Module-5

Quantum computation and information

Moore’s law:
It is an observation that, the number of transistors on a microchip roughly doubles every two years, whereas its
cost halved over that same time frame.
 PAULI MATRICES
Show that, Pauli matrices are Unitary matrices
0 1 0 1 1 0
𝜎𝑥2 = 𝜎𝑥 ∙ 𝜎𝑥 = = =I
Pauli matrices are 2x2 matrices 1 0 1 0 0 1
𝜎𝑥 ∙ 𝜎𝑥 =I implies that, 𝜎𝑥−1 = 𝜎𝑥 ,
0 1 0 −𝑖 1 0
𝜎𝑥 = ; 𝜎𝑦 = ; 𝜎𝑧 =
1 0 𝑖 0 0 −1 i.e, 𝜎𝑥 has self inverse, Hence 𝜎𝑥 is unitary matrix

• Pauli matrices are named after an Austrian

0 −𝑖 0 −𝑖 1 0
Physicist Wolfgang Pauli 𝜎𝑦2 = 𝜎𝑦 ∙ 𝜎𝑦 = = =I
𝑖 0 𝑖 0 0 1
𝜎𝑦 ∙ 𝜎𝑦 =I implies that, 𝜎𝑦−1 = 𝜎𝑦 ,
• Pauli matrices are Hermitian and unitary
i.e, 𝜎𝑦 has self inverse, hence 𝜎𝑦 is unitary matrix
• Pauli matrices describes spin half particles.

• Pauli matrices are used to construct

𝜎=𝜎∙𝜎= 1 0 1 0 = 1 0 =I
0 1 0 1 0 1
quantum gates 𝜎 ∙ 𝜎=I implies that, 𝜎= 𝜎 ,
i.e, 𝜎 has self inverse, Hence 𝜎 is unitary matrix
show that, Pauli matrices are Hermitian matrices

0 1 0 −𝑖 1 0
𝜎𝑥 = ; 𝜎𝑦 = ; 𝜎𝑧 = ;
1 0 𝑖 0 0 −1
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝜎𝑥† 0 𝑖 𝑇 0 −𝑖 1 0 1 0
𝜎𝑦∗ = ; 𝜎𝑦∗ = 𝜎𝑧∗ = ; 𝜎𝑧∗ 𝑇
=
−𝑖 0 𝑖 0 0 −1 0 −1
0 1 0 1
𝜎𝑥∗ = ; 𝜎𝑥∗ 𝑇
= & 0 𝑖 ∗ 0 −𝑖 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 𝜎𝑦𝑇 = ; 𝜎𝑦𝑇 = 𝜎𝑦𝑇 = ; 𝜎𝑧𝑇 ∗ =
−𝑖 0 𝑖 0 0 −1 0 −1
0 1 0 1
𝜎𝑥𝑇 = ; 𝜎𝑥𝑇 ∗ = 𝑇 ∗
𝑠𝑜, 𝜎𝑧† = 𝜎𝑧∗ 𝑇 = 𝜎𝑧𝑇 ∗
1 0 1 0 𝑠𝑜, 𝜎𝑦† = 𝜎𝑦∗ = 𝜎𝑦𝑇 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧
𝑠𝑜, 𝜎𝑥† = 𝜎𝑥∗ 𝑇 = 𝜎𝑥𝑇 ∗
= 𝜎𝑥 Therefore, 𝜎𝑦 is self adjoint matrix or Therefore, 𝜎𝑧 is self adjoint matrix or
Therefore, 𝜎𝑋 is self adjoint matrix or 𝜎𝑦 is Hermitian matrix 𝜎𝑦 is Hermitian matrix
𝜎𝑥 is Hermitian matrix
 DIRACS NOTATIONS
The states 0 and 1 are represented using Dirac notation in quantum regime:
notation ȁ0ۧ => denotes ket 0 state and notation ȁ1ۧ ⇒ denotes ket 1 state

1 0
matrix form of ȁ0ۧ= ; and Matrix form of ȁ1ۧ=
0 1
The states ȁ0ۧ and ȁ1ۧ are elementary vectors in Hilbert space.
The superposition state ȁѱۧ

Hilbert space is complex vector space with inner product.

Every vector in Hilbert space is associated with a physical system.

Inner product between two vector u and v in complex vector space is denoted as ⟨𝑢│𝑣ۧ

If the vector u is normalized ⟨𝑢│𝑢ۧ=1

If the vector u and v are orthogonal ⟨𝑢│𝑣ۧ=0

 PAULI MATRICES AND ITS OPERATION ON QUBITS
𝜎 operating on ȁ0ۧ 𝜎𝑥 operating on ȁ1ۧ ȁ0ۧ ȁ1ۧ
0 1 ȁ ۧ 0 𝜎𝑥 ȁ1ۧ ȁ0ۧ
𝜎= 0 1 ; ȁ0ۧ= 1 ; 𝜎𝑥 = ; 1= ;
1 0 0 1 0 1 𝜎𝑦 iȁ1ۧ -iȁ0ۧ
𝜎ȁ0ۧ = 0 1 1 = 0 = ȁ1ۧ 0 1 0 1 𝜎𝑧 ȁ0ۧ -ȁ1ۧ
1 0 0 1 𝜎𝑥 ȁ1ۧ = = = ȁ0ۧ
1 0 1 0

𝜎𝑦 operating on ȁ0ۧ 𝜎𝑦 operating on ȁ1ۧ

0 −𝑖 ȁ ۧ 1 0 −𝑖 ȁ ۧ 0
𝜎𝑦 = ; 0= ; 𝜎𝑦 = ; 1= ;
𝑖 0 0 𝑖 0 1
0 −𝑖 1 0 0 0 −𝑖 0 −𝑖 1
𝜎𝑦 ȁ0ۧ = ;= =𝑖 = 𝑖 ȁ1ۧ 𝜎𝑦 ȁ1ۧ = = = −𝑖 =- 𝑖 ȁ0ۧ
𝑖 0 0 𝑖 1 𝑖 0 1 0 0

𝜎𝑧 operating on ȁ0ۧ 𝜎 operating on ȁ1ۧ 𝜎𝑥 ȁ0ۧ= ȁ1ۧ ; 𝜎𝑥 ȁ1ۧ = ȁ0ۧ

1 0 1 𝜎𝑦 ȁ0ۧ = 𝑖ȁ1ۧ; 𝜎𝑦 ȁ1ۧ = -𝑖 ȁ0ۧ

𝜎𝑧 = ; ȁ0ۧ= ; 𝜎= 1 0 ; 1= 0
0 −1 0 0 −1 ȁ ۧ 1 𝜎𝑧 ȁ0ۧ = ȁ0ۧ; 𝜎𝑧 ȁ1ۧ = -ȁ1ۧ
1 0 1 1 𝜎ȁ1ۧ = 1 0 0 = 0 = -ȁ1ۧ
𝜎𝑧 ȁ0ۧ = = = ȁ0ۧ
0 −1 0 0 0 −1 1 −1
PAULI X-GATE

X-GATE : This gate is represented by the Pauli matrix 𝜎𝑥 . symbol for X- gate is X
o It maps ket ȁ0ۧ to ȁ1ۧ and ket ȁ1ۧ to ȁ0ۧ. X
Truth table for X-gate
o So it is equivalent to classical NOT gate.
Input for X-gate output
Symbol
o Hence it is called QUANTUM NOT GATE. ȁ0ۧ ȁ1ۧ
o It is also called BIT-FLIP GATE. ȁ1ۧ ȁ0ۧ
• X-gate operating on ȁ𝟎ۧ 𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ 𝛼ȁ1ۧ + βȁ0ۧ
0 1 1 0
X-gate = 𝜎𝑥 ; Xȁ0ۧ = 𝜎𝑥 ȁ0ۧ = = = ȁ1ۧ
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0
• X-gate operating on ȁ𝟏ۧ Note: X.X= = =I ;
1 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 Therefore two X-gates connected in
X-gate = 𝜎𝑥 ; Xȁ1ۧ = 𝜎𝑥 ȁ1ۧ = = = ȁ0ۧ
1 0 1 0 series is equivalent to a quantum wire.
• X-gate operating on superposition state 𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ
ȁ𝜓ۧ X X ȁ𝜓ۧ
X(𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ) =𝑋𝛼ȁ0ۧ + 𝑋βȁ1ۧ = 𝛼 𝑋ȁ0ۧ + β 𝑋ȁ1ۧ = 𝛼 ȁ1ۧ +βȁ0ۧ
PAULI Y-GATE

Y-GATE : This gate is represented by the Pauli matrix 𝜎𝑦 . symbol for Y- gate is Y X
It maps ket ȁ0ۧ to iȁ1ۧ and ket ȁ1ۧ to –iȁ0ۧ.
• Y-gate operating on ȁ𝟎ۧ Symbol for X-gate
Truth table for Y-gate
0 −𝑖 1 0 0 Input output
Y-gate = 𝜎𝑦 ; Yȁ0ۧ = 𝜎𝑦 ȁ0ۧ = ;= =𝑖 = 𝑖 ȁ1ۧ
𝑖 0 0 𝑖 1
ȁ0ۧ iȁ1ۧ
• Y-gate operating on ȁ𝟏ۧ
ȁ1ۧ -iȁ0ۧ
0 −𝑖 0 −𝑖 1
Y-gate = 𝜎𝑦 ; Yȁ1ۧ = 𝜎𝑦 ȁ1ۧ = = = −𝑖 = - 𝑖 ȁ0ۧ
𝑖 0 1 0 0
𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ 𝑖𝛼ȁ1ۧ - 𝑖βȁ0ۧ
• Y-gate operating on superposition state 𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ
Y(𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ) =Y𝛼ȁ0ۧ + Yβȁ1ۧ = 𝛼 𝑌ȁ0ۧ + β 𝑌ȁ1ۧ = i𝛼 ȁ1ۧ - iβȁ0ۧ
PAULI Z-GATE

Z-GATE : This gate is represented by the Pauli matrix 𝜎𝑧 . symbol for Z- gate is Z X
It maps ket ȁ0ۧ toȁ0ۧand ket ȁ1ۧ to –ȁ1ۧ.
• Z-gate operating on ȁ𝟎ۧ Symbol for X-gate
Truth table for Z-gate
1 0 1 1
Z-gate = 𝜎𝑧 ; Zȁ0ۧ = 𝜎𝑧 ȁ0ۧ = = = ȁ0ۧ Input output
0 −1 0 0
ȁ0ۧ ȁ0ۧ
• Z-gate operating on ȁ𝟏ۧ
ȁ1ۧ –ȁ1ۧ
1 0 0 0
Z-gate = 𝜎𝑧 ; Zȁ1ۧ = 𝜎𝑧 ȁ1ۧ = = = -ȁ1ۧ
0 −1 1 −1
𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ 𝛼 ȁ0ۧ - βȁ1ۧ
• Z-gate operating on superposition state 𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ
Z(𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ) =Z𝛼ȁ0ۧ + Zβȁ1ۧ = 𝛼 𝑍ȁ0ۧ + β 𝑍ȁ1ۧ = 𝛼 ȁ0ۧ - βȁ1ۧ
HADAMARD GATE

H-GATE : This is truly a quantum gate. symbol for H- gate is H Truth

X table for H-gate
matrix representation of hadamard gate is 𝐻 = 1 1 Input output
1 −1
Symbol
ȁ0ۧ for X-gate ȁ0ۧ + ȁ1ۧ = ȁ+ۧ
It maps ket ȁ0ۧ and ket ȁ1ۧ to superposition of ȁ0ۧ and ȁ1ۧ states. ȁ1ۧ ȁ0ۧ - ȁ1ۧ = ȁ−ۧ
• H-gate operating on ȁ𝟎ۧ 𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ 𝛼 ȁ+ۧ + βȁ−ۧ

𝐻 = 1 1 ; Hȁ0ۧ = 1 1 1 = 1 = ȁ+ۧ
1 −1 1 −1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
= + = ȁ0ۧ + ȁ1ۧ
• H-gate operating on ȁ𝟏ۧ 2 1 2 0 2 1 2 2

ȁ0ۧ + ȁ1ۧ
𝐻= 1 1 ; Hȁ1ۧ = 1 1 0 = 1 = ȁ−ۧ = = ȁ+ۧ
1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 2
Similarly,
• H-gate operating on superposition state 𝛼 ȁ0ۧ + β ȁ1ۧ 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
= - = ȁ0ۧ - ȁ1ۧ
2 −1 2 0 2 1 2 2
H(𝛼 ȁ0ۧ + β ȁ1ۧ) =H𝛼 ȁ0ۧ + Hβ ȁ1ۧ = 𝛼 𝐻 ȁ0ۧ + β 𝐻 ȁ1ۧ = 𝛼 ȁ+ۧ + β ȁ−ۧ
ȁ0ۧ − ȁ1ۧ
= = ȁ−ۧ
2
PHASE GATE or S - GATE
S-GATE : This is truly a quantum gate. symbol for S - gate is S
1 0 Truth table for H-gate
matrix representation of phase gate is S= X
0 𝑖 Input output
this gate maps ket ȁ0ۧ to ȁ0ۧ and ket ȁ1ۧ to iȁ1ۧ state. ȁ0ۧ ȁ0ۧ
Symbol for X-gate
• S-gate operating on ȁ𝟎ۧ ȁ1ۧ 𝑖 ȁ1ۧ
1 0 1 0 1 1 𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ 𝛼 ȁ0ۧ + iβȁ1ۧ
S= ; Sȁ0ۧ = = = ȁ0ۧ
0 𝑖 0 𝑖 0 0
• S-gate operating on ȁ𝟏ۧ
Note: S ∙ 𝑺= 1 0 1 0 = 1 0 =𝜎;
0 𝑖 0 𝑖 0 −1
1 0 1 0 0 0
S= ; Sȁ1ۧ = = = 𝑖 ȁ1ۧ Therefore two S-gates connected in series is
0 𝑖 0 𝑖 1 𝑖
• S-gate operating on superposition state 𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ equivalent to a Pauli Z-gate.
S(𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ) =S𝛼ȁ0ۧ + Sβȁ1ۧ = 𝛼 𝑆ȁ0ۧ + β 𝑆ȁ1ۧ = 𝛼 ȁ0ۧ + iβȁ1ۧ
S S ≅ Z
T-GATE
T-GATE : This is truly a quantum gate. symbol for T - gate is T
Truth table for H-gate
matrix representation of T-gate is T= 1 0 Input X output
0 𝑒
ȁ0ۧ ȁ0ۧ
this gate maps ket ȁ0ۧ to ȁ0ۧ and ket ȁ1ۧ to 𝑒 ȁ1ۧ state.
ȁ1ۧ for X-gate 𝑒 𝑖𝜋4 ȁ1ۧ
Symbol
• T-gate operating on ȁ𝟎ۧ 𝜋
𝛼ȁ0ۧ + βȁ1ۧ 𝑖4
𝛼 ȁ0ۧ + 𝑒 βȁ1ۧ
T= 1 0 ; Tȁ0ۧ = 1 0 1 = 1 = ȁ0ۧ
0 𝑒 0 𝑒 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Note: T∙T= 𝜋
𝑖4
𝜋
𝑖4 = =S;
• T-gate operating on ȁ𝟏ۧ 0 𝑒 0 𝑒 0 𝑖
Therefore two T-gates connected in series is
T= 1 0 ; Tȁ1ۧ = 1 0 0 = 0 = 𝑒 ȁ1ۧ
0 𝑒 0 𝑒 1 𝑒 equivalent to a S-GATE.
• S-gate operating on superposition state 𝛼 ȁ0ۧ + β ȁ1ۧ
T T ≅ S
T(𝛼 ȁ0ۧ + β ȁ1ۧ) =T𝛼 ȁ0ۧ + Tβ ȁ1ۧ = 𝛼 𝑇 ȁ0ۧ + β 𝑇 ȁ1ۧ = 𝛼 ȁ0ۧ + 𝑒β ȁ1ۧ
Q: Check the orthogonality of the basis vectors ȁ𝟎ۧ and ȁ𝟏ۧ
Solution: Two vectors are orthogonal if the inner product between them is zero.
Ket ȁ0ۧ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ȁ1ൿ are orthogonal if, 0 1 = 0
1 0
Matrix form of 𝑘𝑒𝑡 ȁ0ۧ = 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑒𝑡 ȁ1ۧ = 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
0 1
Matrix form of bra ⟨0ȁ = 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑟𝑎 ⟨1ȁ = 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 0 1
[bra ⟨0ȁ is the complex conjugate of 𝑘𝑒𝑡 ȁ0ۧ]
0
So 0 1 = 1 0 = 0 ; implies ket ȁ0ۧ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ȁ1ൿ are orthogonal.
1

Q: verify whether the vectors ȁ𝒖ۧ and ȁ𝒗ۧ are orthogonal or not?
given ȁ𝒖ۧ = 1 and ȁ𝒗ۧ = 1
1 −1

ANS: Two vectors are orthogonal if the inner product between them is zero.
vectors ȁ𝑢ۧ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ȁ𝑣ۧ are orthogonal if, 𝑢 𝑣 = 0
So 𝑢 𝑣 = 1 1 1 = [1.1+(1.-1)] = 0 ;
−1
implies that vectors ȁ𝑢ۧ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ȁ𝑣ۧ are orthogonal.
 𝛼1 𝛽 ∗
Q: 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 ȁ𝜓ۧ = 𝛼 and ȁ𝜑ۧ = 1 ; show that 𝜓 𝜑 = ⟨𝜑│𝜓ۧ
2 𝛽2
solution:
𝛽1
𝜓 𝜑 = 𝛼1 ∗ 𝛼2 ∗ = (𝛼1 ∗ 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 ∗ 𝛽2 )
𝛽2

𝛼1 ∗ ∗
⟨𝜑│𝜓ۧ = 𝛽1 ∗ 𝛽2 ∗𝛼2 = (𝛽 1 𝛼1 + 𝛽 2 𝛼2 )
∗
⟨𝜑│𝜓ۧ = (𝛽1 ∗ 𝛼1 + 𝛽2 ∗ 𝛼2 )∗ = (𝛼1 ∗ 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 ∗ 𝛽2 ) = 𝜓 𝜑

𝟏 𝟏
ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐
Q: 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕, 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 𝑨 = 𝒊 −𝒊 is unitary
ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐

Solution:
Matrix A is Unitary if A𝐴† = I, or 𝐴† = A ; where 𝐴† = 𝐴∗ 𝑇

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒊 𝟏 𝟏
ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐
𝑨= 𝒊 −𝒊 ; 𝐴∗ = 𝟏 −𝒊
; 𝐴∗ 𝑇 = 𝒊 −𝒊 = 𝐴†
ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐 ൗ 𝟐

So 𝐴† = A; therefore the given matrix A is Unitary