NETWORK PROTOCOLS

Network protocols are a set of rules governing exchange of information in an easy, reliable and
secure way.

Protocols used by different layers to accomplish user request include:

 TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
TCP/IP is a set of layered protocols used for communication over the Internet. The
communication model of this suite is client-server model. A computer that sends a request is the
client and a computer to which the request is sent is the server.

TCP/IP has four layers −

 Application layer − Application layer protocols like HTTP and FTP are used.
 Transport layer − Data is transmitted in form of datagrams using the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP). TCP is responsible for breaking up data at the client side and
then reassembling it on the server side.
 Network layer − Network layer connection is established using Internet Protocol (IP) at
the network layer. Every machine connected to the Internet is assigned an address called
IP address by the protocol to easily identify source and destination machines.
 Data link layer − Actual data transmission in bits occurs at the data link layer using the
destination address provided by network layer.
TCP/IP is widely used in many communication networks other than the Internet.

 FTP
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the most widely used protocol for file transfer over the
network. FTP uses TCP/IP for communication and it works on TCP port 21. FTP works on
Client/Server Model where a client requests file from Server and server sends requested resource
back to the client.
FTP uses out-of-band controlling i.e. FTP uses TCP port 20 for exchanging controlling
information and the actual data is sent over TCP port 21.
The client requests the server for a file. When the server receives a request for a file, it opens a
TCP connection for the client and transfers the file. After the transfer is complete, the server
closes the connection. For a second file, client requests again and the server reopens a new TCP
connection.

 PPP
Point to Point Protocol or PPP is a data link layer protocol that enables transmission of TCP/IP
traffic over serial connection, like telephone line.

To do this, PPP defines these three things −

 A framing method to clearly define end of one frame and start of another, incorporating
errors detection as well.
 Link control protocol (LCP) for bringing communication lines up, authenticating and
bringing them down when no longer needed.
 Network control protocol (NCP) for each network layer protocol supported by other
networks.
Using PPP, home users can avail Internet connection over telephone lines.
 Mobile Communication Protocols
Any device that does not need to remain at one place to carry out its functions is a mobile
device. So laptops, smartphones and personal digital assistants are some examples of mobile
devices. Due to their portable nature, mobile devices connect to networks wirelessly.
Mobile devices typically use radio waves to communicate with other devices and networks.
Mobile communication protocols use multiplexing to send information. Multiplexing is a
method to combine multiple digital or analog signals into one signal over the data channel. This
ensures optimum utilization of expensive resource and time. At the destination these signals are
de-multiplexed to recover individual signals.

These are the types of multiplexing options available to communication channels −

 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) − Here each user is assigned a different
frequency from the complete spectrum. All the frequencies can then simultaneously
travel on the data channel.
 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) − A single radio frequency is divided into multiple
slots and each slot is assigned to a different user. So multiple users can be supported
simultaneously.
 CDMA (Code Division Multiplexing) − Here several users share the same frequency
spectrum simultaneously. They are differentiated by assigning unique codes to them.
The receiver has the unique key to identify the individual calls.

 GSM
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communications. GSM is one of the most widely
used digital wireless telephony system. It was developed in Europe in 1980s and is now
international standard in Europe, Australia, Asia and Africa. Any GSM handset with a SIM
(Subscriber Identity Module) card can be used in any country that uses this standard. Every SIM
card has a unique identification number. It has memory to store applications and data like phone
numbers, processor to carry out its functions and software to send and receive messages
GSM technology uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) to support up to eight calls
simultaneously. It also uses encryption to make the data more secure.
The frequencies used by the international standard is 900 MHz to 1800 MHz However,
GSM phones used in the US use 1900 MHz frequency and hence are not compatible with
the international system.

 CDMA
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It was first used by the British military
during World War II. After the war its use spread to civilian areas due to high service quality.
As each user gets the entire spectrum all the time, voice quality is very high. Also, it is
automatically encrypted and hence provides high security against signal interception and
eavesdropping.

 WLL
WLL stands for Wireless in Local Loop. It is a wireless local telephone service that can be
provided in homes or offices. The subscribers connect to their local exchange instead of the
central exchange wirelessly. Using wireless link eliminates last mile or first mile construction of
network connection, thereby reducing cost and set up time. As data is transferred over very
short range, it is more secure than wired networks.
WLL system consists of user handsets and a base station. The base station is connected to the
central exchange as well as an antenna. The antenna transmits to and receives calls from users
through terrestrial microwave links. Each base station can support multiple handsets depending
on its capacity.

 GPRS
GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Services. It is a packet based wireless communication
technology that charges users based on the volume of data they send rather than the time
duration for which they are using the service. This is possible because GPRS sends data over
the network in packets and its throughput depends on network traffic. As traffic increases,
service quality may go down due to congestion, hence it is logical to charge the users as per
data volume transmitted.
GPRS is the mobile communication protocol used by second (2G) and third generation (3G) of
mobile telephony. It pledges a speed of 56 kbps to 114 kbps, however the actual speed may vary
depending on network load.
Email Protocols
Email is one of the most popular uses of Internet world wide. With email accounting for so
much traffic on the Internet, email protocols need to be very robust.

 SMTP
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is connection-oriented application
layer protocol that is widely used to send and receive email messages.
Mail servers and mail transfer agents use SMTP to both send and receive messages. However,
user level applications use it only for sending messages. For retrieving they use IMAP or POP3
because they provide mail box management

 POP3
POP3 or Post Office Protocol Version 3 is an application layer protocol used by email clients to
retrieve email messages from mail servers over TCP/IP network.
POP was designed to move the messages from server to local disk but version 3 has the option
of leaving a copy on the server
POP3 is a very simple protocol to implement but that limits its usage. For example, POP3
supports only one mail server for each mailbox.
It has now has been made obsolete by modern protocols like IMAP.

 IMAP
IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. It enables email clients to retrieve email
messages from mail servers over a TCP/IP connection. IMAP is designed to retrieve messages
from multiple mail servers and consolidate them all in the user’s mailbox.
A typical example is a corporate client handling multiple corporate accounts through a local
mailbox located on her system.
All modern email clients and servers like Gmail, Outlook and Yahoo Mail support IMAP or
POP3 protocol.
These are some advantages that IMAP offers over POP3 −

 Faster response time than POP3

 Multiple mail clients connected to a single mailbox simultaneously
 Keep track of message state like read, deleted, starred, replied, etc.
 Search for messages on the server
Communication Technologies - VoIP
VoIP is the acronym for Voice over Internet Protocol. It means telephone services over Internet.
Traditionally Internet had been used for exchanging messages but due to advancement in
technology, its service quality has increased manifold. It is now possible to deliver voice
communication over IP networks by converting voice data into packets.
VoIP is a set of protocols and systems developed to provide this service seamlessly.

Here are some of the protocols used for VoIP −

 H.323
 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
 Session Description Protocol (SDP)
 Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)
 Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
 Skype Protocol

We will discuss two of the most fundamental protocols – H.323 and SIP – here.

H.323
H.323 is a VoIP standard for defining the components, protocols and procedures to provide
real-time multimedia sessions including audio, video and data transmissions over packet
switched networks. Some of the services facilitated by H.323 include −

 IP telephony
 Video telephony
 Simultaneous audio, video and data communications

SIP
SIP is an acronym for Session Initiation Protocol. SIP is a protocol to establish, modify and
terminate multimedia sessions like IP telephony. All systems that need multimedia sessions are
registered and provided SIP address, much like IP address. Using this address, caller can check
callee’s availability and invite it for a VoIP session accordingly.
SIP facilitates multiparty multimedia sessions like video conferencing involving three or more
people. In a short span of time SIP has become integral to VoIP and largely replaced H.323.
Wireless Technologies
Wireless connection to internet is very common these days. Often an external modem is
connected to the Internet and other devices connect to it wirelessly. There are two ways of
connecting to the Internet wirelessly – Wi-Fi and WiMAX.

 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity.
Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve connection to the Internet without a direct cable between
device and Internet Service Provider. Wi-Fi enabled device and wireless router are required for
setting up a Wi-Fi connection. These are some characteristics of wireless Internet connection −

 Range of 100 yards

 Insecure connection
 Throughput of 10-12 Mbps

If a PC or laptop does not have Wi-Fi capacity, it can be added using a Wi-Fi card.
The physical area of the network which provides Internet access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi
hotspot.
Hotspots can be set up at home, office or any public space like airport, railway stations, etc.
Hotspots themselves are connected to the network through wires.

 WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

WiMax is a collection of wireless communication standards based on IEEE 802.16.
WiMax provides multiple physical layer and media access control (MAC) options.
These are some of the characteristics of WiMax −

 Broadband wireless access

 Range of 6 miles
 Multilevel encryption available
 Throughput of 72 Mbps

The main components of a WiMax unit are −

 WiMax Base Station − It is a tower similar to mobile towers and connected to Internet
through high speed wired connection.
 WiMax Subscriber Unit (SU) − It is a WiMax version of wireless modem. The only
difference is that modem is connected to the Internet through cable connection whereas
WiMax SU receives Internet connection wirelessly through microwaves.
 Application Protocols
There are several protocols which work for users in Application Layer. Application layer
protocols can be broadly divided into two categories:
 Protocols which are used by users. For email for example, eMail.
 Protocols which help and support protocols used by users. For example DNS.
Few of Application layer protocols are described below:

 Domain Name System

The Domain Name System (DNS) works on Client Server model. It uses UDP protocol for
transport layer communication. DNS uses hierarchical domain based naming scheme. The DNS
server is configured with Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN) and email addresses mapped
with their respective Internet Protocol addresses.
A DNS server is requested with FQDN and it responds back with the IP address mapped with it.
DNS uses UDP port 53.

 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used to transfer electronic mail from one user to
another. This task is done by means of email client software (User Agents) the user is using.
User Agents help the user to type and format the email and store it until internet is available.
When an email is submitted to send, the sending process is handled by Message Transfer Agent
which is normally comes inbuilt in email client software.
Message Transfer Agent uses SMTP to forward the email to another Message Transfer Agent
(Server side). While SMTP is used by end user to only send the emails, the Servers normally
use SMTP to send as well as receive emails. SMTP uses TCP port number 25 and 587.
Client software uses Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) or POP protocols to receive
emails.

 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

The Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the foundation of World Wide Web. Hypertext is
well organized documentation system which uses hyperlinks to link the pages in the text
documents. HTTP works on client server model. When a user wants to access any HTTP page
on the internet, the client machine at user end initiates a TCP connection to server on port 80.
When the server accepts the client request, the client is authorized to access web pages.
To access the web pages, a client normally uses web browsers, who are responsible for
initiating, maintaining, and closing TCP connections. HTTP is a stateless protocol, which
means the Server maintains no information about earlier requests by clients.
HTTP versions
 HTTP 1.0 uses non persistent HTTP. At most one object can be sent over a single TCP
connection.
 HTTP 1.1 uses persistent HTTP. In this version, multiple objects can be sent over a
single TCP connection.