A PROJECT REPORT ON

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT

FOR
AWARD OF

DIPLOMA
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

Mr. ASHISH SINGHAL
SUBMITTED BY
ANUBHAV CHAUDHARY (E20169532800015)
BHUPENDRA SINGH (E20169532800047)
ATUL KESHARI (E20169532800046)
NEETESH (E20169532800024)
DINESH (E20169532800048)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

A.S.M. POLYTECHNIC MATHURA
(AFFILIATED TO B.T.E. U.P. LUCKNOW)
JUNE 2023.
 ABSTRACT

In recent years, both scientists and industry authorities have come to the conclusion
that light intensity is an important factor for productivity.
Lux meters are adapted to the spectral sensitivity of the eye, and measure brightness in
lux. The device captures the light intensity in its sensor and relays the result in an
internal memory or data logger.
Construction teams can then analyze the results over time to gauge the quality of light
and can adjust plans or processes to ensure the level is up to industry standards.
Light Meters have the advantage that they are able to determine light conditions in
regards to different measurement parameters as for example Lux, fc or CD/m2. That
is why Light Meters are often used in application areas as the photo technology where
they are used to install light sources properly. In addition to that, Light Meters can be
applied in many more other areas. With their help, brightness in offices can be
determined in order to find the best conditions for a worker which guarantees the best
working results.

9
 TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION…………………………………………………………….…...…I
CERTIFICATE…………………………………………………………….……....II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………….….…III
ABSTRACT………….………………………………………………………….…IV
LIST OF FIGURES.
1. Project Image………………………………………………………………..……1
2. Introduction……………………..………………………………………...…..….2
3. Basic Principal……………………..……………………………………….....….3
4. Arduino Uno……………………………………………………………….…......4
5. Ambient Light……………………………….………………………………...….5
6. Sensors………………………………………………………………………..…...6
7. LCD Display…………………………………...………………………….…........7
8. Resistors…………………………………….……………………………….……8
9. Jumpers…………………………………….……………………………….…….9
10. Wires……………………………………..…………………..………………....10
11. Battery…………………………………………...……………..……...….…....11
12. Battery Clip……………………………………………..…………………...…12
13. Switch……..………..…………………………………………………………...13
14. Conclusion………..………………………………………………………….…14
15. Refrences…………..……………………………………………………….…..15

10
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We have with all ally descending upon us that provided and guided all the channels to
work cohesion and co-ordination to make this study possible and bring it to a
successful conclusion.
It is over privilege to acknowledge with deep sense of gratitude and humble
submission to our teacher and supervisor Mr. ASHISH SINGHAL. Lecturer,
Department of Electrical Engineering. A.S.M. Polytechnic Mathura for his/her able
guidance affectionate attitude accompanied by constructive by helpful criticism
sustained interest in rectifying our mistake during execution of work and preparation
of the project report.
We are highly indebted to Mr. PRAKHAR RASTOGI. Head of Department of
Electrical Engineering for his support provided to us throughout our stay in at A.S.M.
Polytechnic Mathura.
We would like offer our special thanks to our family and entire friends for providing
us with the everlasting moral support and motivation to go ahead consistently.

ANUBHAV CHAUDHARY (E20169532800015)

BHUPENDRA SINGH (E20169532800047)
ATUL KESHARI (E20169532800046)
NEETESH (E20169532800024)
DINESH (E20169532800048)

11
 CERTIFICATE

This is certified that the project entitled “LUX METER ARDUINO BASED. ” is the
bonafaid work carried out by ANUBHAV CHAUDHARY, NEETESH, DENESH,
ATUL KESHARI, BHUPENDRA SINGH. Students of Diploma in Electrical
Engineering. A.S.M. Polytechnic Mathura during the year 2020-2023. In the partial
fulfillment of the requirements of the award of the Diploma of Technology in the
electrical engineering for the session 2020-2023. The report of the original work
carried out by the students under the supervision and guidance.

Mr. ASHISH SINGHAL. Mr. PRAKHAR RASTOGI.

Project Guide. HOD.
Department of Electrical Engineering Department of electrical engineering
A.S.M. POLYTECHNIC MATHURA. A.S.M. POLYTECHNIC MATHURA.

12
13
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the project entitled “LUXMETER ARDUINO BASED”

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for award of DIPLOMA IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING in our original work and the project has not formed
the basis for the award of any degree. Associate Follow ship or any other similar titles.

PLACE: MATHURA
DATE:

ANUBHAV CHAUDHARY (E20169532800015)

BHUPENDRA SINGH (E20169532800047)
ATUL KESHARI (E20169532800046)
DINESH (E20169532800048)
NEETESH (E20169532800024)

14
PROJECT IMAGE

15
 INTRODUCTION
A lux meter is also called a light meter; it is a device which is used to measure the
brightness. The lux meter measures the brightness specifically with the intensity by
which the brightness appears to the human eye. This measurement method is
different from the measurement of actual light energy produced by or reflected from
an object or light source. Lux is a unit of measurement of brightness or luminance. It
derived from the candela, the standard unit for the measurement for the power of the
light. This meter measures the illumination intensity as it appears to the human eye,
and it does not correlate to an objective value of energy radiated or reflected. The
visible spectrum has different wavelength and they appear to the human eye with
varying sensitivity and the lux meter will measure the light intensity by considering
this.

16
 WHAT IS LUX METER.
A lux meter is a device for measuring brightness, specifically, the intensity with which
the brightness appears to the human eye. This is different than measurements of the
actual light energy produced by or reflected from an object or light source. The lux is
a unit of measurement of brightness, or more accurately, illumination. It ultimately
derives from the candela, the standard unit of measurement for the power of light. A
candela is a fixed amount, roughly equivalent to the brightness of one candle.
While the candela is a unit of energy, it has an equivalent unit known as the lumen,
which measures the same light in terms of its perception by the human eye. One
lumen is equivalent to the light produced in one direction from a light source rated at
one candela. The lux takes into account the surface area over which this light is
spread, which affects how bright it appears. One lux equals one lumen of light spread
across a surface one square meter.
A lux meter works by using a photo cell to capture light. The meter then converts this
light to an electrical current, and measuring this current allows the device to calculate
the lux value of the light it captured.

17
 TYPES OF LUX METER
There are two types of lux meter:-

 Analog type lux meter.

 Digital type lux meter.

 ANALOG TYPE LUXMETER:-

The analog type lux meter calibration is imperative for useful measurements.
To calibrate a lux meter, a standard calibration-certified lamp with a known luminous
intensity is placed opposite a meter that has been oriented for uniform illumination on
the sensor. Measurements are taken at five different distances to determine a reference
illumination, and the average of these measurements is summed with the correction
factor of the reference lamp and the correction factor of the meter's resolution. This
value is aligned with the meter's scale.

Most industrial lux meters do not provide an absolute readout—instead they provide a
representative value in respect to their tolerance and resolution. Laboratory-calibrated
lux meters are available for such applications, but will eventually need to
be recalibrated. Some manufacturers recommend removing the photodetector cover
several minutes before measuring a sample to reduce potential adaptation sensitivity
in the sensor.

18
DIGITAL TYPE LUX METER.
Digital lux meter sometimes called light meters, measure the intensity of illumination
as distinguished by the human eye. This value does not correlate to an objective value
of energy radiated or reflected, as different wavelengths within the visible
spectrum are perceived with varying sensitivity by the eye, and lux meters evaluate
light intensity in consideration of this variable.

Digital meter is an eye that perceives certain colors more accurately—the average
color perceptibility of the eye is represented by the CIE chart. More shades of green
are identified than any other color and this is the primary reason night vision
equipment amplifies green light reflection. Visible light intensity accounting for these
inherent biological preferences is known as luminous flux. Lux meters cannot
compensate for individual visual deficiencies or variances. Total power output is
measured as radiant flux.

19
 BASIC DEFINATION IN TERMS OF LUX METER.

 WHAT IS LUX.

The amount of illumination provided when one lumen is evenly distributed over an
area of one square metre. This is also equivalent to the illumination that would exist
on a surface all points of which are one metre from a point source of one international
candle (candela).

 WHAT IS ILLUMINATION.
Illumination is defined as the energy of light (ε) striking a surface of specific unit area
per unit time. This definition is shown using the expression:

E=Iscos α /d 2

where ε is the illumination (or light energy) in lumens (L)/mm 2, IS is the source
intensity in candlepower, α is the angle between the source light rays and a unit vector
normal to the illuminated surface, and d is the distance (in mm) from the source to the
illuminated surface.
Note: For unit conversions, 1 L = 7.958 × 10 −2spherical candlepower units, and 1
L/ft.2 = 1.0 foot-candles.


20
 LAWS OF ILLUMINATION.

 The Inverse Square Law of Illumination.

This law states that the Illumination (E) at any point on a plane perpendicular to the
line joining the point and source is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the source and plane.

Where, I is the luminous intensity in a given direction.

Suppose a source is present with luminous intensity I in any direction. From this
source two distances are taken as the radius making this source as centre.

As per the above figure, the two radiuses are r 1 and r2. At distance r1 dA1 is the
elementary surface area taken. In this direction of dA 1, dA2 is considered at r2
distance.
dA1 and dA2 are within same solid angle Ω with same distributed luminous flux Φ.
Area dA1 at r1 receives the same amount of luminous flux as area dA 2 at r2 as the solid
are the same.

21
Again solid angle for both elementary surfaces.

The Illumination at distance.

The Illumination at distance.

Now, from equation (i) we get,

Now in the equation (iii),

This indicates the well known inverse square law relationship for point source.
It is seen that Illumination varies inversely as the square of the illuminated point from
the source.
If the light source is not a point source, then we can assume this large source as the
summation of many point sources.
This relationship can be applied to all light sources.

22
 The Cosine Law of Illumination.
The law states that Illumination at a point on a plane is proportional to the cosine of
the angle of light incident (the angle between the direction of the incident light and the
normal to the plane.)

It is the point source Illumination equation.

Where, Iθ is the luminous intensity of the source in the direction of the illuminated
point, Ɵ is the angle between the normal to the plane containing the illuminated point
and the line joining the source to the illuminated point, and d is the distance to the
illuminated point.

But for non point source, the cosine law of Illumination can be analyzed in term of
luminous flux instead of luminous intensity.
The Illumination or the surface density of the light flux received by an elementary
area varies with the distance from the light source and the angle of the elementary area
with respect to the direction of the light flux.
The maximum Illumination occurs when the element of area receives the light flux
normal to its surface.

23
 When the element of area is tilted with respect to the direction of the light flux, the
Illumination or flux density on the elementary surface is reduced. This can be thought
of in two ways.

1. The tilted elementary area (δ A) cannot intercept all the light flux it previously
received and so the Illumination falls.
2. If the elementary area (δ A) increases, the Illumination falls.

24
For case (1) when the element δ A is tilted by an angle Ɵ the amount of flux
intercepted δ A is given by.

So the flux received by δ A is reduced by a factor Cos Ɵ.

Now the Illuminati on at δ A is

For case (2) if all the flux intercepted by larger element δ A’ :

So Illumination becomes,

Both cases of these approach result in.

25
 WHAT IS LUMEN.

The SI unit of luminous flux is the lumen (lm). One lumen is defined as the luminous
flux of light produced by a light source that emits 1 cd of luminous intensity over a
solid angle of 1 sr. In other systems of units, luminous flux may have units of power.
‘Lumen’ is the unit of luminous flux, defined as flux emitted through unit solid angle
(one steradian) from a directional unit point source of 1 cd. To avoid reference to
candela, and to use as photometric base unit, the lumen may be defined as the
luminous flux of monochromatic radiant energy

 WHAT IS LUMINOUS FLUX.

Luminous flux is the measure of brightness of a light source in terms of energy being
emitted. Luminous flux, in SI units, is measured in the lumen (lm). It is a
measurement of energy released in the form of visible light from a light-producing
source. Luminous flux is often a criteria of light bulb comparison.

 WHAT IS LUMINOUS EFFICIENCY.

26
 The ratio of the total luminous flux radiated by any source to the total radiant flux
from that source commonly expressed in lumens per watt.

LUMINIOUS EFFICIENCY = LUMINIOUS FLUX / POWER.

THE SI UNIT OF LUMINIOUS EFFICIENCY IS LUMENS PER WATT.

 WHAT IS LUMINIOUS INTENSITY.

The quantity of visible light that is emitted in unit time per unit solid angle. The unit
for the quantity of light flowing from a source in any one second (the luminous power,
or luminous flux) is called the lumen. The lumen is evaluated with reference to visual
sensation.
Luminous intensity is defined as dI=dΨλ / dΩ, where dΨλ is the luminous flux (light
energy flux in watts per m2) emitted within a solid angle dΩ.

27
 What is the difference between lumens and lux.

The lux is the unit of illuminance in the international system of units and it is defined
in terms of lumen per meter square. Candela is the standard unit of measurement for
the power of light while the candela is the unit of energy, it has an equivalent unit
known as the lumen, which measures the light the same as the perception of the
human eye. One lumen is equal to the light produced in one direction from a light
source rated at one candela. The lux takes it to account the surface area over which the
light is spread, which affects how bright it appears.

 How does lux meter work.

Lux meter register brightness with an integrated photo detector. The photo detector is
placed perpendicular to the light source for optimal exposure. Readouts are shown
either by an analog instrument or digital LCD. Digital types include basic operator
inputs. Digital types of meter can save measurements and they have an adjustable
detection range. Photo detectors will be composed of selenium or silicon and it
determines the brightness photovoltaically. Then the captured light is converted to
electrical current and the lux value is calculated by measuring this current.

28
 What are the specifications and features of lux meter.

Specifications.

Cosine function – the light which enters the photo detector could be refracted and it
can cause measurement error and this can be corrected by some photo detectors.

Operating temperature – it is the maximum ambient temperature that the photo

detector could operate effectively. Photo detectors can be damaged above 1200 F.

Range – it is the dynamic detection range of the light meter, which will be expressed
in lux or foot-candles.

Features.

Auto-off – Electronic lux meters have an automated power down feature if the device
is left idle.

Backlit – the LCD display has a backlighting feature to measure low light.

Battery indicator - the low battery can cause fluctuations in meter reading so battery
indicator is useful.

Filters – this option allows the user to remove certain wavelengths, such as backlight
which would affect the measuring

Memory and USB – memory option will be useful to store measurements and the
USB ports can be used to connect to a computer and also can be used for charging.

Outdoor – the meter is suitable for outdoor applications, which will have the greatest
difference in light intensity.

 How to choose a lux meter.

While choosing a lux meter it is important to know the measurement range, resolution,
accuracy, and the maintenance which is required to achieve repeatable measurements.
We must also consider the environment in which the lux meter is used. For the
outdoor purpose, it would take a higher measurement range. It is good to do
calibration of the meter before the measurement.

29
 How to take a reading in a lux meter.

To take the light reading to expose the light meter sensor to the place which is to be
measured and the sensor will be attached to the device by cable. It would look like a
white bulb, check the reading which is displayed on the display and the reading is
done.

 What are the applications of lux meter.

Lux meters are used in the defense establishment, it is also used in electricity board,
lux meters can be used to measure, street and security lighting, office and factory
lighting, daylight and sunlight. An important use of lux meter is in the workplace it
can be used to check whether a room is bright enough to protect workers from
suffering damage to their eyesight. It is also used to adjust the lighting systems of
artificial lighting on railways. It is also useful for photography and video filming.

 Selection criteria of a lux meter

In order to find a suitable model from a large number of the lux meters available, the
requirements for the device should first be clarified. For this purpose, it is important to
know under which conditions and with which aim the illuminances are to be
measured. The selection can be narrowed down using the following points:
- For continuous measurement of lighting conditions at the same position, a stationary
lux meter should be selected.
- For single measurements and time-limited series of measurements at different
locations, mobile lux meters are suitable.
- The measuring range of the device must match whether measurements are to be
taken indoors, outdoors or under special lighting conditions.
- The required accuracy of the measurements should be determined in advance.
- Other features important for the measurement and additional functions that are
necessary or desired should be evaluated.

30
 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF LUX METER.

The working principle of a lux meter revolves around the fundamental concept of
illumination, which is the measurement of the amount of light falling on a surface.
Lux meters, also known as light meters or illumination meters, operate based on this
principle to quantify the brightness level in a given area.

Lux meters typically consist of a photodiode sensor, a lens, and electronic circuitry.
The photodiode sensor is the key component responsible for detecting and converting
light energy into an electrical current. It is designed to be responsive to the visible
spectrum of light, which is the range of light wavelengths that human eyes can
perceive.

When a lux meter is exposed to light, the lens collects and focuses the incoming light
onto the photodiode sensor. The photodiode absorbs the photons, generating an
electrical current proportional to the intensity of the incident light. This current is then
converted into a voltage signal by the electronic circuitry within the lux meter.

The voltage signal is further processed and calibrated by the internal circuitry to
obtain a lux value. Lux is the unit of measurement for illumination, representing the
amount of light that falls on a unit area. The lux value is calculated based on the
sensitivity of the photodiode sensor and other factors such as the distance between the
light source and the sensor.
To ensure accurate measurements, lux meters are often calibrated against known
reference standards or calibrated light sources. This calibration process helps align the
lux meter’s readings with a standardized scale, enhancing the reliability and accuracy
of the measurements.

Lux meters can be used to measure light intensity in various environments, such as
indoor spaces, outdoor areas, photography studios, workplaces, and more. They
provide a quantitative assessment of the brightness level, allowing users to determine
whether the lighting conditions meet specific requirements or standards.

31
ARDUINO UNO.

 Architecture of Arduino Uno.

Arduino Uno is an open-source microcontroller board based on the processor
ATmega328P. There are 14 digital I/O pins, 6 analog inputs, a USB connection, a
power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains all the necessary modules
needed to support the microcontroller. Just plug it into a computer with a USB cable
or power it with an adapter to get started. You can experiment with your Arduino
without worrying too much about it. In the event of a worst-case scenario, you could
buy a new one as the Uno is very economical compared to other boards like raspberry
pi, STM, etc.

 The hardware structure of Arduino Uno.

 Microcontroller
 14 Digital Pin
 6 Analog Pins
 Power Supply
 Power Jack
 USB Port
 Reset Button

Microcontroller: Microcontroller is the central processing unit of Arduino Uno.

Digital Pins: There are 14 digital pins on Arduino Uno which can be connected to
components like LED, LCD, etc.
Analog Pins: There are 6 analog pins on the Uno. These pins are generally used to
connect sensors because all the sensors generally have analog values. Most of the
input components are connected here.
Power Supply: The power supply pins are IOREF, GND, 3.3V, 5V, Vin are used to
connecting sensors because all the sensors generally have analog values. Most of the
input components are connected here.
Power Jack: Uno board can be powered both by external supply and via USB cable.

32
 USB Port: This port function is to program the board or to upload the program. The
program can be uploaded to the board with the help of Arduino IDE and USB cable.
Reset Button: This is used to restart the uploaded program.

 How to get started with Arduino UNO?

We can program the Arduino UNO using the Arduino IDE. The Arduino IDE is the
Integral Development program, which is common to all the boards.

We can also use Arduino Web Editor, which allows us to upload sketches and write
the code from our web browser (Google Chrome recommended) to any Arduino
Board. It is an online platform.

The USB connection is essential to connect the computer with the board. After the
connection, the PWR pins will light in green. It is a green power LED.

33
 The steps to get started with Arduino UNO are listed below:

o Install the drivers of the board.

As soon we connect the board to the computer, Windows from XP to 10 will

automatically install the board drivers.

But, if you have expanded or downloaded the zip package, follow the below steps:

1. Click on Start -> Control Panel -> System and Security.

2. Click on System -> Device Manager -> Ports (COM &LPT) -> Arduino UNO
(COMxx). If the COM &LPT is absent, look Other Devices -> Unknown Device.
3. Right-click to Arduino UNO (COmxx) -> Update Driver Software -> Browse my
computer for driver software.
4. Select the file "inf" to navigate else, select "[Link]" .
5. Installation Finished.

o Open the code or sketch written in the Arduino software.

o Select the type of board.
Click on 'Tools' and select Board, as shown below:

o Select the port. Click on the Tools -> Port (select the port). The port likely will
be COM3 or higher. For example, COM6, etc. The COM1 and COM2 ports will not
appear, because these two ports are reserved for the hardware serial ports.
o Now, upload and run the written code or sketch.

To upload and run, click on the button present on the top panel of the Arduino display,
as shown below:

Within the few seconds after the compile and run of code or sketch, the RX and TX
light present on the Arduino board will flash.

34
 ARDUINO UNO CODES.

35
 WHAT IS AMBIENT LIGHT.

Ambient Light traditionally refers to any form of light that the photographer did not
add to their image, and can include both "natural" ambient sunlight, or "artificial"
ambient light such as a nearby street light, lamp, or similar. Some photographers
confuse these different categories of light, and may only consider "natural" sunlight to
be true ambient light.

It works to provide a comfortable level of illumination without too much glare. This
allows you to navigate an entire room safely too. A central source of it for every room
is essential to achieve an excellent lighting plan. A perfect source needs a strategy in
choosing which lights to use and in what area or part of the room to place it.
Ambient lighting can be accomplished by using basic lighting fixtures such as
chandeliers, track lights, recessed lights, and wall or ceiling-mounted lighting fixtures.
There are various ways to achieve balance in ambient lighting and this often depends
on what type of room you are using it for. In some rooms, this can also serve as a
primary source for task lighting just like in a laundry room.

Ambient light is any light a photographer or cinematographer did not bring to the
shoot. Also known as available light, it's any light that you haven't set up yourself.

36
 This includes natural light or even pre-existing lighting built in and around the
location where you're shooting.

 WHAT IS SENSORS.

The sensors are defined as a machine, module, or a device that detect changes in the
environment. The sensors transfer those changes to the electronic devices in the form
of a signal.

A sensor and electronic devices always work together. The output signal is easily
readable by humans.

 What is a sensor made of?

The sensor is a device, which is made up of Single Crystal Silicon. It is considered as
a widely used semiconductor material. It has superior mechanical stability,
machinability, etc. It can also combine electronics and sensing elements on the same
substrate.

 Where are the sensors used?

The sensors are used to measure the physical quantities, such as pressure, temperature,
sound, humidity, and light, etc.

An example of sensors is Fire Alarm, a detector present on the fire alarm detects the
smoke or heat. The signal generated from the detector is sent to the alarming system,
which produces an alert in the form of alarm.

The types of detectors are smoke detectors, heat detectors, carbon monoxide detectors,
multi-sensors detectors, etc.

 What are the types of sensors in Arduino?

 Light sensor.

The light sensor is used to control the light. It is used with LDR (Light Dependent
Resistor) in Arduino.
o Ultrasonic sensor.

The ultrasonic sensor is used to determine the distance of the object using SONAR.

37
o Temperature sensor.

The temperature sensor is used to detect the temperature around it.

o Knock Sensor.

The knock sensor is used to pick the vibrations of the knocking. It is a common
category of a vibration sensor.

o Object Detection Sensor.

It is used to detect the object by emitting infrared radiations, which are reflected or
bounced back by that object.

o Tracking Sensor.

It allows the robots to follow a particular path specified by sensing the marking or
lines on the surface.

38
 WHAT IS LCD DISPLAY.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is a type of flat panel display which uses liquid crystals
in its primary form of operation. LEDs have a large and varying set of use cases for
consumers and businesses, as they can be commonly found in smartphones,
televisions, computer monitors and instrument panels.

LCDs were a big leap in terms of the technology they replaced, which include light-
emitting diode (LED) and gas-plasma displays. LCDs allowed displays to be much
thinner than cathode ray tube (CRT) technology. LCDs consume much less power
than LED and gas-display displays because they work on the principle of blocking
light rather than emitting it. Where an LED emits light, the liquid crystals in an LCD
produces an image using a backlight.

As LCDs have replaced older display technologies, LCDs have begun being replaced
by new display technologies such as OLEDs.

 How LCDs work.

A display is made up of millions of pixels. The quality of a display commonly refers
to the number of pixels; for example, a 4K display is made up of 3840 x2160 or
4096x2160 pixels. A pixel is made up of three subpixels; a red, blue and green—
commonly called RGB. When the subpixels in a pixel change color combinations, a
different color can be produced. With all the pixels on a display working together, the
display can make millions of different colors. When the pixels are rapidly switched on
and off, a picture is created.

The way a pixel is controlled is different in each type of display; CRT, LED, LCD and
newer types of displays all control pixels differently. In short, LCDs are lit by a
backlight, and pixels are switched on and off electronically while using liquid crystals
to rotate polarized light. A polarizing glass filter is placed in front and behind all the
pixels, the front filter is placed at 90 degrees. In between both filters are the liquid
crystals, which can be electronically switched on and off.

39
 LCDs are made with either a passive matrix or an active matrix display grid. The
active matrix LCD is also known as a thin film transistor (TFT) display. The passive
matrix LCD has a grid of conductors with pixels located at each intersection in the
grid. A current is sent across two conductors on the grid to control the light for
any pixel. An active matrix has a transistor located at each pixel intersection, requiring
less current to control the luminance of a pixel. For this reason, the current in an
active matrix display can be switched on and off more frequently, improving the
screen refresh time.

Some passive matrix LCD's have dual scanning, meaning that they scan the grid twice
with current in the same time that it took for one scan in the original technology.
However, active matrix is still a superior technology out of the two.

 Types of LCDs
Types of LCDs include:

 Twisted Nematic (TN)- which are inexpensive while having high response times.
However, TN displays have low contrast ratios, viewing angles and color contrasts.

 In Panel Switching displays (IPS Panels)- which boast much better contrast ratios,
viewing angles and color contrast when compared to TN LCDs.

 Vertical Alignment Panels (VA Panels)- which are seen as a medium quality between
TN and IPS displays.

40
 WHAT IS RESISTORS.

A passive electrical component with two terminals that are used for either limiting or
regulating the flow of electric current in electrical circuits.
The main purpose of resistor is to reduce the current flow and to lower the voltage in
any particular portion of the circuit. It is made of copper wires which are coiled
around a ceramic rod and the outer part of the resistor is coated with an insulating
paint.

 Symbol of Resistor

The terminals of the resistor are each of the lines extending from the squiggle (or
rectangle). Those are what connect to the rest of the circuit. The resistor circuit
symbols are usually enhanced with both a resistance value and a name. The value,
displayed in ohms, is obviously critical for both evaluating and actually constructing
the circuit.

Types of Resistors.
Resistors are available in different shapes and sizes. Common types that are available
are through-hole and surface mount. A resistor might be static, standard resistor,
special, or a pack of variable resistors.

41
Linear resistors.
The resistors whose values change with change in applied temperature and voltage are
known as linear resistors. There are two types of linear resistors:

Fixed resistors: These resistors have a specific value and these values cannot be
changed. Following are the different types of fixed resistors:

 Carbon composition resistors.

 Wire wound resistors.
 Thin film resistors.
 Thick film resistors.
Variable resistors: These resistors do not have a specific value and the values can be
changed with the help of dial, knob, and screw. These resistors find applications in
radio receivers for controlling volume and tone. Following are the different types of
variable resistors:

 Potentiometers
 Rheostats
 Trimmers

Non-linear resistors.
The resistor values change according to the temperature and voltage applied and is not
dependent on Ohm’s law. Following are the different types of non-linear resistors:

 Thermisters
 Varisters
 Photo resistors

42
 WHAT IS CONNECTING JUMPERS.

A jumper is a tiny metal connector that is used to close or open part of an electrical
circuit. It may be used as an alternative to a dual in-line package (DIP) switch. A
jumper has two or more connecting points, which regulate an electrical circuit board.
A jumper is made of material that conducts electricity, and is sheathed in a
nonconductive plastic block to prevent accidental circuit shorts. A jumper positioned
over two or more pins creates a connection that activates certain setting instructions.
Jumpers are like on/off switches. They may be removed or added to enable
component performance options. A group of jumper pins is a jumper block, which has
at least one pair of contact points with a small metal pin at the end. A sleeve or shunt
is draped over the pins to allow electric currents to pass over other circuit points.

Jumpers are found on modern hard drives but are rarely seen on motherboards. In
most cases, settings are configured automatically or via software. Configuration
settings are often stored in non-volatile random access memory (NVRAM).

The jumper’s main advantage is its one-time configuration, which makes it less
vulnerable to corruption or power failure than firmware. Jumper altering requires that
settings be physically changed.

Ad

43
 WHAT IS 9 VOLT BATTARY?

The 9V battery stands as a reliable and widely used power source. With its distinct
rectangular shape and convenient voltage output, the 9V battery provides energy for a
variety of applications, ranging from household devices to professional equipment. In
this article, we will explore the characteristics, components, applications, and
considerations associated with the 9V battery.

 Anatomy of a 9V Battery:

A 9V battery is a compact, rectangular-shaped power cell commonly composed of six

cylindrical or rectangular cells connected in series. These cells, typically arranged in a
stack, generate a combined voltage of 9 volts. The battery features two terminals: a
positive (+) terminal and a negative (-) terminal, enabling it to deliver electrical
current to connected devices.

 Voltage and Capacity:

The 9V battery is known for its nominal voltage of 9 volts, which remains relatively
stable throughout its discharge cycle. This voltage output makes it suitable for devices
requiring higher power levels, such as smoke detectors, radios, portable audio
equipment, and certain types of electronic toys. It is important to note that the actual
voltage of a 9V battery can vary slightly depending on its chemistry and discharge
level.

44
 WHAT IS SWITCH.
The switch is an electrical device that is used to break or make an electrical circuit
manually or automatically. The working principle of switch depends on ON/ OFF
mechanism. Various electrical or electronic circuits use switches to control or trigger
the owl circuit. The types of switches depend on the connections of the circuit they
make. Two essential components such as pole and through can confirm what types of
connections a switch can make. These two components are also used to define
variations of switch contact.

Here, the poles and throws can be defined as; when the number of circuits is
controlled by a switch is called poles, whereas throws can be defined as the number of
positions that the switch can adopt. A single throw switch consists one pair of contacts
like open or close. A double throw switch includes a contact, which can be connected
to two other contacts. When the switch is activated, then the current flows through
between the two terminals of the switch. When the switch is OFF, then the current
doesn’t flow between the two terminals of the switch.

45
 Characteristics of a Switch.
Before proceeding further and looking at different types of switches, let us see some
important points on the Characteristics of a Switch.

 The two important characteristics of a switch are its Poles and Throws. A pole
represents a contact and a throw represents a contact-to-contact connection. Number
of poles and throws are used to describe a switch.

 Some standard numbers of poles and throws are Single (1 pole or 1 throw) and Double
(2 poles or 2 switches).

 If the number of poles or throws are greater than 2, then the number is often directly
used. For example, a three pole six throw switch is often represented as 3P6T.
 Another important characteristic of a switch is its action i.e., whether it is a
Momentary or Latched action. Momentary Switches (like push buttons, for example)
are used to make momentary contact (for a brief time or as long the button is pressed).
 Latched Switches on the hand, maintain the contact until it is forced to the other
position.

 Types of Switches.
Basically, Switches can be of two types. They are:
 Mechanical
 Electronic
Mechanical Switches are physical switches, which must be activated physically, by
moving, pressing, releasing, or touching its contacts.
Electronic Switches, on the other hand, do not require any physical contact in order to
control a circuit. These are activated by semiconductor action.

46
 Mechanical Switches.

Mechanical switches can be classified into different types based on several factors
such as method of actuation (manual, limit and process switches), number of contacts
(single contact and multi contact switches), number of poles and throws (SPST,
DPDT, SPDT, etc.), operation and construction (push button, toggle, rotary, joystick,
etc.), based on state (momentary and locked switches), etc.

Based on the number of poles and throws, switches are classified into following types.
The pole represents the number of individual power circuits that can be switched.
Most of the switches are designed have one, two or three poles and are designated as
single pole, double pole and triple pole. The number of throws represents the number
of states to which current can pass through the switch. Most of the switches are
designed to have either one or two throws, which are designated as single throw and
double throw switches.

47
 Single Pole Single Throw Switch (SPST).

 This is the basic ON and OFF switch consisting of one input contact and one output
contact.
 It switches a single circuit and it can either make (ON) or break (OFF) the load.
 The contacts of SPST can be either normally open or normally closed configurations.

Single Pole Double Throw Switch (SPDT).

48
 This switch has three terminals: one is input contact and remaining two are output
contacts.
 This means it consist two ON positions and one OFF position.
 In most of the circuits, these switches are used as changeover to connect the input
between two choices of outputs.
 The contact which is connected to the input by default is referred as normally closed
contact and contact which will be connected during ON operation is a normally open
contact.

 Double Pole Single Throw Switch (DPST).

 This switch consists of four terminals: two input contacts and two output contacts.
 It behaves like a two separate SPST configurations, operating at the same time.
 It has only one ON position, but it can actuate the two contacts simultaneously, such
that each input contact will be connected to its corresponding output contact.
 In OFF position both switches are at open state.
 This type of switches is used for controlling two different circuits at a time.
 Also, the contacts of this switch may be either normally open or normally closed
configurations.

49
 Double Pole Double Throw Switch (DPDT).

 This is a dual ON/OFF switch consisting of two ON positions.

 It has six terminals, two are input contacts and remaining four are the output contacts.
 It behaves like a two separate SPDT configuration, operating at the same time.
 Two input contacts are connected to the one set of output contacts in one position and
in another position, input contacts are connected to the other set of output contacts.

 Electronic Switches.
 The electronic switches are generally called as Solid State switches because there are
no physical moving parts and hence no physical contacts. Most of the appliances are
controlled by semiconductor switches such as motor drives and HVAC equipment.
 There are different types of solid state switches are available in todays consumer,
industrial and automotive market with different sizes and ratings. Some of these solid
state switches include transistors, SCRs, MOSFETs, TRIACs and IGBTs.

50
 Bipolar Transistors.
 A transistor either allows the current to pass or it blocks the current as similar to
working of normal switch.
 In switching circuits, transistor operates in cut-off mode for OFF or current blocking
condition and in saturation mode for ON condition. The active region of the transistor
is not used for switching applications.
 Both NPN and PNP transistors are operated or switched ON when a sufficient base
current is supplied to it. When a small current flows though the base terminal supplied
by a driving circuit (connected between the base and emitter), it causes the transistor
to turn ON the collector-emitter path.
 And it is turned OFF when the base current is removed and base voltage is reduced to
a slight negative value. Even though it utilizes small base current, it is capable of
carrying much higher currents through the collector- emitter path.

 Power Diode.
 A diode can perform switching operations between its high and low state
impedance states. Semiconductor materials like Silicon and Germanium are used
for constructing the diodes.

51
 When the anode is made positive with respect to cathode and by the application of
voltage greater than the threshold level, PN junction is forward biased and starts
conducting (like ON switch). When the cathode terminal is made positive with respect
to anode, PN junction reverse biased and its blocks the current flow (like OFF switch).

 MOSFET
Perhaps the most popular and most commonly used Semiconductor Switching Device
is the MOSFET. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is a
unipolar and high frequency switching device. It is most commonly used switching
device is power electronic applications. It has three terminals namely drain (output),
source (common) and gate (input).

It is a voltage controlled device i.e., by controlling the input (gate to source) voltage,
resistance between the drain and source is controlled, which further determines the
ON and OFF state of the device.

52
Conclusion of the Lux Meter.

In recent years, both scientists and industry authorities have come to the conclusion
that light intensity is an important factor for productivity.
In schools, public buildings, workplaces and even greenhouses, the quality of light is
likely to affect how people work and how crops grow, thus requiring appropriate
consideration during construction. A building too light or too dim can set back
productivity.
Lux meters are adapted to the spectral sensitivity of the eye, and measure brightness in
lux. The device captures the light intensity in its sensor and relays the result in an
internal memory or data logger.
Construction teams can then analyse the results over time to gauge the quality of light
and can adjust plans or processes to ensure the level is up to industry standards.
The human eye distinguishes colors of light according to two complementary models
of visual physiology. Trichromatic theory states that each of the three types of cones
in the eye are activated by a certain range of wavelength: β cones perceive light within
400-500 nm, Υ cones between 450-630 nm, and ρ cones between 500-700 nm.
Opponent process theory states that colors are perceived by rods and cones
antagonistically: black vs. white, blue vs. yellow, and red vs. green.

The result is an eye that perceives certain colors more accurately—the average color
perceptibility of the eye is represented by the CIE chart. More shades of green are
identified than any other color and this is the primary reason night vision equipment
amplifies green light reflection. Visible light intensity accounting for these inherent
biological preferences is known as luminous flux. Lux meters cannot compensate for
individual visual deficiencies or variances. Total power output is measured as radiant
flux.

53
 Refrences of Lux Meter.

 Most lux meters register brightness with an integrated photodetector. The

photodetector is positioned perpendicular to the light source for optimal exposure—
many lux meters use an articulated or tethered photodetector for this purpose.
Readouts are presented to the user via analog instrument or digital LCD. Digital types
often include basic operator inputs. Many digital types can save measurements and
have an adjustable detection range.

 Photo detectors composed of selenium or silicon determine brightness

photovoltaically. Generated current is proportional to the photons received. Silicon-
based detectors need to amplify the voltage generated by light exposure. Selenium-
based detectors convert photons to a high enough voltage that they be directly
connected to a galvanometer, but have difficulty determining lux measurements for
light sources below 1,000 lumens.

 Photo detectors that measure brightness via photoresistance are composed of a

ceramic substrate doped with cadmium sulfide. An electronic switching current is
supplied to the cell and resistance increases as more photons are detected to
ultimately provide a proportional readout. Legislation curtails the availability of
cadmium devices in certain territories.

 Configuration

Most lux meters are handheld devices and are easily transported to the job site.
Articulated and tethered photodetectors may require both hands to optimally position
the photodetector and the module, but they also provide measurement flexibility.
Some handheld models may include a stand or mounting structure, such as a tripod.
Photodetector calibration is imperative for useful measurements. To calibrate a lux
meter, a standard calibration-certified lamp with a known luminous intensity is placed
opposite a meter that has been oriented for uniform illumination on the sensor.
Measurements are taken at five different distances to determine a reference
illumination, and the average of these measurements is summed with the correction
factor of the reference lamp and the correction factor of the meter's resolution. This
value is aligned with the meter's scale.

54
55