FUNDAMENTALS OF DATA

COMMUNICATIONS

EGE203 – Topic 2
 Topic 2 - Learning Outcomes 2

 Student 1will be able to describe how data communications work and

identify the network layers using the Open Systems Interconnect
(OSI) seven-layer model together with the TCP/IP model

Application Application

Presentation Transport

Session Internet

Network Access
Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
 Topic 2A (Week #1) 3

~~ Data Communications
Concepts and Techniques ~~
 What is a Network? 4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wDsLHPDVzM

In the simplest form, a network is just 2 or more computers

connected together to share resources with one another.

In this section, we will look at how data communications take place.

 Data Communications 5

• Data exchange between 2 devices through a transmission medium

– Source device sends to Destination device
– Medium  wired or wireless

• Need reliability and efficiency

• Applications include
– Search Engines

– Social Networks

– Entertainment Networks

– E-commerce e.g. banking, travel, shopping etc

Check out most popular sites

Data Communication Model
6

DESTINATION

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
Wired (Fiber) or Wireless (Wifi/3G/4G LTE/5G)

SOURCE
Type of Transmission
7

• Data sent/received using a continuous waveform are Analog

• Data sent/received using 1 or 0 are Digital

– Data is discrete, either 1 or 0

• The world is moving from Analog  Digital data transmission

– All MediaCorp channels using digital broadcast from Dec 2013
– Singapore on Digital TV since Jan 19. Most countries on digital
Finland/Sweden 2007, Switzerland/Germany 2008, U.S. 2015
Analog Transmission
8

Analog signal
Analog data
e.g. voice Telephone

Analog signal
Digital data
ADSL
e.g. from PC Modem

Modem
 Modulator / demodulator
 Convert digital data to analog signal (modulate) and vice versa
(demodulate)
Digital Transmission
9

Digital signal
Analog data
e.g. voice Codec

Digital signal
Digital data Digital
e.g. from PC Transmitter
e.g. Fiber

Codec
 Coder / decoder
 Convert analog data to digital signal (coder) and vice versa (decoder)
Data Rate
10

Also called the bit rate

Is the number of bits transmitted per second
 Unit of measure is bits per second (bps)

Media Type Data Rate

YouTube HD video 10Mbps
SuperHD/4k Ultra HD 50Mbps
8k Ultra HD 90Mbps
Digital Bandwidth
11

How much data rate do you want?

Is it possible to have unlimited data rate?
All medium/technologies has LIMIT on amount of data it can carry
Medium  copper cable/ glass fiber / wireless space
Technologies  Wifi/ 3G / 4G LTE / 5G
Know the bandwidth to know which MEDIUM is BETTER
 Unit of bandwidth : bits per second (bps)
 Wired always faster than Wireless  Best media  Fiber
Data Rate – Broadband Connectivity
12

• Countries with the fastest average download speeds

– Every country racing to be faster
– World’s average keeps improving, download speed @66Mbps
(Aug19)

Source: https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/internet-speeds-by-country

Source: https://www.speedtest.net/insights/blog/2018-internet-speeds-global/
Data Rate – Mobile Connectivity
13

• Internet connection using mobile network (4G technologies)

– Mobile speeds increased >15% in 2018
– World average keeps improving, download speed @28Mbps (Aug19)

2018 records
Internet Speeds – Most Improved Countries
14

2018 records
Data Rate – iOS vs Android
15
• Apple devices were faster than Android in 2018
– Possibly as Android devices are more popular in emerging markets (BRICS, Mexico,
Turkey) where internet speeds tend to be slower

2018 records
Number Systems
16

• Decimal Number System (Base 10)

– Most commonly used by humans
– We can count 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 easily
– Powers of 10

• Binary Number System (Base 2)

– Computers only understand 0 and 1
– Powers of 2
Number Systems
17

Dec Hex Bin

• Computers also like Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16) 0 0 0000

– 16 symbols 1 1 0001
2 2 0010
– 0 - 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
3 3 0011
– Powers of 16 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
– 1 hexa digit represent 4 binary digits 6 6 0110
7 7 0111

– Make writing large binary numbers easier 8 8 1000

9 9 1001
• E.g. 0010 0001 0000 0010  0x 2102
10 A 1010
11 B 1011
12 C 1100
– What number comes after 0x1F? 13 D 1101
• 0,1,2,3…8,9,A,B..E,F,10,11,12..18,19,1A,1B..1F,??? 14 E 1110
15 F 1111
Bits and Bytes
18

Bit  short form for Binary digIT

 Either 0 or 1
 Binary 0  0 volts of electricity
 Binary 1  +5 volts of electricity

8 bits = 1 byte
 1 byte  1 character
 E.g. The word ‘Hello’ has 5 bytes

Many bytes
 We are now into Terabytes (TB)
Base 10 Decimal System
19

Uses ten digits 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

 E.g, the decimal number 6,357 has four digits.
 The 7 is filling the 1s place
 The 5 is filling the 10s place
 The 3 is filling the 100s place
 The 6 is filling the 1,000s place resulting in
(6 * 1000) + (3 * 100) + (5 * 10) + (7 * 1) = 6000 + 300 + 50 + 7 = 6357

Use powers of 10

(6 * 103) + (3 * 102) + (5 * 101) + (7 * 100) = 6000+300+50+ 7 = 6357

 Start with 100 and increase the power by 1 for each number.
Base 2 Binary System
20

Uses 0 or 1
Uses powers of 2

27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

E.g. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1  128 + 1 = 129

Review Questions
21

1. Which is the fastest network media?

a) Fiber optic cable
b) Phone cable
c) Wireless

2. Which number system is used by computers?

a) Binary
b) Decimal
c) Hexadecimal
d) Octal
 Week #2: Lesson Objectives 22

1 2

Describe network Identify and able to configure

communications using the valid IP addresses using the
ISO-OSI model (Topic 2B) IPv4 Addressing Scheme
(Topic 5A)
Topic 2B – ISO-OSI Model (Part 1) 23

~~ ISO-OSI Reference Model (Part 1) ~~

Those were the days…
24

• Mid-1960s
– Uses BIG Mainframe computers
– They are standalone machines
– Computers from different manufacturers cannot talk

• 1969 – ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network)

– Sponsored by DOD (US MINDEF)
• Want indestructible network
• 1st success : Connected 4 U.S. universities

• 1973 – Somewhere else, development of TCP/IP started

– Open standard; free for all to use
Those were the days…
25

• 1975 – AT&T created the UNIX OS

– Gave free source code to universities

• 1983
– UC Berkeley added TCP/IP into its UNIX BSD 4.2
• Help popularize networking
– TCP/IP becomes official protocol for ARPANET

• Internet Today
– Made up of many WAN and LANs
– Runs on TCP/IP
– Run by private companies (ISPs), not the government
OSI Model
26

Networks grew and grew in early 1980s

 Network vendors ‘do as they like’
 No standards to follow; different implementations
 Incompatibility between different vendors

Open Systems Interconnection reference model

 Introduce in 1984 by ISO
 ISO is International Organization for Standards
 To solve this inoperability issue
 Break network communications into smaller parts
Consists of 7 separate but related layers
Each layer defines its network function
 A teaching model to understand how info travels through a
network
OSI Model – 7 Layers
27
28
Let’s Fast Forward to IP Addressing in the Network Layer
29

Topic 5A Application

Presentation

We will come back later…

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Topic 2C – ISO-OSI Model (Part 2) 30

~~ ISO-OSI Reference Model (Part 2) ~~

Recap on OSI-Model
31

Application

Let’s take a high-level peek Presentation

on each layer…
Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Layer 7 – Application Layer
32

A starting point
 For user to access network using apps/services
 Data is generated

Web Browsers: Chrome, IE, Mozilla, Opera, Safari

Transfer info on Internet; browsing Web sites
Instant Communication/Messaging : WhatsApp, Skype, QQ
Real-time instant communication
Internet Mail: Gmail, Outlook, Yahoo
Store & send mail messages/attachments
 File Download: IE, WS_FTP, CuteFTP
Download/Upload files
Layer 6 – Presentation Layer
33

 Data Translation
 Change data into ASCII code

 Data Compression
 Reduce no. of bits in info
Especially for sending video and audio

 Data Encryption
 For private & sensitive info ( e.g. credit card no.)

 Layer 6 is usually used in programming

Layer 5 – Session Layer
34

 Dialog control
Keep track of whose turn to transmit
Send 2-ways at the same time (full-duplex)
Send 1- way at a time (half-duplex)

 Synchronization between systems

 Add checkpoints into data stream

 Layer 5 is usually used in programming

Layer 4 – Transport Layer
35

Use between end-to-end systems!

 Chops long data into smaller segments so that data arrive
correctly and in order

Has Error control

 Use CRC [Cyclic Redundancy Check] checksum to check for errors
 Resend on error

Has Flow control

 Negotiate data rate before transmission
 Prevent receiver being overwhelmed by data
Layer 4 – Transport Layer
36

From Session Layer

L5 Data (How are you?)

Header info (H4) Data 1 (How) H4 Data 2 (are) H4 Data 3 (you?)

L4 Data (H4 + Data1) L4 Data (H4 + Data2) L4 Data (H4 + Data3)

To network layer
Layer 3 – Network Layer
37

• PC A wants to send message to PC X

– How to send? Which path to take?

A
R4
R2

B SW
R6
X

R1
R3 R5
Layer 3 – Network Layer
38

Which path to take?

Layer 3 – Network Layer
39

Routers belong here!

Routers are like MRT stations
They connect different LANs
Routers choose BEST path to send packets
Use IP addresses e.g. 10.20.30.168

Best path depends on

Hop Count
Bandwidth
Load
Reliability
Cost More of this later on…
Layer 2 – Data Link Layer
40

Link
Link

Link
Link Link

Data Link Data Link Data Link

End-to-End (Transport layer)

Layer 2 – Data Link Layer
41

Use between link-to-link!

 Responsibility: Provides reliable data transmission across
link; same as Transport layer 4
 Include MAC addresses into frames

Has Flow control

 Both Sender and Receiver MUST negotiate
 Ensure receiver not overwhelmed by too much data

Has Error control

 Use CRC checksum to check for errors
 Resend damaged/ lost frames
Layer 1 – Physical Layer
42

Think of cables!
 Uses bits (0s & 1s) to send data

Focus on mechanical & electrical specifications

 Voltage level [5V = 1 bit, 0V = 0 bit]
 Data rate [data sent out at 10bits/sec]
 Type of connectors [RJ45?]
 Max transmission distance
 Transmission mode
Simplex [one way communication; TV distribution]
Half-duplex [can send/receive but not at the same time]
Full-duplex [can send/receive at the same time; telephone line]
Data Encapsulation
43

Types email: How are you?

Data: How are you?

Segment1, Segment2, Segment3

Packet1, Packet2, Packet3

Frame1, Frame2, Frame3

Bit 0001110000
44
Data Encapsulation Example
45

At Application Layer 7 :
Data L7 Data (How are you?)

At Transport Layer 4 :
So that we can get take the
Segments 1 Data (How) 2 Data (are) 3 Data (you?)
data stream and sequence it
in order

At Network Layer 3 : To Network layer So that we can tell the

Packets IP 1 Data (How) IP 2 Data (are) IP 3 Data (you?) network packet where to
route

At Data Link Layer 2 : So that we can take

To DataLink layer the packet and place
Frames MAC IP 1 Data (How) MAC IP 2 Data (are) MAC IP 3 Data (you?)
them in the correct
network medium
At Physical Layer 1 :
To Physical layer
Bits 01000111010100010100010101000101010101010
 46
Layer Protocol
Data Unit
Function
OSI-Model
(Recap)
Application High-level APIs, Application Services
Presentation Data Data Representation and Encryption
Session Managing communication sessions
Transport Segments End to end transmission of data
segments between network points
Network Packets Addressing, routing and traffic control
etc. (Logical Addressing)
Data Link Frames Reliable transmission of data frames
(Physical Addressing)
Physical Bits Transmission and reception of raw bit
streams via media, signal or binary
transmissions
Review Questions
47

1. What is the main function of the transport layer?

a) Find out which way to take to deliver message to destination
b) Let user generate data to send
c) Ensure data delivered correctly from sender to receiver
d) Use cables to send data

2. As a data packet moves from Application to the Physical layer,

extra info called headers are _________.
a) Added
b) Subtracted
c) Rearranged
d) Modified
 48

~~ TCP/IP Model ~~
TCP/IP Model
49

• OSI Model is a Teaching Model

– International standard set in 1980s
– 7 layers to describe how network operates

• TCP/IP Model is a Working Model

– Tested successfully on the Internet in 1970s, before OSI was
created
– Uses protocols (rules)
• 4 layers to describe the various protocols
TCP/IP vs OSI Model
50

7 Application

6 Presentation 4 Application

5 Session
4 Transport 3 Transport

3 Network 2 Internet
Data Link
2
1 Network Access
1 Physical
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP Protocols
51

Application HTTP/
FTP DHCP DNS SMTP TELNET
HTTPS

Transport TCP UDP

Internet IP RARP ARP ICMP IGMP

Network
e.g. Cable (Ethernet/ADSL…), Fiber, Wireless
Access
Review Questions
52

1. How many layers are there in the TCP/IP model?

a) 4
Note: 4 layers is for the original TCP/IP model
b) 5
c) 6 In the second version TCP/IP model, it got 5 layers
d) 7 (Application, Transport, Network, Data-Link, Physical)
Source: https://www.ccnahub.com/ip-fundamentals/understanding-tcp-ip-and-osi-models/

2. Application, Presentation & Session layers in the OSI model is merged

into ____ layer in the TCP/IP model.
a) Application
b) Transport
c) Internet
d) Network Access