22UPHYS48: ELECTRONICS TECHNOLOGY

UNIT – I: Testing of discrete components

PASSIVE DEVICE
A passive device that does not require a source of energy for its operation, that is passive devices do not
provide gain or amplification. Passive components cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an electrical signal.
Examples: electrical resistors, electrical capacitors, diodes, optical fibers, cables, wires, glass lenses,
and filters.
RESISTORS
The resistor is an electronic component that restricts or limits the flow of current and divides the voltage
in an electronic circuit. It is one of the most important passive components of an electronics industry because,
without these components, active devices cannot process the electrical signals. Its main purpose is to provide a
precise quantity of electrical resistance.
Resistors mainly added to those circuits where they complement the active components like integrated
circuits, op-amp, microcontrollers etc. To form resistor networks it can be connected in various parallel and
series combination.
Resistor Symbol

It is a two terminal device have one connection on each of its sides. Two common resistor symbols are
shown in given figure; one is in American style (zig-zag line) and other is international style. Resistor values
displayed in ohms is critical for both evaluating and actually constructing the circuit. Each resistor in a circuit
should have unique name/number.
Resistor working:
As per ohm’s law, the behaviour of an ideal resistor is explained by the given equation:
V= I * R
This law states that the ratio of the voltage and the current is equal to the constant i.e. resistance known
as the constant of proportionality. For example, if a 200-ohm resistance is attached across the terminals of the
10V battery, then a current of 10/ 200 = 0.05 Ampere flows through that resistor. In alternating current circuits,

1
practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance. These are generally made up of metal wire or
carbon and engineered to maintain a stable resistance value over a wide range of environmental conditions. In a
working circuit, they do not produce light but they do produce heat as the electric power dissipated by them.
Resistor Types:
The two main characteristics of each resistor are resistance in ohms & power rating in watts. To obtain a
desired current or voltage drop in the circuit, the value of Resistance is perfectly selected. The power rating may
be as lower 1/10 Watt to as high as several hundred watts. From the operating point of view, resistors can be
classified as
(i) Fixed resistors and
(ii) Variable resistors.
(iii) Special Resistors
Fixed resistors
Fixed resistors are those resistors that have a fixed value of resistance. These are two types:
(a) Carbon composition:
It is the most common resistor used in electronic circuits with a low power rating of 2W or less and is
made of the mixture of carbon or graphite & clay. For insulation and mechanical strength, the resistor element is
enclosed in a plastic case. This type of resistors is readily available in values ranging from 1 Ω to 22MΩ, having
a tolerance range of 5 to 20% and power rating of 1/4, 1/2, 1 or 2W. When the wattage of the resistor increases,
the relative size of resistors also got increased.
(b) Wire wound:
It is an electrical passive component that limits the current. For its construction, a resistance wire made
of tungsten, nichrome or manganin etc are wrapped around a hollow porcelain cylindrical core. This whole
assembly is coated with enamel containing powdered glass. To provide mechanical protection to the device,
hard and smooth coating is done. The power ratings of this resistor are ranging from 2W to 500W and have
values ranging from 1 Ω to 100 KΩ.
(ii) Variable Resistor:
Variable resistors, the value of electrical resistance can be adjusted as per your requirement. To adjust
the values of current and voltages these resistors are the best one. These are two types:
(a) Carbon composition:
In this resistor, a thin carbon coating on pressed paper or a moulded carbon disc constitutes the carbon
composition resistance element. These are readily available in values ranging from 1000 Ω to 5 MΩ,
approximately having a power rating of usually 1/2 to 2W. A carbon control is often combined with a power
on-off switch.

2
(b) Wire wound:
In this type of resistor, a resistance wire is wound over a dough shaped the core of bakelite or ceramic.
The two ends of the resistance wire are joined to the external soldering lug terminals.
Special Resistors
These are classified into two types:
(i) Thermistors
(ii) Light-Dependent Resistors
Light Dependent Resistor
A Light Dependent Resistor (or LDR) will vary in resistance depending on the intensity of light falling
on it. This is made of cadmium sulfide which contains a small number of electrons when it is not illuminated.
When a light ray falls on it, electrons get ejected and hence the conductivity of it increases. Hence, it offers low
resistance when light falls on it and offers high resistance in the dark.
Resistor Color Code:
The system of representing the resistor value is known as colour coding. This coding is standardized by
the Electronic Industries Association.
Resistor Color Code Calculation
To find out the color code of a resistor, here is a standard mnemonic: B B Roy of Great Britain has a Very
Good Wife (BBRGBVGW). This sequence color code helps to find the resistor value by seeing colors on
resistors.
(a) 4 Bands Resistor Color Code Calculation

 The first digit or band indicates, first significant figure of component.

 The second digit indicates, second significant figure of component.
 The third digit indicates the decimal multiplier.
 The fourth digit indicates tolerance of value in percentage.
To calculate the color code of the above 4 band resistor, the 4-band resistors consist of colors: red, red,
block, and gold. Red-2, block-1, gold ± 5% based on BBRGBVGW. The color code value of the above resistor
is 22 ×1 = 22 Ohms, 5%.

3
(b) 5 Bands Resistor Color Code Calculation

The first three colors indicate significant values, and the fourth and fifth colors indicate multiplying and
tolerance values. To calculate the color code of the above 5 band resistor, 5 band resistors consist of colors:
black, brown, black, red, and brown. black - 0, brown- 1, Black- 0, red- 2, brown- ±1%. The color code value
of the above resistor is 10 × 100 = 1 Kilo Ohms, 1%
6 Bands Resistor Color Code Calculation

The first three colors indicate significant values; the Fourth color indicates multiplying factor, the fifth
color indicates tolerance and the sixth indicates TCR.
To calculate the color code of the above 6 color-band resistor, 6 band resistors consist of colors: black,
brown, red, brown, blue, and brown. Black-0, brown-1, red-2, brown-1, blue-4. The color code value of the
above resistor is 12 ×10 = 120 Ohms ± 0.25%
CAPACITORS
A capacitor stores electric charge. Basically a capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by an
insulating material called “dielectric”. When connected to a power source such as battery, the capacitor charges
up until the potential difference between its terminals become equal to the e.m.f of the battery.
The capacitance of the capacitor is its ability to store charge and is measured in terms of Farads. The
capacitance depends on the area of the plates and the distance between them and also the type of dielectric used.

4
 Capacitance = Q / V
Where Q is the charge and V is the voltage.
The important parameters of the capacitor are
1) Value
Value is marked on the capacitor directly or in colour codes
2) Tolerance
It indicates how much more or less the actual capacitance of the capacitor
3) Working voltage
It is the maximum voltage a capacitor can withstand before the dielectric breakdown
4) Leakage current
There is always small leakage current in all capacitors. Ideally this should be zero. But no capacitor is
perfect without leakage current. Tantalum capacitor is comparatively better with minimum leakage current.
Types of Capacitor
Polar & non-polar
One of the main distinctions between various types of capacitor is whether they are polarised.
Essentially a polarised capacitor is one that must be run with the voltage across it in a certain polarity.
Some of the more popular types of polarised capacitor include the aluminium electrolytic and tantalums.
These are marked to indicate the positive or negative terminal and they should only be operated with a voltage
bias in this direction - reverse bias can damage or destroy them. As capacitors perform many tasks like coupling
and decoupling, there will be a permanent DC voltage across them, and they will pass only any AC
components.

5
 The other form of capacitor is a non-polarised or non-polar capacitor. This type of capacitor has no
polarity requirement and it can be connected either way in a circuit. Ceramic, plastic film, silver mica and a
number of other capacitors are non-polar or non-polarised capacitors.
Leaded and surface mount capacitors
Capacitors are available as leaded varieties and surface mount capacitors. Virtually all types of capacitor
are available as leaded versions: electrolytic, ceramic, super capacitors, plastic film, silver mica, glass and other
specialist types.
SMD capacitors are a little more limited. The SMD capacitors must be able to withstand the
temperatures used in the soldering process. As the capacitor has no leads and also as a result of the soldering
processes used, SMD components including capacitors are exposed to the full temperature rise of the solder
itself. As a result, not all varieties are available as SMD capacitors.
The main surface mount capacitor types include: ceramic, tantalum, and electrolytic. All of these have
been developed to withstand the very high temperatures of soldering.
Variable & fixed capacitors
The greatest majority of capacitors by far are fixed capacitors, i.e. they do not have any adjustment.
However in some instances it may be necessary to have an adjustable or variable capacitor where the value of
the capacitor may need to be varied. Typically these capacitors are relatively low in value, sometimes having
maximum values up to 1000pF.
Variable capacitors may also be classified as variable and preset. The main variable ones may be
adjusted by a control knob and may be used for tuning a radio, etc. Preset variable capacitors normally have a
screw adjustment and are intended to be adjusted during setup, calibration and test, etc. They are not intended to
be adjusted in normal use.
Fixed capacitor types
There are very many different fixed value capacitor types that can be bought and used in electronics
circuits. These capacitors are generally categorised by the dielectric that is used within the capacitor as this
governs the major properties: electrolytic, ceramic, silver mica, metallised plastic film and a number of others.

6
Colour coding
Like resistors, some capacitors are colour coded to indicate value, tolerance, working voltage etc. These
colour bands are numbered from the top of the capacitor to the base. The colour coding is similar to
Resistor colour coding
Capacitor color code

First band – First number of colour code chart

Second band – Second number of colour code chart
Third band – Number of Zeros
Fourth band – Tolerance (Black 20%, White 10 % and Green 5 %)
Fifth band – Appears as body colour. Working voltage (Red 250V, Yellow 400 V)
Colour code of Resistor

7
 Unit-II
Chokes
A choke is an inductor used to block higher-frequency while passing direct current (DC) and lower-
frequencies of alternating current (AC) in an electrical circuit.
Construction
A choke usually consists of a coil of insulated wire often wound on a magnetic core, although some
consist of a doughnut-shaped "bead" of ferrite material strung on a wire.
Types of chokes
Chokes are divided into three broad classes:
i. Audio frequency chokes (AFC) – designed to block audio and power line frequencies while
allowing DC to pass
ii. Radio frequency chokes (RFC) – designed to block radio frequencies while allowing audio and
DC to pass.
iii. Common-mode choke
Audio frequency choke
Audio frequency chokes (AFC) usually have ferromagnetic cores to increase their inductance. They are
often constructed similarly to transformers, with laminated iron cores and an air gap. The iron core increases the
inductance for a given volume of the core. Chokes were frequently used in the design of rectifier power supplies
for vacuum tube equipment such as radio receivers or amplifiers. They are commonly found in direct-current
motor controllers to produce direct current (DC), where they were used in conjunction with large electrolytic
capacitors to remove the voltage ripple (AC) at the output DC.
A rectifier circuit designed for a choke-output filter may produce too much DC output voltage and
subject the rectifier and filter capacitors to excessive in-rush and ripple currents if the inductor is removed.
However, modern electrolytic capacitors with high ripple current ratings, and voltage regulators that remove
more power supply ripple than chokes could, have eliminated heavy, bulky chokes from mains frequency power
supplies. Smaller chokes are used in switching power supplies to remove the higher-frequency switching
transients from the output and sometimes from feeding back into the mains input.
Radio frequency choke
Radio frequency chokes (RFC) often have iron powder or ferrite core which increases inductance and
overall operation. They are often wound in complex patterns (basket winding) to reduce self-capacitance and
proximity effect losses. Chokes for even higher frequencies have non-magnetic cores and low inductance.
A modern form of choke used for eliminating digital RF noise from lines is the ferrite bead, a cylindrical
or torus-shaped core of ferrite slipped over a wire. These are often seen on computer cables. A typical RF choke
value could be 2 millihenries.

8
Common-mode choke
The common-mode (CM) choke, where two coils are wound on a single core, is useful for suppression
of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI) from power supply lines and for
prevention of malfunctioning of power electronics device. It passes differential currents (equal but opposite),
while blocking common-mode currents. The magnetic flux produced by differential-mode (DM) currents in the
core tend to cancel each other out since the windings are negative coupled. Thus, the choke presents little
inductance or impedance to DM currents. Normally this also means that the core will not saturate for large DM
currents and the maximum current rating is instead determined by the heating effect of the winding resistance.
The CM currents, however, see high impedance because of the combined inductance of the positive coupled
windings.

CM chokes are commonly used in industrial, electrical and telecommunications applications to remove or
decrease noise and related electromagnetic interference.

9
Transformer
A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The transmission current is
AC. It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply voltage without a change in the frequency of AC
between circuits. The transformer works on basic principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.
Transformer Types
Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution sector, transmission and
electric energy consumption. There are various types of transformers which are classified based on the
following factors;
 Working voltage range.
 The medium used in the core.
 Winding arrangement.
 Installation location.

Based on Voltage Levels

Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the power grid. The secondary output
voltage is higher than the input voltage.
Step down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high voltage primary supply to low voltage
secondary output.
Based on the Medium of Core Used
Air core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and secondary winding is through the air. The coil or
windings wound on the non-magnetic strip.
Iron core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron plates stacked together, which provides a
perfect linkage path to generate flux.

10
Based on the Winding Arrangement
Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a laminated core. The primary and secondary
coils are sharing the same coil.
Based on Install Location
Power Transformer: It is used at power generation stations as they are suitable for high voltage application
Distribution Transformer: Mostly used at distribution lanes in domestic purposes. They are designed for
carrying low voltages. It is very easy to install and characterized by low magnetic losses.
Measurement Transformers: These are further classified. They are mainly used for measuring voltage,
current, power.
Protection Transformers: They are used for component protection purposes. In circuits some components
must be protected from voltage fluctuation etc. protection transformers ensure component protection.
Working Principle of a Transformer
The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and mutual
induction.
There are usually two coils, primary coil and secondary coil on the transformer core. The core
laminations are joined in the form of strips. The two coils have high mutual inductance. When an alternating
current pass through the primary coil, forms a varying magnetic flux as per faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction and this change in magnetic flux induces an emf (electromotive force) in the secondary coil which is
linked to the core having a primary coil. This is mutual induction.
A transformer carries the below operations:
 Transfer of electrical energy from circuit to another
 Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
 Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
 Two circuits are linked with mutual induction
Parts of Transformer

11
 The major parts of a single-phase transformer consist of;
1. Core
The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low reluctance path to the
flow of magnetic flux. The winding is wound on the core as shown in the picture. It is made up of a laminated
soft iron core in order to reduce the losses in a transformer. The factors such as operating voltage, current,
power etc decide core composition. The core diameter is directly proportional to copper losses and inversely
proportional to iron losses.
2. Windings
Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper wires are used due to:
 High conductivity of copper, this minimizes the loss in a transformer. Since conductivity
increases, resistance to current flow decreases.
 High ductility of copper, Ductility is the property of metals that they can be made into very thin
wires.
There are mainly two types of windings, Primary windings and secondary windings.
 Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which supply current is feed.
 Secondary winding: the set of turns of winding from which output is taken.
The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using insulation coating agents.
3. Insulation Agents
Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from shorting the circuit and thus
facilitating the mutual induction. Insulation agents have influence in durability and the stability of a
transformer.
Following are used as an insulation medium in a transformer:
 Insulating oil
 Insulating tape
 Insulating paper
 Wood-based lamination
Applications of Transformer
 The transformer transmits electrical energy through wires over long distances.
 Transformers with multiple secondary’s are used in radio and TV receivers which require several
different voltages.
 Transformers are used as voltage regulators.
Test a Diode using a Digital Multimeter
The diode testing using a digital multimeter (DMM) can be carried in two ways because there are two
modes available in DMM to check the diode. These modes are diode mode and ohmmeter mode.

12
Diode Mode Testing Procedure

 Identify the terminals anode and cathode of the diode.

 Keep the digital multimeter (DMM) in diode checking mode by rotating the central knob to the place
where the diode symbol is indicated. In this mode multimeter is capable to supply a current of 2mA
approximately between the test leads.
 Connect the red probe to the anode and black probe to the cathode. This means diode is forward-biased.
 Observe the reading on meter display. If the displayed voltage value is in between 0.6 to 0.7 (since it is
silicon diode) then the diode is healthy and perfect. For germanium diodes this value is in between 0.25
to 0.3.
 Now reverse the terminals of the meter that means connect the red probe to cathode and black to anode.
This is the reverse biased condition of the diode where no current flows through it. Hence the meter
should read OL (which is equivalent to open circuit) if the diode is healthy.
If the meter shows irrelevant values to the above two conditions, then the diode is defective. The diode
defect can be either open or short. Open diode means diode behaves as an open switch in both reverse and
forward-biased conditions. So, no current flows through the diode. Therefore, the meter will indicate OL in both
reverse and forward-biased conditions.
Shorted diode means diode behaves as a closed switch so the current flows through it and the voltage
drop across the diode will be zero. Therefore, the multimeter will indicate zero voltage value, but in some cases
it will display a very little voltage as the voltage drop across the diode.
Ohmmeter Mode Testing Procedure
Ohmmeter Mode Testing is also a simple method to check the diode whether it is good, short or open.
 Identify the terminals anode and cathode of the diode.
 Keep the digital multimeter (DMM) in resistance or ohmmeter mode by rotating the central knob or
selector to the place where ohm symbol or resistor values are indicated. Keep the selector in low

13
 resistance (may be 1K ohm) mode for forward-bias and keep it in high resistance mode (100K ohm) for
the reverse bias testing procedure.
 Connect the red probe to the anode and black probe to the cathode. This means diode is forward-biased.
When the diode is forward-biased, the resistance of the diode is so small.
If the meter displays a moderately low value on the meter display, which may be a few tens to few
hundred ohms, then the diode is good and healthy.

 Now reverse the terminals of the multimeter such that anode is connected to black probe and cathode to
red probe. So the diode is reverse biased.
 If the meter shows a very high resistance value or OL on meter display, then the diode is good and
functions properly. Since, in reverse biased condition diode offers a very high resistance.
From the above it is clear that for proper working of the diode, DMM should read a very low resistance
in the forward-biased condition and a very high resistance or OL in reverse-biased condition.

14
 If the meter indicates a very high resistance or OL in both forward and reverse-biased conditions, then
the diode is said to be opened. In other hand, if the meter reads a very low resistance in both directions, then the
diode is said to be shorted.
Test a transistor with a multimeter
The test relies on the fact that a bipolar transistor can be considered to comprise of two back to back
diodes, and by performing the diode test between the base and collector and the base and emitter of the
transistor using an analogue multimeter, most of the basic integrity of the transistor can be ascertained.

 Set the meter to its ohms range - any range should do, but the middle ohms range if several are available
is probably best.
 Connect the base terminal of the transistor to the terminal marked positive (usually coloured red) on the
multimeter
 Connect the terminal marked negative or common (usually coloured black) to the collector and measure
the resistance. It should read open circuit (there should be a deflection for a PNP transistor).
 With the terminal marked positive still connected to the base, repeat the measurement with the positive
terminal connected to the emitter. The reading should again read open circuit (the multimeter should
deflect for a PNP transistor).
 Now reverse the connection to the base of the transistor, this time connecting the negative or common
(black) terminal of the analogue test meter to the base of the transistor.

15
  Connect the terminal marked positive, first to the collector and measure the resistance. Then take it to
the emitter. In both cases the meter should deflect (indicate open circuit for a PNP transistor).
 It is next necessary to connect the meter negative or common to the collector and meter positive to the
emitter. Check that the meter reads open circuit. (The meter should read open circuit for both NPN and
PNP types.
 Now reverse the connections so that the meter negative or common is connected to the emitter and meter
positive to the collector. Check again that the meter reads open circuit.
 If the transistor passes all the tests then it is basically functional and all the junctions are intact.
IC Testing
The IC is nothing but a small chip containing the very large and complicated circuit. The different
circuit components are generated in a semiconductor material with the help of CMOS Technology. An IC
(Integrated Circuit) cannot be repaired and neither it had to be since they come in very cheap cost in comparison
to the circuitry they contain.
There are four ways to Test an IC and if the IC is fine and in proper working condition then it has to
pass all the four conditions.
Shorting Condition
The purpose of this method is to test if there is a short circuit inside the IC
 Set your multimeter to the continuity mode.
 Connect all of the pins altogether from one of the side in IC to the multimeter cable.
 Take the terminal-cable from multimeter and connect it one by one to each of the pins of another side
separately.
 If the beep sound occurs of there is a continuity in more than 50% of the combinations then there is a
good chance of the IC to be shorted from inside.
Leakage Condition
In this Method you have to test an IC that weather the package is damaged or is blown. Take the
observation of the IC from each of the sides possible, if you see even a little crack, burned mark or its broken
from either side then the IC is surely to be Damaged or Leaked.
Heating Condition
In the method we test if an IC is getting overheated unnecessarily.
 Give the voltage supply to the IC as per its operating condition or if it’s on board then turn its
supply on.
 Touch the IC with your finger just by starting the voltage supply to it.
 Notice if the IC is getting heat up as it naturally gets or if you are not able to touch it after few
10-12 seconds.
 If the IC is getting heat up extremely faster than the IC is surely to be damaged.

16
Input and Output Supply Condition
In this we have to test an IC if the output voltage from signal pins of the IC is as per defined voltage or
they differ from the specifications.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a type of electrical instrument which is used for showing the
measurement and analysis of waveforms and others electronic and electrical phenomenon. It is a very fast X-Y
plotter shows the input signal versus another signal or versus time. The CROs are used to analyses the
waveforms, transient, phenomena, and other time-varying quantities from a very low-frequency range to the
radio frequencies
Construction of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
The main parts of the cathode ray oscilloscope are as follows.
 Cathode Ray Tube
 Electronic Gun Assembly
 Deflecting Plate
 Fluorescent Screen For CRT
 Glass Envelop
Cathode Ray Tube
The cathode ray tube is the vacuum tube which converts the electrical signal into the visual signal. The
cathode ray tube mainly consists the electron gun and the electrostatic deflection plates (vertical and
horizontal).The electron gun produces a focused beam of the electron which is accelerated to high frequency.
The vertical deflection plate moves the beams up and down and the horizontal beam moved the electrons
beams left to right. These movements are independent to each other and hence the beam may be positioned
anywhere on the screen.
Electronic Gun Assembly
The electron gun emits the electrons and forms them into a beam. The electron gun mainly consists a
heater, cathode, a grid, a pre-accelerating anode, a focusing anode and an accelerating anode. For gaining the
high emission of electrons at the moderate temperature, the layers of barium and strontium is deposited on the
end of the cathode.
After the emission of an electron from the cathode grid, it passes through the control grid. The control
grid is usually a nickel cylinder with a centrally located co-axial with the CRT axis. It controls the intensity of
the emitted electron from the cathode.
The electron while passing through the control grid is accelerated by a high positive potential which is
applied to the pre-accelerating or accelerating nodes.
The electron beam is focused on focusing electrodes and then passes through the vertical and horizontal
deflection plates and then goes on to the fluorescent lamp. The pre-accelerating and accelerating anode are

17
connected to 1500v, and the focusing electrode is connected to 500 v. There are two methods of focusing on the
electron beam. These methods are
 Electrostatic focusing
 Electromagnetic focusing.
The CRO uses an electrostatic focusing tube.
Deflecting Plate
The electron beam after leaving the electron gun passes through the two pairs of the deflecting plate.
The pair of plate producing the vertical deflection is called a vertical deflecting plate or Y plates, and the pair of
the plate which is used for horizontal deflection is called horizontal deflection plate or X plates.
Fluorescent Screen for CRT
The front of the CRT is called the face plate. It is flat for screen sized up to about 100mm×100mm. The
screen of the CRT is slightly curved for larger displays. The face plate is formed by pressing the molten glass
into a mould and then annealing it.
The inside surface of the faceplate is coated with phosphor crystal. The phosphor converts electrical
energy into light energy. When an electronics beam strike phosphor crystal, it raises their energy level and
hence light is emitted during phosphorous crystallisation. This phenomenon is called fluorescence.
Glass Envelope
It is a highly evacuated conical shape structure. The inner surface of the CRT between the neck and the
screen is coated with the aquatic. The aquatic is a conducting material and act as a high-voltage electrode. The
coating surfaces are electrically connected to the accelerating anode and hence help the electron to be the focus.
Working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), consists a set of blocks. Those are vertical amplifier, delay line,
trigger circuit, time base generator, horizontal amplifier, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) & power supply.
Vertical Amplifier: It amplifies the input signal, which is to be displayed on the screen of CRT.
Delay Line: It provides some amount of delay to the signal, which is obtained at the output of vertical
amplifier. This delayed signal is then applied to vertical deflection plates of CRT.
Trigger Circuit: It produces a triggering signal in order to synchronize both horizontal and vertical deflections
of electron beam.
Time base Generator: It produces a saw tooth signal, which is useful for horizontal deflection of electron
beam.
Horizontal Amplifier: It amplifies the saw tooth signal and then connects it to the horizontal deflection plates
of CRT.
Power supply: It produces both high and low voltages. The negative high voltage and positive low voltage are
applied to CRT and other circuits respectively.

18
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): It is the major important block of CRO and mainly consists of four parts. Those are
electron gun, vertical deflection plates, horizontal deflection plates and fluorescent screen.
The electron beam, which is produced by an electron gun gets deflected in both vertical and horizontal
directions by a pair of vertical deflection plates and a pair of horizontal deflection plates respectively. Finally,
the deflected beam will appear as a spot on the fluorescent screen.
Measurements by using CRO
We can do the following measurements by using CRO.
1. Measurement of Amplitude
2. Measurement of Time Period
3. Measurement of Frequency
Measurement of Amplitude
CRO displays the voltage signal as a function of time on its screen. The amplitude of that voltage
signal is constant, but we can vary the number of divisions that cover the voltage signal in vertical direction by
varying volt/division knob on the CRO panel. Therefore, we will get the amplitude of the signal, which is
present on the screen of CRO by using following formula.
A = j× nv

Where,
A is the amplitude
j is the value of volt/division
nv is the number of divisions that cover the signal in vertical direction.

19
Measurement of Time Period
CRO displays the voltage signal as a function of time on its screen. The Time period of that periodic
voltage signal is constant, but we can vary the number of divisions that cover one complete cycle of voltage
signal in horizontal direction by varying time/division knob on the CRO panel.
Therefore, we will get the Time period of the signal, which is present on the screen of CRO by using
following formula.
T=k×nh
Where,
T is the Time period
j is the value of time/division
nh is the number of divisions that cover one complete cycle of the periodic signal in horizontal
direction.
Measurement of Frequency
The frequency, f of a periodic signal is the reciprocal of time period T, mathematically, it can be
represented as
F=1/T
So, we can find the frequency, f of a periodic signal by following these two steps.
 Step1 − Find the Time period of periodic signal
 Step2 − Take reciprocal of Time period of periodic signal, which is obtained in Step1
Frequency Measurement by Lissajous Method:
The oscilloscope is a sensitive indicator for frequency and phase measurements. This Frequency
Measurement by Lissajous Method techniques used are simple and dependable, and measurement may be made
at any frequency in the response range of the oscilloscope.
One of the quickest methods of determining frequency is by using Lissajous patterns produced on a
screen. This particular pattern results when sine waves are applied simultaneously to both pairs of the deflection
plates. If one frequency is an integral multiple (harmonic) of the other, the pattern will be stationary, and is
called a Lissajous figure.
In this Frequency Measurement by Lissajous Method a standard frequency is applied to one set of
deflection plates of the CRT tube while the unknown frequency (of approximately the same amplitude) is
simultaneously applied to the other set of plates. However, the unknown frequency is presented to the vertical
plates and the known frequency (standard) to the horizontal plates. The resulting patterns depend on the integral
and phase relationship between the two frequencies.

20
Measurement Procedure
Set up the oscilloscope and switch off the internal sweep (change to Ext),switch off sync control.
Connect the signal source as given in circuit diagram.

Basic circuit for Frequency measurements with Lissajous Figure

Set the horizontal and vertical gain control for the desired width and height of the pattern. Keep
frequency fv constant and vary frequency fh, noting that the pattern spins in alternate directions and changes
shape. The pattern stands still whenever f v and fh are in an integral ratio (either even or odd). The f v = fh pattern
stands still and is a single circle or ellipse. When fv = 2 fh, a two-loop horizontal pattern.

Lissajous Patterns for Integral Frequencies

To determine the frequency from any Lissajous figure, count the number of horizontal loops in the
pattern, divide it by the number of vertical loops and multiply this quantity by fh (known or standard frequency).

21
 In Figure (g), there is one horizontal loop and 3 vertical loops, giving a fraction of 1/3. The unknown
frequency fv is therefore 1/3 fh. An accurately calibrated, variable frequency oscillator will supply the horizontal
search frequency for Frequency Measurement. For the case where the two frequencies are equal and in phase,
the pattern appears as a straight line at an angle of 45° with the horizontal. As the phase between the two
alternating signals changes, the pattern changes cyclically, i.e. an ellipse (at 45° with the horizontal) when the
phase difference is π/4, a circle when the phase difference is π/2 and an ellipse (at 135° with horizontal) when
the phase difference is 3π/4, and a straight line pattern (at 135° with the horizontal) when the phase difference is
π radians.
As the phase angle between the two signals changes from π to 2π radians, the pattern changes
correspondingly through the ellipse-circle-ellipse cycle to a straight line. Hence the two frequencies, as well as
the phase displacement can be compared using Lissajous figures techniques.
When the two frequencies being compared are not equal, but are fractionally related, a more complex
stationary pattern results, whose form is dependent on the frequency ratio and the relative phase between the
two signals.

Lissajous patterns for Non-Integral Frequencies

The fractional relationship between the two frequencies is determined by counting the number of cycles
in the vertical and horizontal.

22
Breadboard
Breadboards are a key, reusable piece of hobby equipment in electronics and provide quick circuit
construction. However, while breadboards are great, they should not always be used.
The breadboard is a circuit construction technique that is designed to allow the rapid creation of circuits
without the need for soldering or making permanent connections. Leaded components (i.e. through-hole parts),
are inserted into holes containing metal grips that gently clamp onto the lead and breadboards almost always
have common rows whereby the holes in a row are electrically connected together.
Some breadboards have power rails on either side of the main rows and breadboards are able to house
large parts, including DIP 40 ICs. Most breadboards will have clips on the front, back, and sides that allow them
to be connected to other breadboards to allow the construction of more complex circuits.
While most engineers use breadboards for more basic circuits some have taken breadboards to the
extreme and have built entire working computers complete with sound, a keyboard, and even graphical outputs.
Like most technology, the first available breadboards were very expensive. Thanks to the Chinese
market, breadboards are much more affordable. However, caution must be taken when purchasing such parts
because cheaper breadboards are often made with inferior materials and the clamps can be loose resulting in
faulty circuits.
Although breadboards are incredibly useful in certain situations, it is not uncommon to see hobbyists
and engineers alike using breadboards inappropriately.
Usage of Breadboard
The purpose of the breadboard is to make quick electrical connections between components- like
resistors, LEDs, capacitors, etc- so that you can test your circuit before permanently soldering it together.
Breadboards have many small sockets on them, and some groups of sockets are electrically connected to each
other.

23
 UNIT-III
p-n Junction Diode
Junction diode is formed by placing a p-type crystal in contact with n-type crystal and subjecting to
highpressure so that it becomes a single piece. The assembly so obtained is called p-n junction or junctiondiode
or crystal diode.

Forward and Reverse Biasing of a Junction Diode

Forward Bias
When a battery is connected to the diode with p-section connected to positive pole and n-section to the
negative pole, the junction diode is said to be forward biased.

If the forward bias is greater than the potential barrier, the majority carriers move towards the junction
and cross it. The current which flows due to majority carriers is called forward current. It increases with forward
bias.
Reverse Bias
When a battery is connected to junction diode with p-section connected to negative pole and n-section
connected to the positive pole, the junction is said to be reverse biased.

24
 When reverse bias is applied, the majority carriers do not cross the junction. However, a very little
amount of current flows due to the motion of minority carriers. This current is called reverse current. This
current increases with increasing temperature. Thus, we see that the junction diode offers a low resistance for
the current to flow in one direction (under forward bias) but a very high resistance in the opposite direction
(under reverse bias). It thus acts as a rectifier.
V-I Characteristics of a Junction Diode
Graphs drawn between bias voltage and circuit current of a junction diode are called characteristics of
the diode.
Forward Bias Characteristic
This is obtained by plotting a graph between forward bias voltage and circuit current.

The milliammeter (mA) measures the current. The voltmeter V measures the p.d. across the diode. The forward
voltage is gradually increased in steps and corresponding milliammeter readings are noted. A graph is then
plotted between voltage and current. Practically no current flows until the barrier voltage is overcome. Once the
external voltage exceeds the barrier potential the current increases rapidly approximately exponentially.
Reverse Bias Characteristic.

25
 The reverse voltage is gradually increased in steps and corresponding microammeter readings are noted.
A graph is then plotted between voltage and current. With reverse bias the reverse current remains very small
over a long range, increasing very slightly with increasing bias.
(a) Avalanche breakdown.
If the reverse bias is made very high, the covalent bonds near the junction break down and a large
number of electron-hole pairs are liberated. The reverse current then increases abruptly to a relatively large
value. This is known as “Avalanche breakdown”, and may damage the junction by excessive heat generated
unless the current is limited by external circuit. This phenomenon is used in making Zener diodes. The
maximum voltage that a junction diode can bear without breakdown is called Zener voltage or reverse
breakdown voltage.
(b) Dynamic resistance.
Both the forward bias and reverse bias characteristics of the p-n junction do not obey Ohm’s law.
Therefore, the resistance offered by junction diode depends upon the applied voltage. The dynamic resistance of
junction diode is defined as the ratio of small change in voltage to the small change in current produced. It is
also called a.c. resistance of the junction diode and is denoted by rd.
∆V
Thus, r d =
∆I
The region of the characteristic curve, where dynamic resistance is almost independent of the applied
voltage, is called the linear region of junction diode.
Zener Diode
The diode which operates in the reverse breakdown region with a sharp breakdown voltage is called a
Zener diode. It is an ordinary P-N junction diode except that it is properly doped to have a very sharp andalmost
vertical breakdown.

It is exclusively operated under reverse bias conditions. It is designed to operate in breakdown region
without damage. By adjusting the doping level, it is possible to produce Zener diodes with a breakdown voltage
ranging from 2V to 800 V.
Zener diode primarily depends for its working on Zener Effect. In a heavily doped diode, the depletion
region is very narrow. When the reverse bias voltage across the diode is increased, the electric field across the
depletion region becomes very strong. When this field is ≈ 3 × 10 7 V/m, electrons are pulled out of the covalent
bonds. A large number of electron-hole pairs are thereby produced. The reverse current rises steeply. This is
Zener effect.

26
 The external applied voltage accelerates the minority carriers in the depletion region. These carriers gain
sufficient energy to ionize atoms by collision. The electrons produced thereby accelerate to sufficiently large
velocities to be able to ionize other atoms. This creates a sort of chain reaction. The cumulative effect of this
chain reaction is the avalanche effect.
The Zener effect is more prominent at breakdown voltages less than 4 V. The avalanche effect is more
prominent above 6 V. Between 4 V and 6 V both effects are present. But, ordinarily, all diodes which are
operated in the breakdown region of their reverse characteristics are called Zener diodes.
VI Characteristics of the Zener Diode
(i) Forward Bias.
The diode is given a forward biasing. The voltage is varied in regular steps of 0.1 volts by adjusting the
rheostat.

The corresponding current is recorded using a milliammeter. The readings are tabulated. A graph is
plotted taking voltage along the x-axis and current along the y-axis. When forward biased, its characteristics are
just that of an ordinary semiconductor diode.
(ii) Reverse Bias.
The voltage is varied in regular steps of 1 volt by adjusting the rheostat. The corresponding current is
recorded using milliammeter and tabulated as shown. A graph of voltage against reverse current is drawn.

When reverse biased, a small reverse saturation current flow through it. This current remains
approximately constant until a certain critical voltage, called breakdown voltage, is reached. Beyond this
voltage, the reverse current IR increases sharply to a high value. This breakdown voltage Vz is called the Zener
voltage and the reverse current as Zener current. Vz remains constant even when Zener current Iz increases

27
considerably. This ability of a diode is called regulating ability which enables us to use Zener diode for voltage
regulation.

P-N Junction Diode as Rectifier

Rectification is the process in which ac is converted into dc. The device which is used for rectification is
called a rectifier. A junction diode allows a current to flow through it when it is forward biased. This property of
diode is used for rectification.
 A half-wave rectifier is one which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage using only one-
half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.
 A full wave rectifier is one which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage using full cycle
of the applied a.c. voltage.
Half-Wave Rectifier

From the circuit diagram, T is a transformer. The primary of the transformer is connected to the ac
mains. The diode D is connected across the secondary in series with a load resistance R L.
Working
The primary of the transformer is connected to the ac mains. An ac voltage will be induced across the
secondary. This voltage can be represented by
Vi = Vm sin ωt.
From the graph shows the variation of this input voltage with time. Vm is the peak value.
During the first half cycle of a.c., one end of the secondary, say A, becomes positive. Then the diode is
forward biased. Hence current flows through the load R L in the direction of arrows. The diode offers very little
resistance when forward biased. Hence the potential difference across it is very small. The voltage across the
load RL is therefore practically the same as that across the secondary of the transformer, i.e., Vi.
During the next half cycle, the end A becomes negative. The diode is now reverse biased. Therefore, no
current flows through the load RL. The voltage across the load is zero. This voltage in not a perfect dc. But it is
unidirectional.

28
Full-Wave Rectifier
In a full-wave rectifier both halves of the input-cycle are used. There are two types of full-wave
rectifiers:
(1) Centre tapped full-wave rectifier, and
(2) Bridge rectifier.
Centre tapped full-wave rectifier
A full wave rectifier circuit consists of two diodes D1 andD2 connected to the secondary of the step-
down transformer. The input ac. signal is fed to the primary of the transformer.

Working
During the positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, one end of the secondary, say A, becomes
positive and end B becomes negative. So, the diode D1 is forward biased, and diodeD2 is reverse biased. As a
result of this, the diodeD1 conducts current whereas the diode D 2 does not conduct. Current through the load
resistance flows from C to D producing output voltage VO. The current is shown by solid arrows.
During the negative half cycle of ac input, end A becomes negative and end B positive. So, the diode D 1
is reverse biased and the diode D 2 is forward biased. As a result, the diode D 1 does not conduct and D2 conducts
current. Again, current flows from C to D through the load resistance R L producing output voltage VO. The
current is shown by the dotted arrows.
Thus, during both the half cycles, current flows through the load in the same direction. The output
voltage is developed across the load R L during the entire cycle. It is a pulsating dc Voltage containing both ac
and dc components.

29
Bridge Rectifier

From the Circuit diagram, the diodes D 1, D2, D3 and D4 are arranged in the form of Wheatstone Bridge
network. The two opposite ends A and C of the network are connected to the ends S 1 and S2 of the secondary of
transformer T. The ends B and D are connected to the load resistance R L. The primary P of the transformer is
connected to the ac mains.
When an ac voltage is applied to the primary, at some instant the positive half of the input cycle passes
through the secondary, keeping the point A positive and C negative. Diodes D 1 and D3 conduct and a current
flow in the direction ABRL DC S2 S1 A.
At the same time D2 and D4 will not be conducting, since they are reverse biased. During the next half
cycle, the point A is negative and C is positive. Therefore, in this case diodes D 2 andD4 conduct and current
flows in the direction CBRL DAS1 S2 C. But now D1 and D3 will not be conducting. Therefore, during both the
halves of the input cycle, current flows through the load R L in the same direction. Thus, a dc output is developed
across RL and we have full wave rectification.
Junction Transistor
The junction transistors are of two types: p-n-p transistor and n-p-n transistor.

30
 Figure. (a) shows an n-p-n transistor and its symbol and (b) shows a p-n-p transistor and its symbol.

(i) Emitter
This forms the left-hand section or region of the transistor. The main function of this region is to supply
majority charge carriers (either electrons or holes) to the base. Hence it is more heavily doped in comparison to
other regions. Electrons are the charge-carriers within the n-p-n transistor, whereas holes are the charge-carriers
within a p-n-p transistor.
(ii) Base:
The middle section of the transistor is called base. This is very lightly doped and is very thin (10 – 6 m) as
compared to either emitter or collector so that it may pass most of the injected charge carriers to the collector.
(iii) Collector:
The right-hand side of the transistor is called collector. The main function of the collector is to collect
majority charge carriers through the base. This is moderately doped.
The junction between the emitter and base is called emitter junction. The junction between the collector
and the base is called collector junction. In normal operation of a transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward
biased while the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
Working of an n-p-n Transistor

31
 From the circuit diagram the emitter-base junction is forward biased by the battery V EB. The collector-
base junction is reverse biased by the battery V CB. The directions of the emitter, base and collector currents are
as shown in the figure. The direction of each current is opposite to the direction of motion of the electrons. The
electrons being majority carriers in the emitter are repelled due to forward bias towards the base.
The base contains holes as majority carriers and some holes and electrons combine in the base region.
Since the base is lightly doped, the probability of electron-hole combination in base region is very small (5%).
The remaining electrons cross into collector region, and enter into the positive terminal of the battery V CB
connected to the collector. At the same time an electron enters the emitter from the negative pole of the emitter-
base battery VEB.
Thus, in n-p-n transistors, the current is carried inside the transistor as well as in the external circuit by
the electrons. If IE, IB and IC are respectively the emitter current, the base current and the collector current, then
IE = IB + IC.
Voltage Multiplier
The Voltage Multiplier is a type of diode rectifier circuit which can produce an output voltage many
times greater than of the applied input voltage.

The above circuit shows a basic symmetrical voltage multiplier circuit made up from two half-wave
rectifier circuits. By adding a second diode and capacitor to the output of a standard half-wave rectifier, we can
increase its output voltage by a set amount. This type of voltage multiplier configuration is known as a Full
Wave Series Multiplier because one of the diodes is conducting in each half cycle, the same as for a full wave
rectifier circuit.
When the sinusoidal input voltage is positive, capacitor C 1 charges up through diode D1 and when the
sinusoidal voltage is negative, capacitor C 2 charges up through diode, D 2. The output voltage 2VIN is taken
across the two series connected capacitors.
The voltage produced by a voltage multiplier circuit is in theory unlimited, but due to their relatively
poor voltage regulation and low current capability there are generally designed to increase the voltage by a
factor less than ten. However, if designed correctly around a suitable transformer, voltage multiplier circuits are

32
capable of producing output voltages in the range of a few hundred to tens’s of thousands of volts, depending
upon their original input voltage value but all with low currents in the milliamperes range.
Application of Voltage Multiplier
 Cathode ray tubes.
 Cathode ray tubes in oscilloscope, Television receivers, Computer display.
 X-Ray systems
 Lasers
 Ion pumps
 Copy machines
 Electrostatic systems
 Photomultiplier tubes
 Travelling wave tubes (TWT)
 And several other devices which involves low current and high voltage applications.
The Voltage Doubler
As its name suggests, a Voltage Doubler is a voltage multiplier circuit which has a voltage
multiplication factor of two. The circuit consists of only two diodes, two capacitors and an oscillating AC input
voltage (a PWM waveform could also be used). This simple diode-capacitor pump circuit gives a DC output
voltage equal to the peak-to-peak value of the sinusoidal input. In other words, double the peak voltage value
because the diodes and the capacitors work together to effectively double the voltage.
Half Wave Voltage Doubler

33
 From the figure, all through the positive half cycle, the forward biased D 1 diode conducts and diode D2
will be in off condition. In this time, the capacitor (C 1) charges to VS max. All through the negative half cycle,
the forward biased D2 diode conducts and D1 diode will be in off condition. In this time C2 will start charging.
Throughout the next positive half cycle, D 2 is at reversed biased condition. In this time C 2 capacitor gets
discharged through the load and thus voltage across this capacitor gets dropped.
But when there is no load across this capacitor, then both the capacitors will be at charged condition.
That is C1 is charged to VS max and C2 is charged to 2VSmax. Throughout the negative half cycle the C 2 gets
charged yet again (2VSmax). In the next half cycle, a half wave which is filtered by means of capacitor filter is
obtained across the capacitor C 2. Here, ripple frequency is same as the signal frequency. The DC output voltage
of the order of 3kV can be obtained from this circuit.
Full Wave Voltage Doubler

34
 From the figure, all through the positive cycle of input voltage, the diode D 1 will be in forward biased
condition and capacitor C1 will gets charged to VS max. At this time, D2 will be in reverse biased condition. All
through the negative cycle of input voltage, the D 2 diode will be in forward biased condition and the capacitor
C2 gets charged. If the load is not connected across the output terminals, the total voltages of both the capacitors

are obtained as the output voltage. If some load is connected across the output terminals, then output voltage

We can see that, both the half-wave and full-wave voltage doubler will give 2V S MAX as output. It does
not require any centre-tapped transformer. The peak inverse voltage rating of diodes will be equal to 2V S MAX.
When compared to half wave voltage doubler, the full-wave voltage doubler can simply filter high frequency
ripples and output ripple frequency will be equal to twice the supply frequency. But the problem in full-wave
voltage doubler is that; in between the input and output, the common ground is absent.

35
 UNIT-IV
REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
Regulated power supply is an electronic circuit that is designed to provide a constant dc voltage of
predetermined value across load terminals irrespective of ac mains fluctuations or load variations.

A regulated power supply essentially consists of an ordinary power supply and a voltage regulating
device, as illustrated in the figure. The output from an ordinary power supply is fed to the voltage regulating
device that provides the final output. The output voltage remains constant irrespective of variations in the ac
input voltage or variations in output (or load) current.
Circuit Diagram

Circuit Operation
Transformer
A step-down transformer is used to step down the voltage from the input AC to the required voltage of
the electronic device. This output voltage of the transformer is customized by changing the turns ratio of the
transformer according the electronic device specs. The input of the transformer being 230 Volts AC mains, the
output is provided to a full bridge rectifier circuit.
Full Wave Rectifier Circuit
The FWR consists of 4 diodes which rectifies the output AC voltage or current from the transistor to its
equivalent DC quantity. As the name implies the FWR rectifies both halves of the AC input. The rectified DC
output is given as input to the filter circuit.

36
Filter Circuit
The filter circuit is used to convert the high rippled DC output of the FWR to ripple free DC content. A
∏ filter is used to make the waveforms ripple free.
Power Supply Characteristics
There are various factors that determine the quality of the power supply like the load voltage, load
current, voltage regulation, source regulation, output impedance, ripple rejection, and so on.
The Zener Diode Regulator
Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilized voltage output with low ripple under varying load
current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a suitable current
limiting resistor (RS), the Zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout.

Resistor, RS is connected in series with the Zener diode to limit the current flow through the diode with
the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination. The stabilized output voltage Vout is taken from
across the Zener diode.
The Zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail of the DC supply
so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown condition. Resistor R S is selected so to limit the
maximum current flowing in the circuit.
With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, (I L = 0), and all the circuit current
passes through the Zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum power. Also a small value of the series
resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load resistance R L is connected and large as this will
increase the power dissipation requirement of the diode so care must be taken when selecting the appropriate
value of series resistance so that the Zener’s maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-
impedance condition.
The load is connected in parallel with the Zener diode, so the voltage across R L is always the same as the
Zener voltage, (VR = VZ). There is a minimum Zener current for which the stabilization of the voltage is
effective and the Zener current must stay above this value operating under load within its breakdown region at
37
all times. The upper limit of current is of course dependent upon the power rating of the device. The supply
voltage VS must be greater than VZ.
One small problem with Zener diode stabilizer circuits is that the diode can sometimes generate
electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilize the voltage. Normally this is not a problem for
most applications but the addition of a large value decoupling capacitor across the Zener’s output may be
required to give additional smoothing.
Limitations of Zener Voltage Regulator
There are a few limitations for a Zener voltage regulator. They are –
 It is less efficient for heavy load currents.
 The Zener impedance slightly affects the output voltage.
Hence a Zener voltage regulator is considered effective for low voltage applications.
Transistor Series Voltage Regulator
This regulator has a transistor in series to the Zener regulator and both in parallel to the load. The
transistor works as a variable resistor regulating its collector emitter voltage in order to maintain the output
voltage constant. The figure below shows the transistor series voltage regulator.

With the input operating conditions, the current through the base of the transistor changes. This effects
the voltage across the base emitter junction of the transistor V BE. The output voltage is maintained by the Zener
voltage VZ which is constant. As both of them are maintained equal, any change in the input supply is indicated
by the change in emitter base voltage VBE.Hence the output voltage Vo can be understood as
VO=VZ+VBE
Working of Transistor Series Voltage Regulator
The working of a series voltage regulator shall be considered for input and load variations. If the input
voltage is increased, the output voltage also increases. But this in turn makes the voltage across the collector
base junction VBE to decrease, as the Zener voltage V Z remains constant. The conduction decreases as the

38
resistance across emitter collector region increases. This further increases the voltage across collector emitter
junction VCE thus reducing the output voltage VO. This will be similar when the input voltage decreases.
When the load changes occur, which means if the resistance of the load decreases, increasing the load
current IL, the output voltage VO decreases, increasing the emitter base voltage VBE.
With the increase in the emitter base voltage V BE the conduction increases reducing the emitter collector
resistance. This in turn increases the input current which compensates the decrease in the load resistance. This
will be similar when the load current increases.
Limitations of Transistor Series Voltage Regulator
 The voltages VBE and VZ are affected by the rise in temperature.
 No good regulation for high currents is possible.
 Power dissipation is high.
 Power dissipation is high.
 Less efficient.
 To minimize these limitations, transistor shunt regulator is used.
Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator
A transistor shunt regulator circuit is formed by connecting a resistor in series with the input and a
transistor whose base and collector are connected by a Zener diode that regulates, both in parallel with the load.
The figure below shows the circuit diagram of a transistor shunt regulator.

Working of Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator

Initially, if the input voltage increases, the VBE and VO also gets increased. Actually, when input voltage
(Vin) increases, the input current also increases. This current when flows through R S, causes a voltage drop VS
across the series resistor, which also gets increased with Vin, but this makes V O to decrease. Now this decrease
in Vo compensates the initial increase maintaining it to be constant. Hence Vo is maintained constant. If the
output voltage decreases instead, the reverse happens.

39
 If the load resistance decreases, there should be decrease in the output voltage Vo. The current through
the load increases. This makes the base current and collector current of the transistor to decrease. The voltage
across the series resistor becomes low, as the current flows heavily. The input current will be constant.
The output voltage appears will be the difference between the applied voltage Vi and the series voltage
drop Vs. Hence the output voltage will be increased to compensate the initial decrease and hence maintained
constant. The reverse happens if the load resistance increases.
IC Regulators
Voltage Regulators are now-a-days available in the form of Integrated Circuits (ICs). These are in short
called as IC Regulators.
Along with the functionality like a normal regulator, an IC regulator has the properties like thermal
compensation, short circuit protection and surge protection which are built into the device.
Types of IC regulators
IC regulators can be of the following types –
 Fixed Positive voltage regulators
 Fixed Negative voltage regulators
 Adjustable voltage regulators
Fixed Positive Voltage Regulator
The output of these regulators is fixed to a specific value and the values are positive, which means the
output voltage provided is positive voltage.

From the figure, the input capacitor C1 is used to prevent unwanted oscillations and the output capacitor
C2 acts as a line filter to improve transient response.
Fixed Negative Voltage Regulator
The output of these regulators is fixed to a specific value and the values are negative, which means the
output voltage provided is negative voltage.

40
 From the figure, the input capacitor C1 is used to prevent unwanted oscillations and the output capacitor
C2 acts as a line filter to improve transient response.
Adjustable Voltage Regulators
An adjustable voltage regulator has three terminals IN, OUT and ADJ. The input and output terminals
are common whereas the adjustable terminal is provided with a variable resistor which lets the output to vary
between a wide range.

The above figure shows an unregulated power supply driving a LM 317 adjustable IC regulator which is
commonly used. The LM 317 is a three terminal positive adjustable voltage regulator and can supply 1.5A of
load current over an adjustable output range of 1.25V to 37V.

41
 Unit-V
Radio transmitter and receiver
Radio transmitters and receivers are electronic devices that manipulate electricity resulting in the
transmission of useful information through the atmosphere or space. A transmitter consists of a precise
oscillating circuit or oscillator that creates an AC carrier wave frequency.
Radio transmitters
A radio transmitter consists of several elements that work together to generate radio waves that contain
useful information such as audio, video, or digital data.
Power supply:
Power supply is providing the necessary electrical power to operate the transmitter.
Oscillator:
Creates alternating current at the frequency on which the transmitter will transmit. The oscillator usually
generates a sine wave, which is referred to as a carrier wave.
Modulator:
The amplitude modulation or AM, makes slight increases or decreases to the intensity of the carrier
wave. The second, called frequency modulation or FM, makes slight increases or decreases the frequency of the
carrier wave.
Amplifier:
Amplifies the modulated carrier wave to increase its power. The more powerful the amplifier, the more
powerful the broadcast.
Antenna:
Converts the amplified signal to radio waves.

Radio receivers
A radio receiver is the opposite of a radio transmitter. It uses an antenna to capture radio waves,
processes those waves to extract only those waves that are vibrating at the desired frequency, extracts the audio
signals that were added to those waves, amplifies the audio signals, and finally plays them on a speaker.

42
Antenna:
The antenna is simply a length of wire. When this wire is exposed to radio waves, the waves induce a
very small alternating current in the antenna.
RF amplifier:
A sensitive amplifier that amplifies the very weak radio frequency (RF) signal from the antenna so that
the signal can be processed by the tuner.
Tuner:
A circuit that can extract signals of a particular frequency from a mix of signals of different frequencies.
On its own, the antenna captures radio waves of all frequencies and sends them to the RF amplifier, which
dutifully amplifies them all.
Unless you want to listen to every radio channel at the same time, you need a circuit that can pick out
just the signals for the channel you want to hear. That’s the role of the tuner.
The tuner usually employs the combination of an inductor (for example, a coil) and a capacitor to form a
circuit that resonates at a particular frequency. This frequency, called the resonant frequency, is determined by
the values chosen for the coil and the capacitor. This type of circuit tends to block any AC signals at a
frequency above or below the resonant frequency.
You can adjust the resonant frequency by varying the amount of inductance in the coil or the
capacitance of the capacitor. In simple radio receiver circuits, the tuning is adjusted by varying the number of
turns of wire in the coil. More sophisticated tuners use a variable capacitor (also called a tuning capacitor) to
vary the frequency.
Detector:
Responsible for separating the audio information from the carrier wave. For AM signals, this can be
done with a diode that just rectifies the alternating current signal. The alternating current signal is a direct
current signal that can be fed to an audio amplifier circuit. For FM signals, the detector circuit is a little more
complicated.
Audio amplifier:
This component’s job is to amplify the weak signal that comes from the detector so that it can be heard.
This can be done using a simple transistor amplifier circuit.

43
Television transmitter
The block diagram can be broadly divided into two separate section, viz., one that - Generates an
electronic signal (called video signal) corresponding to the actual picture and then uses this video signal to
modulate an R-F carrier so as to be applied to the transmitting antenna for transmission, other that generates an
electronic signal (called audio signal) containing sound information and then uses this signal to modulate
another RF carrier and then applied to the transmitting antenna for transmission.
However, only one antenna is used for transmission of the video as well as audio signals. Thus, these
modulated signals have to be combined together in some appropriate network. In addition, there are other
accessories also. For instance, video as well as audio signals have to be amplified to the desired degree before
they modulate their respective RF carriers.
This function is performed by video and audio amplifiers. The block picture signal transmitter and audio
signal transmitter shown in figure (a) may consist of modulators as the essential component; Video signal
transmitter employs an AM transmitter as amplitude-modulation is used for video signals whereas audio signal
transmitter employs FM modulator as frequency modulation is used for sound information. Scanning circuits
are used to mike the electron beam scan the actual picture to produce the corresponding video signal. The
scanning by electron beam is in the receiver too. The beam scans the picture tube to reproduce the original
picture from the video signal and this scanning at the receiver must be matched properly to the scanning at the
transmitter.
Television Receiver

A radio receiver designed to amplify and convert the video and audio radio- frequency signals of a
television broadcast that have been picked up by a television antenna; the receiver reproduces the visual image
broadcast and the accompanying sound. Television receivers are designed for color or black-and- white
operation; both non portable and portable models are produced. Those manufactured in the USSR are capable of

44
receiving signals from television stations transmitting in specifically assigned portions of thevery-high-
frequency (VHF) band (48.5–100 megahertz and 174– 230 megahertz; 12 channels) and ultra-high-frequency
(UHF) band (470– 638 megahertz; several tens of channels).
Television receivers must simultaneously amplify and convert video and audio radio- frequency signals.
They are usually designed with a super heterodyne circuit, and versions differ in the methods used to extract
and amplify the audio signal. The principal components of a television receiver are shown in Figure1.
The tuner selects the signals of the desired channel and converts them to a lower frequency within the
inter mediate-frequency pass band. The signal-processing circuits include an intermediate-frequency amplifier
for the video signal, an amplitude detector, a video amplifier for the brightness signal, and, incolor receivers, a
color- processing circuit for the chrominance signal. The processing circuit produces a brightness signal and a
color- difference signal, which are fed to the control electrodes of a kinescope; an audio signal, which is fed to
the audio channel; and horizontal and vertical synchronizing pulses (or a composite television signal), which are
fed to a scanning generator. In the color television system used in the USSR , the color-processing circuit for
the chrominance signal consists of a band- pass amplifier, in which the chrominance signal is extracted,
channels for the direct and delayed signals, an electronic switching device, two frequency detectors for the
color- difference signals, a matrix circuit, and amplifiers for the three color-difference signals. The color
processing circuit has provisions for the extraction and decoding of the chrominance signal and for line
selection, as well as chrominance disconnect circuits that operate when black-and-white transmissions are
received.
The scanning generators include horizontal and vertical scanning circuits that produce sawtooth
currentsin the horizontal and vertical scanning coils of the deflection system.
The high voltage for feeding the second anode of the kinescope is derived from a special high voltage
winding of the line transformer or by rectifying pulses from the transformer; the volt age for the focusing
electrode is similarly derived.
Dipole Antenna
A dipole antenna (also known as a doublet or dipole aerial) is defined as a type of RF (Radio Frequency)
antenna, consisting of two conductive elements such as rods or wires. The dipole is any one of the varieties of
antenna that produce a radiation pattern approximating that of an elementary electric dipole. Dipole antennas
are the simplest and most widely used type of antenna.
A ‘dipole’ means ‘two poles’ hence the dipole antenna consists of two identical conductive elements
such as rods or metal wires. The length of the metal wires is approximately half of the maximum wavelength
(i.e.,= λ/2) in free space at the frequency of operation. Dipole antennas are generally classified as:
Half Wave Dipole Antenna:
It is an antenna having a length equal to half the wavelength at the frequency of operation.

45
Quarter Wave Dipole Antenna:
When the total length of the dipole is one-fourth of the wavelength at operating frequency then it is
known as a quarter wave dipole.

Folded Dipole Antenna:

A folded dipole antenna is formed by combining two half wave dipole antennas in parallel orientation.
Dual Dipole Antenna:
Dual dipoles are the antennas that are formed by the combination of two dipoles and thus needs very
large space.
Construction
A half wave dipole antenna is an antenna constructed using a conductive tube or metallic element that
has a length equal to the electrical half wavelength.

The excitation to the half wave dipole is provided at the centre. So, we can say that the feeding to the
dipole is present at quarter wavelength point.
Working of Half Wave Dipole Antenna
A half wave dipole is a metallic rod or thin wire having a physical length of half wavelength in free
space. We have already discussed that excitation to this antenna is provided at the centre where the voltage is
minimum while the current is maximum. Thus, the two quantities vary in a sinusoidal manner along the length
of the radiating element. So, as the voltage varies sinusoidally, so for the positive half of the voltage, when the
amplitude is maximum then the charge carries inside the conductor gets attracted towards the positive applied
potential.

46
 When the negative half of the sinusoidal signal is provided then the charges present in the conductor
experience repulsion. So, every time with the change in polarity of the applied signal, there is a change in the
direction of flow of electrons inside the conducting material.
Hence, the back and forth movement of the electrons from an end to another causes it to get charged
either positively or negatively. This cumulative action of the electrons leads to generate current and the field is
radiated from the half wave dipole.
Advantages
 These antennas do not show sensitivity to input impedance.
 The length of the antenna is appropriate for the free space characteristics with the operating frequency.
 The antenna is not bulky.
 It is cost-efficient.
 The input impedance of this dipole antenna properly matches with the impedance of the transmission
line.
Disadvantages
 It is not majorly used as an independent antenna and thus is used as the basic element for other antennas
that operate at very high frequencies.
 The radiation pattern is of Omni directional nature thus the directivity offered by it is of great concern.
Yagi Antenna
Yagi Antenna is an antenna that is well known for its high gain and directivity. A Yagi antenna is
formed by a combination of 3 major elements i.e., driven element, reflector and directors. These are basically
designed to operate in very high and ultra-high frequency bands and offers the operating frequency ranging
between 30 MHz to 3 GHz.
Construction
A Yagi antenna has 3 main elements that combinedly form its structure. These 3 major elements are
driven element which is generally a half-wave folded dipole, a reflector and directors. The structure contains
one driven element and a reflector while directors can be more than one.
Basically, the arrangement is said to be an array of active and parasitic elements. The dipole generally a
metallic rod acts as the active element as external feeding is provided to it using transmission lines. While
reflector and directors are the parasitic elements of the structure.
The parasitic elements are also metallic rods placed parallelly in the line of sight orientation with respect
to the driven element.
It is noteworthy here that no external excitation is provided to the parasitic elements. However, when the
dipole is excited using a transmission line then the current that flows through the driven element induces
voltages in the parasitic elements. All these elements are mounted on a centre rod that acts as horizontal
support.

47
 The reflector is present at one of the ends of the metallic rod and has length around, 5% greater than the
length of the driven element. While the directors are almost 5% shorter than the driven element (i.e., λ/2 at the
resonant frequency) and are placed at the other side of the dipole as these are used to provide maximum
directivity to the antenna.
Working of Yagi Antenna
The external excitation is directly provided to the active element of the arrangement i.e., the dipole. The
flow of current through the active element induces a voltage in the parasitic elements that cause current to flow
through it.
The element having a length greater than λ/2 i.e., the reflector, shows inductive characteristic, therefore,
the current in the reflector lags the induced voltage. Whereas, the one shorter than the half-wave dipole i.e., the
director is capacitive. So, the current flowing through it leads the voltage.

48
 As we know that director is placed in front of the driven elements, so, these directors add the field of the
driven element in the direction away from it. When multiple directors are placed in the arrangement then each
director will provide excitation to the next one.
Also, the reflector in the opposite direction as that of the director when accurately placed adds the field
in the direction towards the driven element. This is done in order to reduce the losses due to the back radiated
wave as much as possible.
In order to get the additional gain, multiple directors can be used in the direction of the beam. The
spacing between the elements to form a Yagi structure is as follows:

Basically, the induced voltage and the current flowing due to the induced voltage in the element varies
with the spacing between the active and parasitic elements along with the reactance associated with the
elements.
It is to be noted here that with the increase in distance between driven element and director, there will be
more need for capacitive reactance in order to provide accurate phasing to the current in the director. Thus, the
length of the director is kept small to get the capacity reactance.
Characteristics
 A Yagi antenna is said to be beam antenna if it is only 3 elements array i.e., a driven and reflector and
only a single director.
 It offers moderate unidirectional directivity.
 The gain offered by the Yagi antenna is around 8 dB with front to back ratio of approximately 20 dB.
 In order to increase the directivity, more elements can be added in the array.
 Another name to this antenna is super directive antenna due to its high directive gain.
 It is frequency sensitive thus is a fixed frequency device.

49
Radiation Pattern of Yagi Antenna

Here the major lobe represents the forward radiated wave while the major lobe represents the back
radiated wave.
Advantages
 Yagi antenna offers very high gain.
 It possesses a highly directional characteristic because of the use of directors.
 It is a low-cost antenna.
 Yagi antenna shows suitability towards high-frequency operations.
 It is light in weight and feeding mechanism is also simple.
 It is power efficient.
 Along with all the above-defined advantages, it also offers ease of construction and handling.
Disadvantages
 These antennas are highly affected by atmospheric conditions.
 Noise is the major factor that disturbs the overall performance of the antenna.
Applications of YagiAntenna
These antennas are widely used in the field of TV signal reception, as it has excellent receiving ability.
Even astronomical and defense related applications make use of Yagi Antenna. Also, radio astronomy utilizes
these antennas.
Dish Antenna
Dish antenna is the form of antenna which finds many uses in domestic satellite television reception,
terrestrial microwave data links, general satellite communications and many more.
Its size means that it is generally limited to use above 1GHz, although larger antennas may be used for
frequencies down to about 100MHz.
The parabolic reflector antenna or dish antenna is known for its distinctive shape, its high gain, and
narrow beam widths. It is the performance which can be achieved by using one is the reason it is so widely used
at higher frequencies.

50
Dish antenna reflector basics
There are two main elements to Dish antenna:
Radiating system:
The radiating element within the parabolic reflector antenna can take a variety of forms. In some
antennas it may be a simple dipole, in others a horn. Its aim is to illuminate the second element of the antenna,
the reflector with an even density of radiation with the minimum spillage or radiation missing the reflector and
being radiated elsewhere.
Reflector:
The reflector is the distinctive part of the parabolic reflector antenna. The parabolic shape is key to the
operation of the RF antenna because the paths taken from the feed point at the focus to the reflector and then
outwards are in parallel. However more importantly the paths taken are all the same length and therefore the
outgoing waveform will form a plane wave and the energy taken by all paths will all be in phase. This enables
the antenna to perform in a particularly effective manner.
The parabolic shape of the reflector surface of the antenna enables a very accurate beam to be obtained.
In this way, the feed system forms the actual radiating section of the antenna, and the reflecting parabolic
surface is purely passive.
When looking at parabolic reflector antenna systems there are a number of parameters and terms that are
of importance:
Focus
The focus or focal point of the parabolic reflector is the point at which any incoming signals are
concentrated. When radiating from this point the signals will be reflected by the reflecting surface and travel in
a parallel beam and to provide the required gain and beam width.
Vertex
This is the innermost point at the center of the parabolic reflector.
Focal length
The focal length of a parabolic antenna is the distance from its focus to its vertex.
Aperture
The aperture of a parabolic reflector is what may be termed its "opening" or the area which it covers. For
a circular reflector, this is described by its diameter. It can be likened to the aperture of an optical lens.
Gain:
The gain of the parabolic reflector is one of the key parameters and it depends on a number of factors
including the diameter of the dish, wavelength and other factors.
Feed systems:
The dish antenna can be fed in a variety of ways. Axial or front feed, off axis, Cassegrain, and Gregorian
are the four main methods.

51
DTH System
DTH stands for Direct-To-Home, Direct-To-Home service is a digital satellite service that provides
television services direct to home with a personal dish. A local cable operator is not required in DTH and puts
the broadcaster directly in touch with the consumer.
Direct to Home Technology provides better picture and sound quality. It also offers services like internet
access, video conferencing and email. HDTV (High Definition TV) and 3D TV are the enhanced features of this
Technology. It also has options to record/rewind/pause live TV.
Components of DTH Technology
DTH (Direct to Home) System consists of the following components:

 Dish Antenna
 LNBF (Low Noise Block Down Converter plus Feedhorn)
 Coaxial Cable
 Set Top Box
Dish Antenna
It is a Parabolic Reflector. It receives the signal and redirects it to the LNBF which works as receiver for
signal transmitted by satellite Parabolic Reflector.
LNBF (Low Noise Block Down Converter Feed horn)
Small metal horn antenna on the Dish is called as Feed horn. It collects the signal from dish and
amplifies the signal bouncing off the dish and filters out the noise.
Coaxial Cable
It is the Cable that connects mini Dish and Set Top Box.
DTH Set Top Box
DTH Set Top Box, unlike the regular cable connection, decodes the encrypted transmission data and
converts these signals into audio & video signal.
Architecture of Direct To Home Technology
The architecture of Direct to Home System includes:

52
  Satellite
 Broadcasting Centre
 Multiplexer
 Modulator
 Encoder
 DTH Receiver
Satellite
A Geo-Stationary Satellite plays an important role in Direct To Home system. Satellites have a much
larger “line of sight” range as they are higher in the sky than TV antennas. It transmits the signals to the DTH
Antenna.
Broadcasting Centre
The Broadcast Centre is the central hub of the system. The television provider receives signals here from
various programming sources and then beams a broadcast signal to satellites which are in Geostationary orbit.
The satellites receive the signals from the broadcasting station and rebroadcast them to the ground.
Multiplexer
Multiplexer is a device which transmits the information of many channels in one channel. It is a part of
the broadcasting centre. In the Broadcasting Centre, the Multiplexer compresses all the frequency signals into
one single channel & transmits it to the Geo-Stationary satellite. It sends the single channel to the Modulator.
Modulator
Modulation is a process in which the information signal is imposed on a carrier signal which is of high
strength. The Modulator modulates the signals and sends to the Encoder.
Encoder
The Encoder encodes the signals to transmit the signals. The satellite sends the signals to the DTH
Antenna which further transmits them to the Set Top Box.
DTH Receiver
Receiver is the end component in the entire DTH System. It decodes or descrambles the encrypted
signal. For unlocking signal, it needs the proper decoder chip for that programming package. The service

53
provider can communicate with that chip with the help of satellite signal to make required operations to its
decoding program.
Direct To Home (DTH) Technology Work
The Satellites which are located approximately 35700 km above the Earth’s surface transmits signals to
the Broadcast stations on the Earth’s Surface. The Broadcast Centre receives the signals and Transponder on the
satellite helps in establishing Communication channel between Transmitting and Receiving Units. Satellite
rebroadcasts the signals which are encoded.
The Encoder converts the data, audio and video signals into the digital format and these signals are
mixed or combined by the multiplexer. There will be a small Dish Antenna and Set Top Box at the user end to
Receive, Decode and view numerous channels.

Advantages of DTH Technology

 Greater service coverage.
 More channels.
 Better signal quality.
 Multiple language options.
 Pay only for the channels and services that the user wants.
 Applications such as Parental Lock, Pre-booked Pay-Per-View and Impulse Pay-Per-View.
Disadvantages of DTH Technology
 One of the major problems for the subscribers of Direct To Home service is unable to view any channel
during heavy rains due to weak signals.
 Changing service provider is not easy as the user has to pay additional cost to buy new Set Top Box
from new service provider.

54
Mobile communication system
A cellular/mobile system provides standard telephone operation by full-duplex two-way radio at remote
locations. It provides a wireless connection to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) from any user
location within the radio range of the system.
The basic concept behind the cellular radio system is that rather than serving a given geographical area
within a single transmitter and receiver, the system divides the service area into many small areas known as
cells, as shown in Fig. below. The typical cell covers only several square kilometers and contains its own
receiver and low-power transmitter. The cell area shown in Fig. below is ideal hexagon. However, in reality
they will have circular or other geometric shapes. These areas may overlap, and cells may be of different sizes.
Basic cellular system consists of mobile stations, base stations and a mobile switching center (MSC).
The MSC is also known as Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO). The MTSO controls ’11 the cells and
provides the interface between each cell and the main telephone office. Each mobile communicates via radio
with one of the base stations and may be handed off (switched from one cell to another) to any other base
station throughout the duration of the call.
Each mobile station consists of a transceiver, an antenna and control circuitry. The base station consists
of several transmitters and receivers which simultaneously handle full duplex communication and generally
have towers which support several transmitting and receiving antennas. The base station serves as a bridge
between all mobile users in the cell and connects the simultaneous mobile calls via telephone lines or
microwave link to the MSC. The MSC co-ordinates the activities of all the base stations and connects the entire
cellular system to the PSTN, most of the cellular system also provide a service known as roaming.
The cellular system operates in the 800-900 MHz range. The newer digital cellular systems have even
greater capacity. Some of these systems operate in 1.7-1.8 GHz bands.
The block diagram of a cellular mobile radio unit, the unit consists of five major sections:
Transmitter, receiver, synthesizer, logic unit, and control unit. The mobile unit contains built-in
rechargeable batteries to Provide operating power. The transmitter and receiver in the unit share the common
antenna.

55
Modem
Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – De-modulator. Modems are used for data transfer from one
computer network to another computer network through telephone lines. The computer network works in digital
mode, while analog technology is used for carrying massages across phone lines.
Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog mode at the transmitting end and de-
modulator converts the same from analog to digital at receiving end. The process of converting analog signals
of one computer network into digital signals of another computer network so they can be processed by a
receiving computer is referred to as digitizing.
When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital devices called Data
Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each end. DTE can be a terminal or a computer.
The modem at the transmitting end converts the digital signal generated by DTE into an analog signal by
modulating a carrier. This modem at the receiving end demodulates the carrier and hand over the demodulated
digital signal to the DTE.

The transmission medium between the two modems can be dedicated circuit or a switched telephone
circuit. If a switched telephone circuit is used, then the modems are connected to the local telephone exchanges.
Whenever data transmission is required connection between the modems is established through telephone
exchanges.
The features of modem
 The speed of the modem is measured in bps means bits per second. Data transfer speed can be increased
by using the technique of data compression.
 If we are using a modem having auto answering facility. Then our modem will be able to attend calls
even in our absence.
 Modems work basically in two modes. One is voice mode and other is data mode. In voice mode modem
acts like a simple telephone. But in data mode modem acts as a Simple modem. These types of modems
have a switch which is helpful in changing the mode i.e. from voice mode to data mode and from data

56
 mode to voice mode. For voice communication, loudspeaker and a microphone is implemented in the
modem.
 Some modems have the ability to compress data. These modems compress data before sending to
improve the data transfer rates. But there must be a similar technology modem to decompress the data at
the receiver end.
 There are basically three types of modems. All the three types are discussed in detail below:
a) External Modems
b) Internal Modems
c) PCMCIA Modem
External Modems: A serial cable connection is needed to connect an external modem to a PC. These modems
use their own power supplies. These modems have their independent controls.
Internal Modems: Internal modems are basically integrated on a chip. These are put up into the PCI slots of
the computer. There is no need of any external power supply for internal modems. These modems use the power
supply of the PC. Their installation in PC is quite very simple.

57