
➢ For a rectangular slab, refraction takes place at two interfaces
(air – glass and glass – air).
➢ e=i
i.e the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray
(if there was no deviation).
➢ But there is a shift of the emergent ray with respect to the
incident ray.
➢ This shift is called Lateral displacement or Lateral shift.
• Suppose you decide to go spear fishing, but unfortunately you aren’t having
much luck catching any fish.

• This is because the image of the fish appears to be raised.

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
• 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥: 𝜇 = 𝑛 =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
Total Internal Reflection
➢When light travels from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium at the interface,
it is partly reflected back into the same medium and partly refracted to the second
medium.

➢This reflection is called the internal reflection.

• When a ray of light enters from a denser medium to a
rarer medium, it bends away from the normal. E.g 𝐴𝑂1
• The incident ray 𝐴𝑂1 → Partially reflected (𝑂1 𝐶).
→ Partially refracted (𝑂1 𝐵).
→ ∠𝑟 > ∠𝑖.

➢As the ∠𝑖 increases → ∠𝑟 also increases.

𝜋
➢Till for a certain value of ∠𝑖 , ray 𝐴𝑂3 → ∠𝑟 becomes .
2
➢The refracted ray is bent so much away from the normal that it grazes the surface at the
interface between the two media. Ray 𝐴𝑂3

❑If the ∠𝑖 is increased still further ( ray 𝐴𝑂4 ) refraction is not possible, and the incident ray
is totally reflected.
❑This is called Total Internal Reflection.
• When light gets reflected by a surface, some fraction of it gets
transmitted (refracted).

• The reflected ray is always less intense than the incident ray, however
smooth the reflecting surface may be.
• On the other hand, in total internal reflection, there is no
transmission/refraction of light.
• The angle of incidence, ∟AO3 N corresponding to an angle of refraction(90⁰), is called
the Critical angle (𝑖𝑐 ).

• According to Snell’s Law,

Sin i
= n21
Sin r
Sin 𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑐
= = n21 (Since Sin r = 1)
Sin 90 1
Sin ic = n21 (As i = ic )

• For values of i larger than 𝑖𝑐 → Snell’s Law of refraction cannot be satisfied.

➢Therefore no refraction is possible.

1
✓ 𝑛12 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑐
Demonstration for total internal reflection.
➢Take a glass beaker with clear water in it.
➢Take a laser pointer and shine its beam through the water.
➢You will find that the path of the beam inside the water shines
brightly.

➢Shine the beam from below the beaker.

➢It undergoes partial reflection(spot on the table)
➢ and partial refraction (spot on the roof).
➢Direct the laser beam from one side of the beaker such that it strikes
the upper surface of water more obliquely.
➢Adjust the direction of laser beam until you find the angle for which
the refraction above the water surface is totally absent and the beam
is totally reflected back to the water.

➢This is total internal reflection.

➢Pour water into a test tube and shine the laser
light from top.
➢Adjust the direction of the laser beam such that
it is totally internally reflected every time it
strikes the walls of the tube.
Total Internal Reflection In Nature And Its Applications:
i. Mirage : DELETED

➢On hot summer days, the air near the ground becomes hotter than the air at higher levels.
➢The refractive index of air increases with density.
➢Hotter air is less dense and has smaller refractive index than the cooler air.
➢Light from a tall object (tree), passes through
a medium whose refractive index decreases
towards the ground
➢Thus a ray of light from such an object
successively bends away from the normal
and undergoes total internal reflection,
when 𝑖 > 𝑖𝑐 .
• To a distant observer, the light appears to be coming from somewhere below the
ground.

• The observer naturally assumes that the light is being reflected from the ground, say, by
pool of water near the tall object.

• Such inverted images of distant tall

objects cause an optical illusion to
the observer.

• This phenomenon is called mirage.

• This type of mirage is common in
hot deserts.
 (a) (b)
➢A tree is seen by an ➢When the layers of air close to the
observer at its place when ground have varying temperature,
the air above the ground is light from a distant tree undergoes
at uniform temperature. TIR, and the apparent image of the
tree creates an illusion that the
tree is near a pool of water.
ii) Diamond : DELETED

❖Diamonds are known for their spectacular brilliance.

❖Their brilliance is due to the total internal reflection of
light inside them.
❖The critical angle for diamond-air is very small.
❖Therefore once light enters a diamond it is very likely to undergo total internal reflection
inside it.

❖Diamonds found in nature rarely exhibit the brilliance.

❖It is the technical skill of a diamond cutter which

makes the diamond sparkle by cutting it suitably so
that multiple total internal reflections can occur.
iii) Prism :
➢Prisms designed to bend light by 90⁰ or by 180⁰ make use of total internal reflection.
➢Such prisms are used to invert images without changing their size.
➢The critical angle 𝑖𝑐 for the material of the prism is less than 45⁰

Prisms designed to bend Prisms designed to Prisms designed to invert

rays by 90⁰ bend rays by 180⁰ image without changing
its size.
iv) Optical fibres :
❑Optical fibres make use of the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
❑They are fabricated with high quality composite glass/quartz fibres.
❑Each fibre consists of a core and cladding.

❑The refractive index of the material of the core is higher than that of the cladding.
• When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at
suitable angle, it undergoes repeated total internal reflections along
the length of the fibre and finally comes out at the other end.

• Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage there is no

appreciable loss in the intensity of the light signal.
Uses of optical fibres:
✓For transmitting and receiving electrical signals which are converted to light by a
suitable transducers.
✓For transmission of optical signals → visual examination of internal organs.
✓Fibres in decorative lamps are optical fibres.

➢The main requirement in fabricating optical fibres is that there should be very little
absorption of light as it travels for long distances inside them.

✓This has been achieved by purification and special preparation of materials such as
Quartz.
Refraction At Spherical Surfaces
➢The Figure shows the geometry of formation of
image I of an object O on the principal axis of a
spherical surface with centre of curvature C, and
radius of curvature R.

➢ The rays are incident from a medium of refractive

index 𝑛1 , to another of refractive index 𝑛2 .

➢Take the aperture of the surface to be small→ so that small angle approximation can be
made. (i.e NM will be nearly equal to the length of the perpendicular from the point N on
the principal axis.)
For small angles,
𝑀𝑁
𝑡𝑎𝑛∠𝑁𝑂𝑀 =
𝑂𝑀
𝑀𝑁
𝑡𝑎𝑛∠𝑁𝐶𝑀 =
𝑀𝐶
𝑀𝑁
𝑡𝑎𝑛∠𝑁𝐼𝑀 =
𝑀𝐼

Now, for ∆NOC, 𝑖 is the exterior angle.

Therefore, 𝑖 = ∠𝑁𝑂𝑀 + ∠𝑁𝐶𝑀
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
𝑖= + ………………………(1)
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐶

Similarly, 𝑟 = ∠𝑁𝐶𝑀 − ∠𝑁𝐼𝑀

𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
i.e 𝑟 = − ……………………..(2)
𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼
Now, by Snell’s law
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟
Or for small angles,
𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟
Substituting 𝑖 and 𝑟 from Eq. (1) and (2), we get
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 −𝑛1
+ = ………………….(3)
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝐶
Applying the Cartesian sign convention,
OM = -𝑢, MI = +𝑣, MC = +𝑅
Substituting these in Eq. (3), we get
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 −𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 −𝑛2
− = or − = ………………....(4)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
Equation (4) gives us a relation between object and image distance in terms of refractive
index of the medium and the radius of curvature of the curved spherical surface.
Refraction by a lens
➢Figure (a) shows the geometry of image formation by a
double convex lens.
➢The image formation can be seen in terms of two steps

(i) The first refracting surface forms the image 𝐼1 of the

object O. (Fig b)

(ii) The image 𝐼1 acts as a virtual object for the second

surface that forms the image at 𝐼. (Fig c)
Using the equation,
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 −𝑛1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
to the first interface ABC, we get
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 −𝑛1
− = .……..(1)
𝐵𝐼1 𝑂𝐵 𝐵𝐶1

A similar procedure applied to the second interface ADC gives,

𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 −𝑛2
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 −𝑛2 𝑛1 −𝑛2 (𝑛2 −𝑛1 )
− = = =− ...(2)
𝐷𝐼 𝐷𝐼1 𝐷𝐶2 𝐷𝐶2 𝐷𝐶2

For a thin lens, 𝐵𝐼1 = 𝐷𝐼1 . Adding Eq. 1 & 2 we get,

𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
− = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )( − ) ……….(3)
𝐷𝐼 𝑂𝐵 𝐵𝐶1 𝐷𝐶2
Suppose the object is at infinity,
OB→∞ and DI =𝑓
𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
Equation 3 gives { − = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )( − )}
𝐷𝐼 𝑂𝐵 𝐵𝐶1 𝐷𝐶2
𝑛1 1 1
= (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )( − ) ………….(4)
𝑓 𝐵𝐶1 𝐷𝐶2
But,
𝐵𝐶1 = 𝑅1 and 𝐷𝐶2 = 𝑅2
So Eq. 4 can be written as
1 1 1
= (𝑛21 − 1)( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
This equation is known as the Lens maker’s formula.
From Eqs. 3 & 4, we get
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1 1
− = → − =
𝐷𝐼 𝑂𝐵 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓

This is the Thin lens formula.

❖A lens has two foci, F and F’ on either
side of it.

❖The two foci of a double convex or

concave lens are equidistant from the
optical centre.

❖The focus on the side of the source of

light is called the first focal point,
whereas the other is called the
second focal point.
➢To find the image of an object by a lens, it is convenient to choose any two of the
following rays:

1} A ray emanating from the object parallel to the principal

axis of the lens after refraction passes through F’ or
appears to diverge from F.

2} A ray of light, passing through the optical centre of the

lens, emerges without any deviation after refraction.

3} A ray of light passing through F, emerges parallel to the

principal axis after refraction.
Magnification:
✓Magnification is defined, as the ratio of the size of the image to that
of the object.

ℎ′ 𝑣
✓𝑚 = =
ℎ 𝑢

✓When sign convention is applied for either concave or convex lens,

➢If image formed is erect and virtual → m is positive.

➢If image formed is inverted and real → m is negative.

Power of a lens
➢Power of a lens is a measure of the convergence or divergence, which a lens introduces in
the light falling on it.
➢A lens of shorter focal length→ bends the incident light more.
➢The rays converge→ Convex lens.
The rays diverge→ Concave lens.
❑The power P of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle
by which it converges or diverges a beam of light falling at
unit distant from the optical centre.
ℎ 1 1
tan 𝛿 = ; if ℎ = 1 tan 𝛿 = or 𝛿 = for small value of δ.
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
1
➢Thus 𝑃=
𝑓
➢The SI unit for power of a lens is Dioptre (D) : 1𝐷 = 1𝑚−1 .
➢Power of lens: Positive→ Converging lens and Negative→ Diverging lens.
Combination of thin lenses in contact
➢Consider two lenses A and B of focal length 𝑓1 and 𝑓2

placed in contact with each other.

➢Let the object be placed at a point O beyond the

focus of the first lens A.

➢The first lens produces an image at 𝐼1 .

➢This image 𝐼1 serves as a virtual object for the second lens B, producing the final image at I.

➢Since the lenses are thin, we assume the optical centres of the lenses to be coincident.

➢Let this central point be denoted by P.

For the image formed by the first lens A, we get
1 1 1
− = …………….(1)
𝑣1 𝑢 𝑓1
for the image formed by the second lens B, we get
1 1 1
− = ……………..(2)
𝑣 𝑣1 𝑓2
Adding Eqs. 1 and 2, we get
1 1 1 1
− = + ………………(3)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓1 𝑓2
If the two lens- system is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal length f, we have
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
So that we get, = + …………(4)
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
If several thin lenses are in contact, the effective focal length of their combination is given by
1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3
In terms of power we get, 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ (where P is the net power of the lens
combination)
Refraction Through A Prism
➢The figure shows the passage of light through a

triangular prism ABC.

➢The angles of incidence and refraction at the first

face AB are 𝑖 and 𝑟1 .

➢The angle of incidence at the second face AC is 𝑟2 and the angle of refraction or
emergence is 𝑒.

➢The angle between the emergent ray RS and the direction of the incident ray PQ is called
the angle of deviation, 𝛿.
➢In the ∎𝐴𝑄𝑁𝑅, two of the angles at the vertices
Q and R, are right angles.
➢Therefore, the sum of the other angles of the
quadrilateral is 180°.
∠𝐴 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180° …….......(1)
➢From ∆𝑄𝑁𝑅,
∠𝑟1 + ∠𝑟2 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180° ……………(2)
➢Comparing Eqn. 1 & 2, we get
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝐴
➢The total deviation 𝛿 is the sum of the deviations at the two faces,
𝛿 = 𝑖 − 𝑟1 + (𝑒 − 𝑟2 )
i.e. 𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑒 − 𝐴
➢Thus, the angle of deviation depends on the angle of incidence.
❖A plot between the angle of deviation and angle of

incidence is shown.

❖You can see that, in general, any given value of 𝛿, except

for 𝑖 = 𝑒, corresponds to two values 𝑖 and hence of 𝑒.

❖This, in fact, is expected from the symmetry of 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 in

𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑒 − 𝐴, 𝛿 remains the same if 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 are

interchanged.
➢At the minimum deviation 𝐷𝑚 , the refracted ray inside the prism becomes parallel to its base.
➢We have 𝛿 = 𝐷𝑚 , 𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 .
𝐴
➢Equation, 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝐴, becomes→2𝑟 = 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 =
2
➢Equation, 𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑒 − 𝐴, gives
𝐷𝑚 = 2𝑖 − 𝐴
or 𝑖 = (𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚 )Τ2
➢The refractive index of the prism is
𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛[ 𝐴+𝐷𝑚 Τ2]
𝑛21 = =
𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛[𝐴Τ2]

➢The angles A and 𝐷𝑚 can be measured experimentally. This equation thus provides a method of
determining refractive index of the material of the prism.
➢For small angle prism, i.e. a thin prism,𝐷𝑚 is also very small and we get,
Sin[(𝐴+𝐷𝑚 )Τ2] (𝐴+𝐷𝑚 )Τ2
𝑛21 = ≈
𝑆𝑖𝑛[𝐴Τ2] 𝐴Τ2
➢𝐷𝑚 = 𝑛21 − 1 𝐴 → This implies that, thin prisms do not deviate light much.
DISPERSION
➢When a narrow beam of sunlight, usually white light, is incident on a glass prism, the
emergent light is seen to be consisting of several colours.

➢There is a continuous variation of colour, but broadly, the

different component colours that appear in sequence are:

Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red.(VIBGYOR)

➢The red light bends the least, while the violet bends the most.

➢The phenomenon of splitting of light into its component colours is known as Dispersion.

➢The pattern of colour components of light is called the Spectrum of light.

Q} Does the prism itself create colour in some way or does it only separate the colours
already present in the white light?
❖In a classic experiment known for its simplicity, Issac Newton settled the issue once for
all.
❖He put another similar prism, but in an inverted position.
❖Let the emergent beam from the first prism fall on the
second prism.
❖The resulting emergent beam was found to be white
light.
➢The first prism splits the white light into its component
colours.
➢While the inverted prism recombines them to give white light.
➢Thus, white light itself consists of light of different colours, which are separated by the
prism.
❑In the visible spectrum, red light is at the long
wavelength end(≈700nm) while the violet light
is at short wavelength end(≈400nm).

❑Dispersion takes place because the refractive

index of medium for different wavelengths
(colours) is different.

❑The bending of red component of white light is least while it is most for violet.

❑Red light travels faster than violet light in a glass prism.

 SOME NATURAL PHENOMENON DUE TO SUNLIGHT
1] THE RAINBOW

✓The rainbow is an example of the dispersion of sunlight by the water drops in the
atmosphere.

✓This is a phenomenon due to combined effect of dispersion, refraction and reflection of

sunlight by spherical water droplets of rain.

✓The conditions for observing a rainbow are that the sun should be shinning in one part of
the sky (say near the western horizon) while it is raining in the opposite art of the sky (say
eastern horizon).

✓An observer can therefore see a rainbow only when his back is towards the sun.
➢Sunlight is first refracted as it enters a raindrop, which
cause the different wavelengths (colours) of white light
to separate.

➢Longer wavelength of light (red) are bent the least

while the shorter wavelength (violet) are bent the most.

➢Next, these component rays strike the inner surface of

the water drop and get internally reflected, if the angle between the
refracted ray and normal to the drop surface is greater then the critical angle (48⁰).

➢The reflected light is refracted again as it comes out of the drop.

Primary rainbow
❖We see that the red light from drop 1 and violet light from drop 2 reach the observers eye.

❖The violet from drop 1 and red light from drop 2

are directed at level above or below the observer.

❖Thus the observer sees a rainbow with red colour

on the top and violet on the bottom.

❖Thus the primary rainbow is a result of three-step process, that is, refraction, reflection
and refraction.
Secondary rainbow
✓When light undergoes two internal reflections inside a raindrop, instead of one as in the
primary rainbow, a secondary rainbow is formed.

✓It is due to a four step process.

✓The intensity of light is reduced at the second

reflection and hence the secondary rainbow
is fainter than the primary rainbow.

✓Further, the order of the colours is reversed.

Scattering Of Light
➢The phenomenon of scattering helps to explain the blue colour of sky, the reddish colour
of the sun at sunrise and sunset.

➢Generally, when light falls on particles of large size (dust or water droplets) it does not get
scattered.

➢However, when light travels through the atmosphere it gets scattered from the air
molecules.

➢Thus scattering of light takes place, when the size of the scattering objects is very small as
compared to the wavelength of the light.
a) The blue color of the sky:
• As sunlight travels through the earths atmosphere, it gets scattered (changes direction) by
the atmospheric particles.

• Light of shorter wavelength(blue) is scattered much more than light of longer

wavelengths(red).

• Hence, bluish color predominates in a clear sky as it scatters much more strongly than red.

b) Clouds are generally white:

• The larger particles like dust present in the atmosphere do not scatter light.

• Dust particles and water droplets scatter light of all colors almost equally and hence the
clouds are white in color.
c) Reddish color of the sun at sunrise and sunset:
• At sunrise and sunset, the suns rays have to pass through larger distances in the
atmosphere. (i.e. when the sun is near the horizon)

• Most of the blue and other short wavelengths are removed by scattering.

• The least scattered light reaches our eyes(red).

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
1. THE EYE
➢Light enters the eye through a curved front surface, the cornea.
➢It passes through the pupil, which is the central hole in the iris.
➢The light is then focused by the eye lens on the retina.
➢The retina is a thin film of nerve fibers covering the
curved back surface of the eye. It contains rods and
cones which sense light intensity and color,
respectively, and transmit electrical signals via the
optic nerve to the brain, which process the information.
➢The shape (curvature) and therefore the focal length
of the lens is modified by the ciliary muscles.
e.g.)
❖When muscle is relaxed→ focal length = 2.5cm and objects at infinity are in sharp focus
on the retina.
❖When the object is brought closer to the eye (in order to maintain the image-lens
distance), the focal length of the eye lens becomes shorter by the action of the ciliary
muscles.
❖This property of the eye is called Accommodation.

✓If the object is too closer to the eye→ the lens cannot curve enough to focus the image
on to the retina and the image is thus blurred.
✓The closest distance for which lens can focus light on the retina is called the least distance
of distinct vision, or the near point. (D=25cm)
✓Value of distinct vision increases with age→ because of the decreasing effectiveness of
the ciliary muscles and the loss of flexibility of the lens.
❑Near point→ 7 – 8 cm → in a child.

❑Near point→ 200 cm → in a 60 years old person.

➢Thus when an elderly person tries to read a book about 25 cm from the eye → the
image appears blurred.

➢This condition (defect of the eye) is called Presbyopia.

➢Its corrected using a converging lens for reading.

✓When light from a distant object arriving
at the eye lens may get converged at a
point in front of the retina.
✓This type of defect is called
Nearsightedness or Myopia.

➢This means the eye is producing too much

convergence.
➢So we interpose a concave lens between the
eye and the object, such that the diverging
effects focusses the image on the retina.
➢If the eye lens focusses the incoming light at a point behind the
retina, a convergent lens is needed to compensate for defect in vision.

➢This defect is called Farsightedness or Hypermetropia.

✓Another common defect of vision is called Astigmatism.

✓This occurs when the cornea is not spherical in shape.

✓Astigmatism results in lines in one direction being well focused while those in
perpendicular direction may appear distorted.

✓Astigmatism is corrected by using cylindrical lens of desired radius of

curvature.
2. THE MICROSCOPE
❖A simple magnifier or microscope is a converging lens of small focal length.
❖The lens is held near the object one focal length
away and the eye is positioned close to the lens
on the other side.
❖Image is → erect, magnified and virtual and can be
viewed comfortably at 25 cm.

➢If object is at a distance f → Image is at infinity.

(Image formed at infinity is most suitable for viewing by the relaxed eye.)

➢If object is at a distance less than f→ Image is virtual and closer than infinity.
(Image is found at the near point (D=25 cm), it causes some strain on the eye.)
A] Image formed at the near point D:
➢The linear magnification m, for the image formed at D, by a simple
microscope

𝑣 1 1 𝑣
𝑚= =𝑣 − = (1 − )
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓

➢Using sign convention, 𝑣 is negative

and is equal in magnitude to D.

𝐷
∴ 𝑚 = (1 + )
𝑓

➢Lesser the value of f, greater is the value of m.

B] When image is formed at infinity
Magnifying Power: The ratio of the angle formed by the image (situated at infinity) at the
eye to the angle formed by the object(situated at D) at the eye.

• When 0bject (AB) is placed at F of the lens,

its image is formed at infinity.
• A’B’ is drawn perpendicular to the principal
axis such that, A’B’=AB at a distance CA’=D.

• Then ∠𝐵′ 𝐶𝐴′ =∝

(angle formed by the image situated at D)
∠𝐵𝐶𝐴 = 𝛽
(angle formed by the image situated at infinity)
From right angled ∆B’A’C
𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐴𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∝= =
𝐶𝐴′ 𝐶𝐴′
From right angled ∆BAC
𝐴𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 =
𝐶𝐹
Substituting we get,
𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐴′ 𝐶𝐴′
𝑀= × =
𝐶𝐹 𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐹
Applying Cartesian sign conversion → CA’= D, CF = f
𝐷
𝑀=
𝑓
This is the magnifying power of a Simple Microscope (Image at infinity).
𝐷
And is one less than the magnification,𝑚 = (1 + ) at near point.
𝑓
3] COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
➢A simple microscope has a limited maximum magnification for realistic focal lengths.
➢For much larger magnifications , one uses two lenses, one compounding the effect of the
other.
➢This is known as compound microscope.
➢The lens nearest the object is called the objective.
➢It forms a real, inverted, magnified image of the object.
➢This serves as the object for the second lens,
the eyepiece, which functions like a simple microscope.
➢It produces the final image, which is enlarged and
virtual.
➢We now obtain the magnification due to a compound microscope.
➢The linear magnification due to the objective is
ℎ′ 𝐿
𝑚= =
ℎ 𝑓𝑜
Where we have used the result
ℎ ℎ′
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = =
𝑓𝑜 𝐿
➢Where h’ is the size of the first image, the object size
being h and 𝑓𝑜 being the focal length of the objective.
➢The first image is formed near the focal point of the
eyepiece.
➢The distance L, is between the second focal point of the objective and the first focal
point of the eyepiece.
➢It is called the tube length of the compound microscope.
➢As the first inverted image is near the focal point of the eyepiece, the angular
magnification 𝑚𝑒 due to it (eyepiece),
𝐷
➢When the final image is formed at the near point→𝑚𝑒 = (1 + )
𝑓𝑒
𝐷
➢When the final image is formed at infinity→𝑚𝑒 =
𝑓𝑒

➢Thus the total magnification, when the image is formed at infinity is

𝐿 𝐷
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑚𝑒 =
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
➢To achieve a large magnification of a small object,
the objective and eyepiece should have small focal
length.
4] TELESCOPE
✓The telescope is used to provide angular magnification of distant objects.
✓It has an objective and an eyepiece.
✓Here the objective has larger focal length and a much larger aperture.
✓Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real image is formed in the tube at
its second focal point.
✓The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image.
✓The magnifying power m is the ratio of the angle 𝛽 subtended at the eye by the final
image to the angle 𝛼 which the object subtends at the lens.
✓Hence
𝛽 ℎ 𝑓𝑜
𝑚≈ ≈ ×
𝛼 𝑓𝑒 ℎ
✓The length of the telescope tube is 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒 .