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Communications Toolkit 4th Edition Jane Grellier Download

The document is a promotional and informational piece about the 'Communications Toolkit 4th Edition' by Jane Grellier and Veronica Goerke, which aims to support students transitioning into higher education. It outlines the contents of the book, including various academic skills and communication strategies essential for success in tertiary studies. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of effective communication and the role of educators in facilitating student learning and engagement.

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100% found this document useful (3 votes)
60 views56 pages

Communications Toolkit 4th Edition Jane Grellier Download

The document is a promotional and informational piece about the 'Communications Toolkit 4th Edition' by Jane Grellier and Veronica Goerke, which aims to support students transitioning into higher education. It outlines the contents of the book, including various academic skills and communication strategies essential for success in tertiary studies. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of effective communication and the role of educators in facilitating student learning and engagement.

Uploaded by

ymgrlnvw547
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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JANE GRELLIER & VERONICA GOERKE
Communications Toolkit © 2018 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
4th Edition
Jane Grellier Copyright Notice
Veronica Goerke This Work is copyright. No part of this Work may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior
written permission of the Publisher. Except as permitted under the
Publishing manager: Dorothy Chiu Copyright Act 1968, for example any fair dealing for the purposes of private
Senior publishing editor: Fiona Hammond study, research, criticism or review, subject to certain limitations. These
Developmental editor: Jacqueline Flynn/Carly Slater/Vicki limitations include: Restricting the copying to a maximum of one chapter or
Stegink 10% of this book, whichever is greater; providing an appropriate notice and
Project editor: Sutha Surenddar warning with the copies of the Work disseminated; taking all reasonable
Cover design: Watershed Design (Leigh Ashforth) steps to limit access to these copies to people authorised to receive these
Text design: Jennai Lee Fai copies; ensuring you hold the appropriate Licences issued by the
Editor: Duncan Campbell-Avenell Copyright Agency Limited (“CAL”), supply a remuneration notice to CAL and
Proofreader: James Anderson pay any required fees. For details of CAL licences and remuneration notices
Permissions/Photo researcher: Helen Mammides please contact CAL at Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street, Sydney NSW 2000,
Project designer: Petrina Griffin Tel: (02) 9394 7600, Fax: (02) 9394 7601
Typeset by Cenveo Publisher Services Email: info@copyright.com.au
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Any URLs contained in this publication were checked for
currency during the production process. Note, however, that For product information and technology assistance,
the publisher cannot vouch for the ongoing currency of URLs. in Australia call 1300 790 853;
in New Zealand call 0800 449 725

Acknowledgements For permission to use material from this text or product, please email
We would like to acknowledge the work of past students that aust.permissions@cengage.com
appear in this text. Every effort has been made to contact
them. (as in 3e ©) National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Creator: Jane Grellier, author.
Every effort has been made to track and acknowledge Title: Communications toolkit / Jane Grellier, Veronica Goerke
copyright. However, if any infringement has occurred, the Edition: 4th edition
publishers tender their apologies and invite the copyright ISBN: 9780170401623 (spiral)
holder to contact them. Notes: Includes index.
Subjects: Engineering communication
Science communication
Communication skills
Professional communication skills
Other Creators/Contributors:
Veronica Goerke, author.

Cengage Learning Australia


Level 7, 80 Dorcas Street
South Melbourne, Victoria Australia 3205

Cengage Learning New Zealand


Unit 4B Rosedale Office Park
331 Rosedale Road, Albany, North Shore 0632, NZ

For learning solutions, visit cengage.com.au

Printed in China by 1010 Printing International Limited.


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22 21 20 19 18
CONTENTS
Foreword vi
About the authors viii
Acknowledgements ix
Before you read this book xi
Guide to the text xii
Guide to the online resources xv

Part 1 – Transitioning to tertiary studies 1


1 Making the transition 2
2 Developing effective study skills 20

Part 2 – Research skills 35


3 Identifying appropriate resources 36
4 Evaluating your resources 54
5 Referencing 66

Part 3 – Academic writing 95


6 Approaches to writing 96
7 Reflective writing 120
8 Report writing 142
9 Academic essay writing 167
10 Some other tertiary genres 186

Part 4 – Refining your writing 205


11 Two principles of good academic writing 206
12 Grammar, punctuation and spelling 232

Part 5 – Face-to-face communication 267


13 Interpersonal skills 268
14 Intercultural communication 287
15 Teamwork 305
16 Presentations 319
17 How far you’ve come! 342
Index 349
FOREWORD
In Australia’s massified, if not now universal, higher education system, students enter our
institutions with great diversity in academic preparedness, with varying social and cultural
capital and with differing, often ill-formed, expectations of what is involved in tertiary
study. In their first weeks and months, students report that they are frequently confounded
by a lack of clarity regarding what is required for success. Many also find our institutional
and academic language, not to mention discipline conventions, impenetrable. For too many
commencing students, the transition to first year in higher education is an anxious journey
from the known and familiar to the unknown and indecipherable.
Students’ successful transitions into, through and out of higher education have been issues
of concern and dedicated research in higher education nationally and internationally for
decades. It is clear that the cost and impact of student departure are highest in the first year –
for government, institutions, individuals, their communities and society at large, across a
spectrum of reputational, ethical, personal, economic and legal dimensions. In Australia,
the introduction of the demand driven system and targeted funding for access and widening
participation by non-traditional cohorts have further underscored the imperative for our
sector to be clear about what works for inclusive learning, success and retention, in the
context of student heterogeneity as the new normal.
And that imperative is only sharpening. In 2015, the nation’s regulatory and quality
agency, the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA), was given a fresh
mandate under the (then new) Higher Education Standards Framework (Threshold Standards)
to oversee higher education providers’ performance on student attrition, retention and
success. Specific standards have made the threshold requirements in this regard even clearer
than was previously the case, most relevantly in this context the provisions of Clause 1.3
Orientation and Progression. HE providers are now held accountable for the delivery of
strategies to support successful student transition, regardless of ‘educational background,
entry pathway, mode or place of study’, by way of early needs assessment, good learning
and teaching, quality curriculum design, the timely provision of support services and
monitoring for unsatisfactory progress.
In 2017, the stakes got higher again. Consequent on the government’s proposed
introduction of a 7.5 per cent performance-based element to the Commonwealth Grant
Scheme, the release in June of both the TEQSA Report on first year attrition1 and the
Higher Education Standards Panel’s Discussion Paper on improving retention, completion
and success in higher education 2 have once again (re)focused sector attention.
In this context, an important part of equitably unpacking for all students the culture
of higher education and its disciplines is to be explicit about the expectations of tertiary

1
Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency. 2017. ‘Characteristics of Australian Higher
Education Providers and Their Relation to First-year Student Attrition.’ Melbourne: Australian
Government Department of Education and Training.
2
Higher Education Standards Panel. 2017. ‘Improving Retention, Completion and Success in
Higher Education: HESP Discussion Paper.’ Australian Government Department of Education and
Training.

vi
FOREWORD vii

study and the criteria for successful engagement with it. Given the foreseeability of
transition hurdles, there is an onus on us to articulate, clearly and consistently, not only the
explicit but also the hidden rules, expectations and behaviours fundamental to learning
engagement and success. If we expect first-year students to become independent and self-
managing learners, they must be supported in their early development and acquisition
of the tools they need – transferable academic skills – to engage productively with the
learning and assessment tasks we design for them. Mastery of these basic enabling skills
is foundational for later years’ learning success in all disciplines and for future learning.
Essentially also, their attainment presages the acquisition of key graduate attributes,
outcomes which TEQSA requires HE providers to evidence and the employability skills
that are demanded of graduates on entry into the workplace.
This book makes clear for all students, whatever their background or prior learning, the
substance of the academic skills in which they must be proficient. It does so comprehensively
and accessibly, in a manner that is direct, inclusive, motivational and student-friendly. The
practical advice, tips and strategies that are presented provide novice learners with the
opportunity to acquire the threshold skills and literacies many degree programs assume
already exist. In this way, the book makes explicit many of the hidden curriculum’s rules
and expectations, while also surfacing the potential for disciplinary difference. Critically
for first-year success, the authors acknowledge early the importance of the social context of
learning and seek to normalise the predictable anxiety many new learners will encounter
over the course of their early engagement with the student life cycle.
But students are only one half of the equation for effective transition pedagogy. Many
higher education teachers also require assistance to unpack and scaffold the acquisition
of these foundational skills for diverse cohorts; assistance which is not predicated on a
deficit view of entering student ability. This is another great value of this text – the ways
and means for empowering student learning are made explicit for both students and their
teachers. To have maximum impact on student success, substantive references to this book
should be embedded in core first-year curricula – in lectures and tutorials, in program
materials, in reading lists, in eLearning and the like – as a basis for discussing these enablers
with students in ways that are contextualised to the discipline. The research in this regard is
clear: to be most effective, language and learning skills’ development should be integrated
into the curriculum and context of discipline learning – their acquisition cannot be left to
chance.
I commend the authors on the obvious care, expertise and respect for students and their
learning they have brought to this task. The book is a valuable contribution to the effective
deployment of transition pedagogy and should be harnessed in aid of intentional first-year
curriculum design. I recommend this book as an invaluable learning support for diverse
first-year student cohorts and for those who seek to engage with them for learning success.
Both students and teachers will be grateful for the learning it facilitates.

Professor Sally Kift PFHEA


President, Australian Learning and Teaching Fellows
ALTF Senior Fellow, Discipline Scholar: Law
James Cook University
August 2017
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dr Jane Grellier is a coordinator in the first-year Communications Program in the Faculty
of Media, Society and Culture at Curtin University in Perth, Western Australia. She works
with a team of teachers who provide communications units to more than 3000 first-year
students each year across various internal faculties, as well as online and offshore. Jane
worked initially as a secondary English teacher in Western Australian schools, and then
spent 15 years as an educational writer and curriculum developer for a range of secondary
and tertiary education sectors. She has a strong commitment to teaching writing, especially
to encouraging students to write in clear and concise English, which she sees as essential in
the university setting. Jane’s own research currently focuses on reflective practice – both in
her own writing and in developing reflective thinking among first-year students.
Veronica Goerke is a professional learning consultant at Curtin University’s Bentley
campus in Wadjuk Nyungar Country. She first worked in education as a secondary-school
teacher, and then coordinated and taught first-year university communications units;
she then moved to curriculum design, and is now focused primarily on staff professional
learning. Veronica works in partnership with staff members so they can model the inclusive
communication practices that Curtin University expects of its students. Her research focus
is on the place of formal reconciliation in Australian universities.

viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many of our colleagues at Curtin University have continued to be supportive and generous
with their time and ideas as we have been working on this fourth edition. In particular, we
would like to thank fellow Curtin University staff members who have given us invaluable
feedback that has enriched and sharpened this edition. A special note of appreciation goes
to Katie Dunworth and Carmela Briguglio, who are international leaders in research into
English-language proficiency and what this means in the Australian higher-education
sector. Veronica has been privileged to have had their direction and guidance on the
text, as well as their assistance while working on university strategies to support academic
communication development among students. Veronica again acknowledges Anne Harris
for her commitment, supportive conversation and expertise in this field. This fourth edition
acknowledges the contribution of senior Wadjuck, Simon Forrest, the Elder in Residence
at Curtin University.
We thank again those involved in the development of the first three editions, whose
feedback and contribution are the foundation of this new text: Carol Igglesden, Katie
Scott, Cathryn Wilkinson, Cathy Cupitt, Lyn Payne, Gabby Barrett, Sue Denham, Katalin
Dobos, Deborah Hunn, Richard Liston, Robyn Mayes, Chris Nagel, Hugh Rayner,
Nari van Der Zanden, Sue Grey-Smith, Pippa Beetson, Paula Beck, Karen Rickman,
Katherine Bathgate, Melanie Griffiths, Michelle Carey, Jeannie Morrison, Michelle
Webb, Geoff Cody, Lyn Komarzynski, Liam Lynch, Joy Scott and Helen Rogers from
the Communications Program; Lara Mackintosh from the Department of Architecture;
Ann Kosovich, Beatrice Tucker, Kuki Singh, Raelene Tifflin and Allan Goody (Office
of Teaching and Learning); Aaron Matthews (Centre for Aboriginal Studies); Jim Elliott
(Student Transition and Retention Team); Lynne Vautier (the TL Robertson Library); and
Courtenay Harris (Faculty of Health Sciences).
As with previous editions, this toolkit would be impoverished without the many examples
of written work and ideas students have allowed us to include. Delighting in their success as
communicators, we thank all these students: Sanan Al Abbasi, Esther Adeney, Geoff Barnes,
Nicholas Bertone, Tammy Beven, Simon Blyth, Kaden Boekhoorn, Jonathon Borrello,
Barbara Bozsik, Gabrielle Brabander, Suzanne Breusch, Alex Cardell-Oliver, Alex (Ping Hei)
Chan, Ebony Clare Chang, Rebecca Chang, Justin Colangelo, Nikki D’Agostino, Tomzarni
Dann, Matthew Degnan, Anna Dewar-Leahy, Aden Dielesen, Sean Dixon, Hursh Dodhia-
Shah, Khush Dodhia-Shah, Marcia Doolan, Sarah Edmiston, Stephen Edmund, Rebecca
Hadley, Stephanie Huynh, Matthew Hunter, Naomi Fisher, Kristie Foenander, Daniel Frewer,
Chaithanya Giridharan, Alannah Goerke, Megan Goerke, Martin Gowran, Anne Hibbard,
Jessica Hodder, Anneliese Hunt, Joel Kandiah, Daniel Laaja, Mortigou Labunda, Suzanne
Lambaart, Jonathan Lendich, Chris Lodge, Sharon Marrelies Backley, Jessica Matthews, Simon
McLaughlin, Alina Morelli, Samantha Petri, Sally Potsch, Ryan Quinn, Kieron Safstrom,
Samia Scott, Melissa Settineri, Kelley Shaughnessy, Josh Sunderland, Freyja Taverner, Stephanie
Walker, Hannah Walter, Kathleen Ward, Emily Webb, Lavinia Wehr, Jennifer Zeven, Alex
Zuniga, Lewis Stewart and Tashia Abeyasinghe.
Jane would like to thank her husband Warren for his continuing support through this
writing process. Their shared passion for teaching and for language lies at the heart of all
her work, and their teaching experiences together over the past two years have kept her

ix
x Acknowledgements

grounded and enthusiastic. She would also like to thank teacher, friend and co-learner Joy
Scott, who challenges, supports and laughs along with her.
Veronica thanks her husband, Mark, who remains delightfully pedantic about the
written and spoken word! She also adds a note of appreciation for her children, Damien,
Alannah and Megan, who, with their friends, continue to show her that communication is
dynamic and multi-dimensional – especially as they chat with her using one of the many
communication apps like Messenger and WhatsApp, along with Bitmoji and Snapchat.
However, they probably don’t ‘Zoom’, WebEx or Spark as much as she does. (Veronica
notes that all these communication tools may have been superseded by the time this edition
is published!)
To the staff at Cengage Learning, especially Fiona Hammond, Jacqueline Flynn, Carly
Slater, Sutha Surenddar, Vicki Stegink and Duncan Campbell-Avenell, who have supported
us in this venture ‘fourth time around’, we say thank you for your patience and helpful
encouragement.
Veronica also acknowledges the teachers who have used the text with their students.
The original book was written as a toolkit not only for students but also for their teachers,
and we hope this revised edition continues to assist educators to support their students’
learning.
The authors and Cengage Learning would also like to thank the following reviewers for
their incisive and helpful feedback:
• Annalise O’Callaghan, Curtin University
• Anne Clear, Murdoch University
• Tanya Weiler, UNI SA
• Rosemary Kerr, Curtin University
• Sue Dean, University of Technology Sydney
• Ashleigh Thompson, Massey University
• Andy Brown, University of Tasmania
• Amanda Muller, Flinders University.
BEFORE YOU READ THIS BOOK
Students, past and present, are the characters in this book. They come from Curtin
University in Perth, Western Australia; Open Universities Australia, and Miri, Sarawak;
Notre Dame University, Fremantle; Edith Cowan University; and the University of
Western Australia. They are enrolled in a wide range of courses, including fine arts, design,
social sciences, commerce, health sciences, science, law, engineering, nursing, computer
science, geology, spatial sciences, architecture, planning, construction management,
cultural studies, journalism, screen arts and education courses. Most are first-year students,
taking a unit that focuses on the learning processes they will need for university study – in
research, academic writing, teamwork and oral presentations. These students have provided
models for this book, and stories of effective (and not-so-effective) academic practice.
Our experience teaching and coordinating units for such students has played a major
part in shaping this book:
• We have chosen to write informally throughout the book, addressing you, the current
student, directly, and speaking personally about our own experience.
• We address both individual students and those working in seminar or workshop groups,
and provide activities for both types of student throughout the book.
• We also emphasise some of the language processes you will need in your future
professional careers in order to communicate successfully with clients, employers and
colleagues. You can’t start to develop these processes too soon!
• The book is applicable to all undergraduate courses at university, particularly to first-
year students in these courses. You will be able to apply our advice and models to
whatever discipline you are studying.
• The book will be useful for any student studying at a tertiary or a secondary level.
Developing academic communications is a major educational focus in the twenty-first
century, and the book is our contribution to this.
Although the book focuses on language development, we want to emphasise that
education, both tertiary and secondary, is about much more than this. We like this quote
from Allan Luke, Professor of Education at Queensland University of Technology, from his
public address at the Brisbane Ideas Festival on 30 March 2006:

“ Although they always have and will continue to serve the national economic
interest, universities must remain seedbeds for basic intellectual work, for
speculative theory and experimental practice. They must perpetually strive to
become more open environments where students are encouraged to engage with
historical, scientific and narrative knowledge, to debate these matters freely and
speculatively, and to apply these understandings to the complex worlds of new

economies, new technologies and new cultures.
Professor Allan Luke (2006). Address to Brisbane Ideas Festival

This quote sums up our approach to education. While we focus in this book on helping you
develop the processes you will need to be successful students, we believe that these processes are
means rather than ends in themselves. If you learn well to think, research, write, reflect, work
collaboratively and make oral presentations, then you can benefit from the ‘seedbeds’ and ‘open
environments’ that are universities, and you can play your part in making them such rich places.
We wish you joy of your studies, and hope that this book will enhance them.
xi
Guide to the text
As you read this text, you will find a number of features in every
chapter to enhance your study of communication and help you
understand how the theory is applied in the real world.

CHAPTER OPENING FEATURES

ACADEMIC
9 ESSAY WRITING
Identify the key concepts
that the chapter will
CONTENTS cover with the Chapter
• The academic essay
outline at the start of each
+ The analytical essay
+ The argumentative essay
chapter.
• Early research
+ Primary research
• Developing your argument
138 COMMUNICATIONS TOOLKIT
+ The thesis statement
+ The concessive argument
• Writing your essay
+ First or third person?
+ Language and approaches to writing
Final words from our students
+ The introduction
+ The paragraph CHAPTER 9: ACAdEmiC EssAy wRiTing 175
Earlier in this chapter we commented that reflection at first-year level is a preparation
+ The conclusion
for deeper critical and reflective thinking in future years. To emphasise this crucial
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS
• Editing and proofreading your essay
point, we include a reflection from urban and regional planning student Chris Lodge
(see Student reflection 7.13 ), who reflects on an issue he has been challenged to
consider throughout his first-semester studies: ‘the Great Australian Dream’.
Although fairy tales facilitate essential childhood development, Disney’s animated Princess
films, with the Disney Princess marketing image, continue to perpetuate traditional gender
roles and promote increasingly sexualised body aspirations to young girls, which may lead to
negative body image and low self-esteem.
Reflective writing can begin your thinking processes
Student reflection 7.13

Jennifer Zeven, first-year humanities student


Many issues attracted my attention in this lecture about suburbia and the Great
Australian Dream. Perth suburbia to me is ideal when you consider the lifestyles
Figure 9.5 Concessive thesis statement
available. This made me begin to wonder what the ideal lifestyle is to the average
person. Does a backyard that is big enough to fit another family home really satisfy Read authentic Student Reflection
our lifestyle needs? I considered my own lifestyle where we as a family rarely use
Zeven the has considerably
strengthenedlarge her yard,
argument
Throughout this chapter, with by exception
the acceptingofinfamily
the CourseMate
the first
eventshalf
Express icon indicates
of as
such
an
herbirthday
Express
examples of real student
thesis statement thebarbeques
counterargument that fairylinking
tales have aactivities
powerful andinfluence on
parties, opportunity and other social gatherings.
communication efforts that
for online self-study, you toLifestyle rarely requires the use
other
childhood ofdevelopment, but claiming in the second half of this sentence that such
online resources.
such space, but nevertheless I would never wish to lose it. The lecture made me
positive influence does not override the destructive impact of Disney Princess films
realise that the majority of Australians share my attitude and drew my attention
on young girls’ sexualisation. Head to the CourseMate website to read the complete
to what I believe is a misconception that people who think this way are selfish.
Express illustrate theory in practice. These
essay.
While Perth’s suburbia is extremely extensive, so is our available geographical
Next, look at the example in Figure 9.6 of a concessive paragraph from an essay
area. So why is it that more and more planners are pushing for higher density
come
167 from students across a wide
by Daniel Frewer, a student of engineering, who examines the role of scientists
residential development in the close perimeter areas around the city? This question
in the community. His thesis statement contends that scientists who take a role in range of disciplines.
troubled me at first as I could not think why it is that people would choose to live
public debate have the potential to make major scientific and cultural contributions
in such places. It then occurred to me that not everyone opts for the lifestyle that
toBK-CLA-GRELLIER_4E-170321-Chp09.indd
our society. He presents one 167 counterargument – highlighted below – in the first 12/02/18 6:49 PM
I value.
two sentences of the paragraph. In the rest of the paragraph he goes on to rebut the
counterargument by referring to the ideas of an Chris Lodge,
expert in urban and regionalarea
his disciplinary planning
(and student
strengthens his position by acknowledging her academic position).

When we contacted Chris the following year for permission to include his
Scientists, pastin
reflection and present,
this book,who have taken
he agreed, buta added
public stand on was
that he a particular issue have
embarrassed
been attacked by members of the public who disagree with their point of view. Ultimately, some
this reflection because he felt his ideas had developed significantly since he had written
often
on re-reading Explore Annotated examples of
people also tend to question the motives of the scientist, citing the fact that some scientists
it. This is almost certainly true; but it doesn’t discount the value of this
may be outspoken in order to receive the government research grants that are so desperately
piece of writing. real communication that highlight
In trying
But, toas penetrate deeply
(1999)into hisinthinking on theProfessor
topic as aMary
thenJo first-year student,
required.
Chris was
Mark Floyd
setting the
notes
foundations for
a story about
his strong future studies. The
Professor of Humanities at Oregon State University, ‘if scientists do not become involved in
Nye, Horning
most perceptive good practice and room for
thinkers
public
contradicting
issues
are thosethewho
policy debates,
that are not them
continue
result can be atodecision-making
try out ideas, shaping,
as they go. Ultimately,
fully understood’. We are more concerned
it was,
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process involving
aboutis,our
and currently with
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students
criticaland
who have
the assistance
improvement. Further examples of
no questions
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natural universe. A
about what
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historical overview
are hearing
species,
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wethe
unlock aresecrets
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about of
will
developed ideas and change them frequently. Learning is about engagement!
those
result
who tryand
the physical
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outthe
acceptance
half-
by
student presentations are included
the reader
issues,
Thethat without
final
breakthroughs
words theon
intervention
the role ofof reflection
that have
men and women of science
in their studies in controversial
belong to two public
students online in the CourseMate Express
who reflect on what theythehave
potential
learnedto erase
fromcommon ideologies
a semester will become
of reflective scarce.(see
writing
Student reflection 7.14). Construction managementDaniel
student Anna
Frewer, Dewar-Leahy
engineering student website.
is beginning to reflect on how valuable reflective thinking will be for her, while
Figure 9.6 Concessive paragraph

xii BK-CLA-GRELLIER_4E-170321-Chp07.indd 138 12/02/18 4:11 PM

BK-CLA-GRELLIER_4E-170321-Chp09.indd 175 12/02/18 6:49 PM


GUIDE TO THE TEXT xiii

180 COMMUNICATIONS TOOLKIT

CHAPTER 9: ACAdEmiC EssAy wRiTing 171

Test your understanding as


Activity 9.3: Writing your introduction
You must reference most primary research in a slightly different way from
you go via the Activity boxes
secondary research. In the case of cultural artifacts, such as local newspaper articles
or published photographs, you can often reference them in the same way you
As an individual or with another student
would reference secondary resources. However, you can’t include personal surveys, which include questions to
Write theinterviews
observations,
these (Ifareworking
introduction
unpublished
ortoemail
your essay, followinginthe
conversations instructions
your and modelbecause
list of references
with another student, discuss how you will approach your writing and write each
sources and so your readers can’t follow them up. Because of
described above.
help you review, integrate,
introduction together, if desired; but be careful not to finish with similar introductions for your
this, you must embed full details of the research in your own sentence. For example,
two essays.)
and comprehend information.
if you conducted an interview or an email conversation, you would give the name
In a class
and position of youror group the place the interview was held and the date on
interviewee, Answers to selected activities
which it was held; if you ran a survey, you would explain how many people you
Pin up introductions and critique them for each other. Consider how each critique informs your
surveyed, what types of people were surveyed and what results you obtained. For the can be found online in the
own introduction, and make changes as necessary.
correct
240
in-text citation formats for these, check your department’s referencing guide.
COMMUNICATIONS TOOLKIT
You might add as an appendix to your essay a transcript of an interview, the list of
CourseMate Express website.
survey questions or similar evidence.
The paragraph
Look at Figure 9.2 and notice the way Jonathan Lendich, a student of urban and
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on paragraphing in Chapter 6 for a detailed discussion of how to write effective
How to spot academic
sentence fragments
paragraphs. How to fix sentence fragments Learn How to identify the
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an academic which
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of keeping their knowledge within the community
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Hint boxes in each chapter
(Rowse 2010). An example of this is evident in Doreen
Don’t let research get
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autobiography waywhen
ofshewriting
describes
voices from
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that belonged to her people. Rowse (2010) claims that give you simple tips and
get down to writing. The
Applies amount of research you do needs to be proportionate to the size of
your
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Kartinyeri felt an obligation, as a prominent historian
assignment task.and
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stop the time you
example,
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to to an assignment on research, and the remaining two-thirds on writing, editing
allotted
Why not write only in simple sentences?
proofreading your work.
which she
will develop
effective communication.
simple sentences are fine, but they aren’t capable of explaining complicatedthroughout
relationships
the
among ideas, or of helping you develop your own thinking in sophisticated ways. For these
paragraph
purposes, you need compound and complex sentences, which describe relationships of time,
cause and effect, comparison, purpose, illustration, exception and so on.

Compound sentences
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ICONS 12/02/18 6:49 PM

A compound sentence is a combination of two simple sentences joined together 12/02/18


in one 6:49 PM
of three ways:
1 by a coordinating conjunction
Explore the online resources by following the NEW CourseMate
2 by an independent marker
3 by a semicolon.
Express margin icons throughout the text and at the end of chapter.
The two sentences that are joined together to form a compound sentence are
called independent clauses – each has a subject and a verb, and each could work
Find answers, activities and more.
independently to form a separate sentence.

BK-CLA-GRELLIER_4E-170321-Chp12.indd 240 07/02/18 4:46 PM


xiv GUIDE TO THE TEXT

CHAPTER 2: DEvEloPing EffECTivE sTuDy skills 33

END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES
Visit http://login.cengagebrain.com and use the access code that comes with Express
this book for 12-month access to the resources and study tools for this chapter.
CHAPTER 2: DEvEloPing EffECTivE sTuDy skills 33

Revision activity: Revise these ideas


At the end of each
1 Scholarly readingchapter
at university isyou willdifferent
often very findfromseveral
the readingtools to help you to review, practise and
you have done in your previous education. You need to read actively –
extend your
Visitthat is,knowledge.
adapt your reading strategies
http://login.cengagebrain.com to use
and suitthe
your purpose.
access code that comes with Express
2thisSome
book scholarly
for 12-month textsaccess
are very complex
to the and,and
resources as astudy
first-year
tools student, you
for this chapter.
need specific strategies to help you make meaning from them.
3 Active listening involves deliberately engaging yourself in the lecture
Revision activity: Revise these ideas
you are listening to in order to avoid being just a passive recipient of
information.
1 Scholarly reading at university is often very different from the reading
4 Mind-mapping
you have done inis your a particularly
previous valuable
education.active-listening
You need to readtechnique;
activelyyou

may is,
that find it particularly
adapt your reading useful throughout
strategies to suitthe restpurpose.
your of your studies. Review your understanding of
25 Some
Examinations
scholarlycan be are
texts a daunting time for
very complex some
and, as a first-year
first-year students. It is
student, you
valuable to remember
need specific strategiesany successful
to help exammeaning
you make strategies youthem.
from learned in your the key chapter topics with the
previous education, and also to read and practiseyourself
new techniques that
3 Active
may be
listening
helpful to
involves
you.
deliberately engaging in the lecture Revision Activities.
you are listening to in order to avoid being just a passive recipient of
6 information.
The most valuable preparation for end-of-semester exams is to read and
4 listen actively throughout
Mind-mapping the semester,
is a particularly valuablesoactive-listening
that your finaltechnique;
revision period
you
is simply
may find ait time to refineuseful
particularly your throughout
ideas. the rest of your studies.
5 Examinations can be a daunting time for some first-year students. It is
Thinking activity: Critical and reflective questions
valuable to remember any successful exam strategies you learned in your
previous education, and also to read and practise new techniques that
may bestudy
1 What helpful to you. and techniques have worked well for me in the
approaches Process and apply content to
6 past?
The most
Do I valuable preparation
need to adapt them soforthat
end-of-semester
they will suit exams is tostudy?
university read and
listen actively
2 What mistakesthroughout the semester,have
and misunderstandings so that your final revision
I experienced period
in the past that
current issues or personal
is simply
have a time
harmed mytoresults?
refine How
your ideas.
can I organise my studies this year in such experience using the critical and
a way as to start overcoming these problems?
3 Could I benefit from discussing ideas and studying with9:aACAdEmiC
small group of wRiTing reflective Thinking activities.
Thinking activity: Critical and reflective questions CHAPTER
other students? How might I help organise an informal study group so
EssAy 185

that it study
1 What runs successfully?
approaches and techniques have worked well for me in the
4 Most advice
past? Do about
I need successful
to adapt themstudy focuses
so that on being
they will prepared and
suit university study?
keeping
2 What up to date
mistakes and with set work. Do Ihave
misunderstandings needIto adapt any of
experienced in my
the lifestyle
past that
and habits to help me be more successful?
have harmed my results? How can I organise my studies this year in such
Useful websites
5 aWhat
way are
as tomy priorities
start at thisthese
overcoming stageproblems?
in my life? Where do studies fit with
3 the
CouldrestI of my life?
benefit from discussing ideas and studying with a small group of
Theother
following online resources
students? How mightprovide further
I help useful information
organise aboutstudy
an informal essay writing:
group so
that itNational
Australian runs successfully?
University Academic Skills and Learning Centre: ‘Essay Writing’:
http://www.anu.edu.au/students/learning-development/writing-assessment/essay-
4 Most advice about successful study focuses on being prepared and
writing. up to date with set work. Do I need to adapt any of my lifestyle
keeping
Use the Useful websites to
and habits
University to help
of Sydney me be
Learning more‘Planning
Centre: successful?
your Essay’: http://writesite.elearn.usyd. extend your understanding and
edu.au/m3/m3u1/index.htm.
5 What are my priorities at this stage in my life? Where do studies fit with
the rest
University of of
NewmySouth
life?Wales Learning Centre: ‘Essay and Assignment Writing’: explore online resources.
https://student.unsw.edu.au/essay-and-assignment-writing.
Purdue University (US) Online Writing Lab (OWL): ‘Academic writing’:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/1/2/.

References
Extend your understanding
BK-CLA-GRELLIER_4E-170321-Chp02.indd 33 12/02/18 7:35 PM

Floyd, Mark. 1999. ‘Should Scientists Become Players in Public Policy Debate?’ Oregon State
University News and Research Communications, 25 January. http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/ through the suggested
archives/1999/jan/should-scientists-become-players-public-policy-debate.
Kartinyeri, Doreen and Sue Anderson. 2008. Doreen Kartinyeri: My Ngarrindjeri Calling.
References relevant to each
Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press: 2. chapter.
BK-CLA-GRELLIER_4E-170321-Chp02.indd 33 12/02/18 7:35 PM

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Guide to the online resources
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR

Cengage Learning is pleased to provide you with a selection of


resources that will help you prepare your lectures and assessments.
These teaching tools are accessible via cengage.com.au/instructors
for Australia or cengage.co.nz/instructors for New Zealand.

NEW COURSEMATE EXPRESS


CourseMate Express is your one-stop shop for learning tools and activities that help students
succeed. As they read and study the chapters, students can access student communication
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ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT


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copy them into your lecture presentations.

xv
xvi GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES

FOR THE STUDENT

New copies of this text come with an access code that gives you
a 12-month subscription to the CourseMate Express website.
Visit http://login.cengagebrain.com and log in
using the access code card.

NEW COURSEMATE EXPRESS FOR COMMUNICATIONS TOOLKIT


Access your CourseMate Express website, which includes a suite of interactive resources
designed to support your learning, revision and further research.
Includes:
• Revision quizzes
• Activities
• Student communication examples
• Writing checklists
• And more! Express
PART
TRANSITIONING

1 TO TERTIARY
STUDIES

Over the past few decades, the digital revolution has caused disruption in how tertiary institutions
create and deliver education. These institutions have been working hard to transform how they
help you learn skills to enhance how innovative, entrepreneurial and collaborative you will be in
solving real-world problems. This approach is supported by industry and governments across
the globe that are ‘prioritizing education reforms that emphasize more 21st century practices’
(Adams Becker et al. 2017, 12). Every tertiary institution is committed to helping you stay and
succeed in whatever you have chosen to study with them, and so they make big investments to
help you have a smooth transition. As Professor Sally Kift has stated, ‘it is clear that first year
students face unique challenges as they make very individual transitions to study; particularly
academically and socially, but also culturally, administratively and environmentally’ (2015, 53).
In Australia, the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) monitors the
standards of these higher-education institutions to ensure you receive a quality learning
experience. The first Part of our text should help you get off to a good start.
Part 1 will be useful if you are beginning your higher-education studies – whether you are a
recent school-leaver or are returning to study after doing other things. Many of you will make a
smooth transition to tertiary studies, adapting to new expectations and approaches to learning;
some of you, however, will experience challenges. You may have difficulties organising yourself,
adjusting to the course you have chosen or developing the particular communication skills
required for success at this level.
You may be an older student (i.e. who has not come straight from school) who hasn’t done
extended writing for 20 years and may feel overwhelmed by the apparent expectations around
digital literacy. Or you might be a student who is very confident with mathematics, but not so
sure of your oral-presentation skills. You may even be the first person in your family to enrol in
higher education. Whoever you are, this section Part contains hints that will be useful for you.
Part 1 has two chapters. The first introduces you to some key aspects of life in higher education,
while the second outlines some reading, note-making and exam-preparation skills that you may
find beneficial. If you already feel confident in both of these areas, go straight to Part 2.
1: Making the transition
2: Developing effective study skills

1
MAKING THE
1 TRANSITION

CONTENTS
• Your first months as a tertiary student
++ Studying fully online
++ Connecting with peers
++ Connecting with faculty
++ The online learning environment
++ The library
++ Academic learning support
++ Course and unit/subject outlines
++ Calendars and study plans
++ Overview of the semester
++ Class formats – virtual and physical
++ Study groups
• Respecting diversity
• Mature-aged students
• English-language proficiency
• New international students
• Communicating with members of staff
++ Formal emails
• Challenges you might face
++ Dissatisfaction with assessment results
++ Falling behind in your studies
++ Course too difficult or motivation low

“Surviving university is actually a great experience! Nearing to the end of my


degree, I now realise and value the time and effort I put in since first-year.
I got through uni by setting little goals for myself each semester regarding
achievement of learning outcomes and assignments. It’s important to remember
that you are responsible for your own learning. Draw upon what motivates you

to complete tasks – think of your life in a bigger picture.
Rebecca Chang, health sciences student

Throughout this chapter, the CourseMate Express icon indicates an Express


opportunity for online self-study, linking you to activities and other
online resources.
2
CHAPTER 1: Making the transition 3

Your first months as a tertiary student


Whether you are a recent school-leaver or someone returning to study after a break
of several years, and whether you have chosen to study mostly by attending classes on
a physical campus or completely online, it is important that you develop a toolkit of
strategies to help you survive – and, indeed, thrive – as a tertiary student. So, before
you get into the chapters on communication skills, read through this chapter for
some ideas you may find useful during those first months of study.

Studying fully online


Today, more and more students are studying fully online, sometimes from overseas
but generally from within Australia. If you are beginning to study in the online
mode, be prepared to be patient with yourself, and to take some time to develop
sound study routines.
Your first task is to find your way around the learning management system (or LMS)
through which your unit is run. Don’t be daunted by this – if you were attending
a tertiary campus for the first time you would probably get lost frequently over the
first few weeks, and would certainly need some time to become familiar with the
resources available to you. Online learning is no different, and you need to do what
you can to become familiar with your environment:
• Read the ‘welcome packs’, introductory information and study guides you are
sent, and then re-read them. View any introductory videos.
• Click on all the links in your unit website so that you become familiar with it
as quickly as possible. Don’t worry about ‘breaking’ anything – you can’t do any
harm by clicking on links.
• Search for your unit program or calendar, which lists due dates for assignments.
(This will usually be in your unit outline.) Download it to your own computer,
and consider printing a copy for your study desk.
• If your unit includes a discussion board or other means of communicating with
your tutor and fellow students, introduce yourself to them early on. We find
that those students who leave this until after the first week often feel awkward
‘arriving late’, and so have problems participating.
• You will know best how to organise yourself. Plenty of advice is available online
about how to ensure you organise your life appropriately to complete your online
study, but only you know what will work for you.
Here are some helpful websites to guide you as an online student:
• Online Study Australia – ‘Are you a good online student?’:
https://onlinestudyaustralia.com/are-you-a-good-online-student/.
• Online College – ‘Ten traits of a successful online learner’: http://www.
onlinecollege.org/2011/07/14/10-traits-of-a-successful-online-learner/.
• Southern Nazarene University – ‘Online learning habits’: https://home.snu.
edu/~hculbert/habits.htm.
4 COMMUNICATIONS TOOLKIT

Our last piece of advice should possibly have come at the beginning; but, after
thinking through some of the above advice, you may now be in a better position
to receive it. Think again about your commitment to online study and, more
importantly, about how much you will be able to undertake. Online study is not a
method of ‘rushing through’ a course while applying less effort than in face-to-face
learning. In fact, it will often be more time-consuming than on-campus study, and it
can be more difficult to maintain your commitment to study when you are working
alone. Its value is that it allows you to be flexible in time and space; but it will still
make large demands on your time.
At least at the beginning of your online studies, do not overload yourself with
many units. Take your time, be patient with yourself and focus on developing good
online study habits.

Connecting with peers


Whether you generally prefer working alone or in big groups, the first thing we
advise you to do, whether in online or face-to-face contexts, is to make friends.
Connecting with people should be easy in the early weeks, since a number of
activities will be set up that encourage you to introduce yourself. (This applies to
online as well as on-campus learning.) Take any such opportunities given to you
by lecturers and get to know other students. Do not rely only on social media, but
quickly access the online meeting spaces provided within your courses and become
an active participant as soon as possible. This will enable you not only to get to
know your peers but also to see who you might prefer to work with (i.e. on group
assignments). Whether or not you get involved in extracurricular activities, you can
easily and naturally make links with peers within your course. In your course, you
will meet people who have chosen the same subjects as you, and with whom you
therefore already have something in common. Don’t wait until it’s too late, like the
students in one university study (Case 2007) who realised in their third year that
they had missed out by only getting to know one or two people in their first year.
Make use of opportunities to work in groups (see Chapter 15 for specific advice on
this), since this should help you make friends more quickly, and thus feel supported
as you study.

Connecting with faculty


Get to know your faculty or department quickly. Know the answers to the following
questions:
• Who are my lecturers and how do I contact them?
• Where is the main office for my faculty or department?
• Where is the key information about my course located on the website and in the
LMS?
• How do I submit assignments?
• Does my area have a special room or online space for first-year students?
CHAPTER 1: Making the transition 5

If you don’t yet know these details even though you have been studying for a
while, don’t be afraid to go and find out about them now. After all, you’re likely to
be studying within the same area for at least three years.

The online learning environment


As we mentioned earlier, most tertiary institutions use a learning management
system (or LMS), such as Blackboard, Moodle or Canvas, to organise their learning
material. However comfortable you are in the online environment, make some time
to explore the LMS at the institution where you are now studying and to see how
your lecturers have used it for their subjects. If everything is new to you, look
for help online, attend sessions organised by the library and ask other students for
help. Explore your LMS before classes start to ensure you won’t miss out on crucial
information.
Another reason for becoming familiar with, and regularly using, the LMS is that
this is likely the place where you will be required to submit assignments. Even if you
do not submit all your assignments through the LMS, assessment requirements and
grading processes are likely to be outlined and recorded in this environment.

The library
More than ever before, higher-education libraries are the places to go to learn all
you need to know about succeeding in tertiary environments. As a tertiary student,
you will need to use more than just general websites for your research; lecturers
will generally expect you to use a range of sources, including discipline-specific
e-journals, which can often only be accessed via the library. Don’t forget the
librarians themselves, because they are usually at the forefront of digital technology,
making them invaluable when you are conducting secondary research at this level.
(See Chapter 3 for further details.) As well as speaking directly to the librarians, you
can also communicate with them online. Whatever resources are available at your
institution’s library, access and use them.
Thus, as soon as you are enrolled, whether you’re studying on campus or online,
you should do a tour of your library’s website so that you will know what the library
can offer you.

Academic learning support


If you are having difficulties with any aspects of your studies, the best place to go
for help, in the first instance, is your institution’s main website. Most, if not all,
tertiary institutions have highly visible links from their homepage to webpages
where you will find either answers to your questions or directions about where
to go to find those answers. These websites are ‘one-stop shops’ for students, and
we encourage you to explore them as soon as you can so you know what your
institution can offer you.
6 COMMUNICATIONS TOOLKIT

In addition to online support, every campus will have places where students can
go to get free assistance with their studies. This may include help with essay writing,
academic study skills seminars and assistance with English-language proficiency.
Explore what is available so that when you need some help, you will know where
to get it. Most tertiary institutions house this information ‘one click away’ from
the homepage, such as at Swinburne University (http://www.swinburne.edu.au/
student/study-help/las.html) and at Queensland University of Technology (see the
‘Cite/Write’ link at https://www.student.qut.edu.au/). If you’re having problems,
especially in areas such as organising your life or writing your assignments, go and
ask for help. It is there!
If you are an Australian Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander student – and
especially if you are from a remote community – you may choose to seek out the
areas of your campus that are especially for Indigenous Australian students. Search
the website and you will find information such as Nura Gili at the University of
New South Wales (see https://student.unsw.edu.au/additional-support).
Whoever you are, you should find out what your institution can offer you.

Course and unit/subject outlines


The way in which programs and parts of programs are named differs across tertiary
institutions. In this book, we will use the word ‘course’ to describe a full program
lasting three or more years (e.g. Medical Imaging, Psychology) and ‘unit’ or ‘subject’
for one subject within that course, lasting a semester or perhaps a year.
Read your course and unit outlines as soon as you receive them. The unit outline
contains essential information about the unit, such as learning outcomes, assessment
details and the topics for each class. Make time to check every outline carefully –
especially before you start assignments – because your success will depend on
knowing exactly what you are required to do.

Calendars and study plans


Use an online calendar to organise how and when you will study. Create a study
plan as soon as possible, and refer to the official academic calendar (available through
the website of your place of study) as you do this. You can then make a weekly study
plan, as well as a semester study plan. Set up calendar alerts to remind you of key
dates. Place all your deadlines in your calendar, as well as weekly times to prepare for
classes and then to review after each class. Set aside time in Week 3 or 4 of semester
to reassess your study plan to see if it is realistic, and reorganise if you need to.
Check your study timetable and work commitments, as well as the demands
of ‘the rest’ of your life, and get organised about how you want to live it. If you don’t
have a plan, you will be more likely to fall behind in your work and get stressed.
Making your plan public, at least to the important people in your life, is also a good
idea, so that they will support you rather than sabotage your plans.
The key dates in your study plan will be the assessment due dates. It is likely that
several assessments will be due around the same time, but you are expected to start
CHAPTER 1: Making the transition 7

working on them well in advance. You won’t be able to complete them all in the week
they’re due. Even if you were a person who could start and finish an assignment in one
night at secondary school, you will not be able to do this with tertiary-level studies.
When you prepare your study plan in the first week of semester, indicate the
blocks of time that you will spend on each assignment. If the assignments are all due
in Week 12, setting aside only Week 11 to work on them is risky. Here are some tips
to help you:
• Talk to your peers about how they organise their homework and study time (but
ignore people who say they don’t do any work and ‘wing it’ the night before). See
the section later in this chapter about the value of study groups.
• If you need to submit a hard copy of your assignment, don’t leave the printing
until ‘the night before’. There may be problems – e.g. with a printer breaking
down – so organise your printing well in advance of the due date.
• If everything gets too much and you are behind on an assignment, speak to the
relevant lecturer (in person or by email) as soon as possible. If possible, it’s a good
idea to indicate what you have completed so far and how much more you plan to do.
• You may need a short extension on the submission date. Remember that you usually
need to apply for this before the assignment is due. Check your unit outline for the
rules about extensions. Some of our students leave it until it’s too late to apply for an
extension, and then they might have marks deducted for making a late submission.
• Another option is to use your institution’s academic learning support services
or visit its counselling service. Counsellors are not just there to assist you
when life is difficult; they are there for students who simply get tired, stressed
or disorganised. So don’t forget to check out the relevant information on your
institution’s website.
Whatever you decide to do, do something. Your lecturers can’t read your mind
and, even if you don’t believe you have a valid excuse, if you are not coping and are
having difficulty meeting an assessment deadline, speak to someone about it.

Overview of the semester


Though all institutions and courses vary in how and when they conduct their first
year, they all follow similar processes. The following sections provide a summary of
what is likely to happen during your first semester or trimester.

Orientation Week
For most tertiary institutions, Orientation Week (or ‘O Week’) is the time when
students are introduced to their study environment and, more specifically, to their
course. You will be introduced to key staff members, receive information about your
course and be expected to familiarise yourself with the campus or online environment.
You will confirm your class timetable, check course and unit/subject information
online, explore on-campus (or online) classrooms and create a study plan.
It’s normal to experience information overload during this time. However, you’ll
soon start to feel familiar and more at ease.
8 COMMUNICATIONS TOOLKIT

HINT
Participate in Orientation Week!
Lots of fun things happening during ‘O Week’, but this is also the time for course introductions.
Attend these sessions, because if you don’t, it will be like missing the beginning of a movie;
you can catch up, but you will need to put in extra effort to do so. If you do miss a session, be
proactive: communicate with your unit coordinator and peers to find out what you need to know.

Early weeks of semester


The first two to three weeks of a course will often seem easy, since little may be
expected of you and you will be given plenty of information (often too much!). This
will include information about assessment requirements.

HINT
Hint from a recent graduate
“ Completing assignments and fulfilling the obligations of your degree well
before the due dates will grant you the gift of ultimate freedom to experience
the joys of university, like friends, partying, sports and other events, to their

fullest potential.
Hursh Dodhia-Shah, Bachelor of Commerce graduate

The last day for enrolling in a new unit/subject to your course is usually
within the first week of semester. You may be overwhelmed with expectations
and information, but if you are starting to feel unsure about your current course
and you think you may want to study something else, get advice now before the
deadline.
The last day for withdrawing from a unit/subject without paying fees often occurs
within the first weeks of semester. If you are not sure whether you want to study all
the subjects you are enrolled in, get advice before this payment deadline. You may
need to withdraw from one unit or get help to create a viable study plan.
If you’re having problems understanding the assessments in your course, ask
lecturers for help and use websites such as those named throughout this chapter.

Tuition-free weeks
Throughout the academic year, every institution will have breaks from course
delivery – but not from learning. During these tuition-free weeks, use your time
away from class contact wisely by catching up on assessments and study notes.
Lecturers will be available during these periods, but their contact times may be
more restricted than in other weeks, so check their availability in advance.
CHAPTER 1: Making the transition 9

Later weeks of semester


In the final weeks of semester, course delivery continues and more assessments are
due. You should work consistently on assignments during this time. Remember
that, although major assignments are often due late in the semester, you should start
working on them early so that you won’t feel overwhelmed in the last weeks.
Maintain your class attendance and regular study. Contact with your peers and
lecturer is invaluable to your learning experience, so make a consistent effort to attend classes.
Lecturers often give advice about exams in the last weeks of semester, so you
can’t afford to miss these classes! (In our experience, students sometimes fail exams
because they don’t know the exam requirements, such as instructions about materials
they need to take into the exam rooms.)

Study break
In the period in between the end of scheduled classes and the start of exams, there
is a block of time, often called ‘Study Week’, during which you will have time to
study for your exams.
Lecturers are available for help during this time. Contact them if you’re feeling
desperate or if you need to clarify any last-minute issues.

Examination weeks
It’s your responsibility to check when and where your exams are to be held. Be
careful to check the final timetable on your institution’s website. Don’t rely on the
draft timetable, as details can change.
See the section on preparing for exams in Chapter 2.
If you cannot attend an exam because of illness or another major crisis, contact
your lecturer or your institution’s counselling services before the exam. They will
help you resolve your issue.
If you have attended an exam but have major concerns about your performance
(e.g. your car broke down on the way, and so you missed half the exam; you had a
migraine and could not complete the paper), communicate with your lecturer or
your institution’s counselling services immediately after the exam. Don’t wait until you
receive your results.

Class formats – virtual and physical


The delivery format of your classes may vary widely: from online classes in a standard
LMS or via a meeting application (e.g. Google Hangouts), to an on-campus seminar with
desks and chairs, to an augmented-reality learning experience outdoors. We provide
explanations for the learning experiences given within these delivery formats in the
following list; note that these may be slightly different from what your institution uses:
• In lectures, a lecturer presents information to a mass audience of students. See
Chapter 2 for information about how to take notes in lectures.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
emploie, pour l'admission des arméniens dans l'orthodoxie, le même
rituel que pour celle des latins; il n'y a de différence que dans deux
questions dogmatiques posées par le célébrant au début de la
cérémonie. Au lieu d'abjurer la prétendue erreur des latins sur la
procession du Saint-Esprit, l'arménien doit renoncer au
monophysisme ou unité de nature en Jésus-Christ. En second lieu, il
doit admettre expressément le concile de Chalcédoine, les deuxième
et troisième de Constantinople, le deuxième de Nicée, et accepter
les définitions dogmatiques et les canons promulgués dans ces
quatre assemblées anti-monophysites. Cf. A. v. Maltzew, op. cit., p.
150, 154. Quant à l'Église de Constantinople, elle ne possède aucun
formulaire officiel pour la réception de ces néophytes; c'est que, en
réalité, on voit fort peu d'arméniens passer dans les rangs de
l'orthodoxie, en dépit des multiples elforts tentés par le Phanar pour
se les attirer. On fut sur le point, vers 1870, d'arriver à un
accommodement, et un savant prélat orthodoxe, Grégoire de Chios,
exposa les conditions d'union dans un ouvrage du plus haut intérêt,
destiné à préparer le pacte définitif : De l'union des arméniens avec
l'Église orientale orthodoxe (en grec), in-8°, Constantinople, 1871.
Quelques années auparavant, le docte patriarche Constantios avait
publié, sous le voile de l'anonyme, un écrit analogue : Mémoire sur
la dissidence des arméniens avec l'Église orientale orthodoxe, in-8°,
Constantinople, 1850, lequel a été reproduit par Th. Aristoclès, dans
son livre : Constantios Ier, biographie et opuscules, in-8°,
Constantinople, 1866, p. 81-117. Toutefois, aucune de ces tentatives
n'amena de résultat général. Les essais du même genre, provoqués
au moyen âge, n avaient pas été plus heureux, malgré le zèle
industrieux d'habiles théologiens comme Photius, Nicétas de
Byzance, Théorianos, Euthymius Zigavinus, Nicétas Acominatos. Ce
dernier nous a conservé au Xe livre de son Trésor de l'orthodoxie, les
Analhématismes monophysites d'Anthime, évêque de Trébizonde,
etde plusieurs patriarches de Constantinople ; par malheur, ces
documents, qui seuls pourraient nous instruire sur le mode
d'abjuration imposé alors aux arméniens par l'Église orthodoxe, sont
demeurés jusqu'à ce jour absolument inédits. Nous n'en connaissons
l'existence que par les précieux sommaires de B. de Montfaucon.
Voir P. G., t. cxxxix, col. 1098. Pour être des plus rares, les
conversions d'arméniens à l'orthodoxie ne sont pourtant pas tout à
fait inconnues; l'histoire nous en offre, çà et là, quelques exemples.
En pareil cas, l'Église orthodoxe exigeait des néophytes « l'abjuration
de leurs hérésies, la profession des dogmes droits, immuables et
infaillibles de la foi parfaite et la réception de la confirmation. » Ainsi
s'exprimait, en 1760, le patriarche Joannice III, dansunelettre à
l'évêquede Prœconèse, Ananie. C. Sathas, Bibliothèque médiévale,
in-8°, Venise, 1872, t. m, p. 410; M. Gédéon, Constitutions
canoniques, t. I, p. '256. On ne doit point renouveler le baptême;
aux yeux des orthodoxes, l'administration de ce sacrement, telle
qu'elle est pratiquée chez les arméniens, passe pour légitime. C'est
ce que déclarait encore tout récemment, le 11 octobre 1888, une
décision du saint synode, Théotocas, Législation du pal riacrat, p.
371, annulant une décision antérieure qui prescrivait la réitération du
baptême. Ibid., p. 370. VIII. Abjuration des protestants. — Si les
arméniens ne fournissent à l'orthodoxie que de rares prosélytes, il
n'en est pas de même des protestants : depuis plus de trois siècles,
leurs transfuges ne cessent de grossir les rangs de l'orthodoxie
grecque ou russe, et l'accueil qui leur est fait, pour ne pas être
toujours très empressé, ne les a jamais découragés. Ce n'est point
ici le lieu d'écrire l'histoire des relations intervenues entre les
disciples de Luther ou de Calvin et les successeurs de Photius et de
Michel Cérulaire ; celte question d'ailleurs a déjà été traitée nombre
de fois, et par des écrivains de toute confession, depuis l'apparition
de l'important ouvrage de A. Pichler, Geschichte des Protestantismus
inderorientalischen Kirche in 17 Jahrhundert, in-8°, Munich, 1862,
dont il faut rapprocher la thèse assez médiocre de P. Trivier, Cyrille
Lucar, sa vie et son influence, in-8n, Paris, 1877. F. Kattenbusch
fournit quelques indications utiles dans son ouvrage beaucoup trop
vanté, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Confessionskunde, in-8°,
Fribourg-en-Brisgau, 1892, p. 141-146. Je me borne, comme dans
tout ce qui précède, aux documents relatifs à la seule abjuration : le
nombre, du reste, en est assez restreint, si on ne tient pas compte
des grandes professions de foi, que je n'ai pas à examiner. Sous le
premier patriarcat de Jérémie III (1716-1726), l'Église russe consulta
sa sœur du Bosphore sur la conduite à tenir envers les luthériens et
les calvinistes qui demandaient à entrer dans l'orthodoxie. Celle-ci
déclara, en 1718, qu'on devait simplement les oindre avec le
chrême, sans leur renouveler le baptême. Il serait intéressant de
connaître les motifs de cette décision ; malheureusement l'original
grec de l'acte en question est encore inédit, et la seule traduction
russe qui en a été faite se trouve enfouie dans un immense recueil
d'un accès difficile : Collection complète des lois de l'empire russe, t.
v, art. 3225. Un écrivain grec qui a pu la consulter ne nous en donne
que la conclusion. C. Œconomos, Ouvrages ecclésiastiques
conservés, in-8°, Athènes, 1862, t. i, p. 431, 476. Une décision
synodale du 8 décembre 1879 n'indique d'autre mesure que cette
onction, précédée de la profession de foi convenable. Théotocas, op.
cit., p. 370.
s7 ABJURATION DANS L'EGLISE GRECQUE Quant aux
points de doctrine, auxquels les protestant doivent donner leur
adhésion, ils ont été parfaitement exposés par le synode de
Jérusalem,' tenu en 1672, sous le patriarcat de Dosithée,
précisément dans le but de réfuter le calvinisme. Kimmel, Libri
symbolici Ecclesise orientalis, in-8", Iéna, 1843, p. 325-488. La
Confession dite de Dosithée, ibid., p. 425, passe, aux yeux des
orthodoxes, pour le meilleur formulaire à présenter aux néophytes
protestants; aussi, quand, au mois de septemhre 1723, le saint
synode de Constantinople répondit au clergé de la Grande-Bretagne
pour lui exposer sa croyance, il ne trouva rien de mieux que de
reproduire cette fameuse confession. Voir le curieux petit recueil.
Lettres du très pieux empereur et îles très saints patriarches sur
l'institution du très saint synode (en grec), in-8°, Saint-Pétersbourg,
1810, p. 12-48. Lauchert en a donné récemment une traduction
allemande, accompagnée de notes, dans la Revue internationale de
théologie, Berne, 1893, p. 206-236. C'est évidemment à l'aide de
cette confession qu'a été élaboré le rituel usité de nos jours pour
l'admission des réformés dans l'orthodoxie ; à défaut d'édition
grecque de ce rituel,, je vais en donner un résumé très succinct,
d'après la dernière édition officielle du saint synode russe. Le lecteur
ne manquera pas de remarquer les nombreuses ressemblances
qu'offre cette pièce avec le formulaire employé pour les latins. Une
fois instruit de sa nouvelle croyance, le néophyte fait une confession
générale de ses péchés, mais ne reçoit pas l'absolution. Au jour fixé
pour son abjuration, il se présente devant le prêtre, à la porte de
l'église, où, après une prière, il renonce solennellement à ses «
fausses doctrines », à mesure que le célébrant les lui énumère.
Naturellement, cette énumération varie suivant que le récipiendaire
est luthérien ou réformé, pour employer les termes mêmes du rituel.
Tous deux abjurent leur commune erreur sur la procession du Saint-
Esprit, mais seul le réformé répudie sa doctrine de la «
prédestination des hommes au salut et de leur damnation, fondées
non point sur la prescience que Dieu a de leur foi et de leurs bonnes
œuvres, de leur incrédulité et de leur impiété, mais sur un
inéluctable destin ». Tous deux rejettent leurs théories, légèrement
dillérentes, sur la présence réelle, sur le nombre des sacrements et
sur le sacerdoce en particulier; tous deux encore renoncent à leur
commune erreur sur la tradition, le culte des saints, les prières pour
les défunts. Après quoi ils affirment leur croyance par la récitation du
symbole de Nicée-Constantinople ; ils déclarent accepter les canons
des apôtres, des premiers conciles œcuméniques ou provinciaux, et
les autres traditions ou prescriptions de l'Église orthodoxe ; ils
promettent d'interpréter l'Écriture d'après le sentiment des Pères,
des docteurs, et de toute l'Église orthodoxe, reconnaissent les sept
sacrements, le dogme de la présence réelle, la légitimité de la prière
adressée aux saints, des honneurs rendus à leurs reliques, et du
culte des images « autorisées par l'Église orthodoxe ». Enfin, ils
affirment que Jésus-Christ est le chef de l'Église, qu'il a donné aux
pasteurs le pouvoir des clefs, et terminent par une promisse
d'obéissance à la hiérarchie ecclésiastique. Introduit dans l'église par
le célébrant, le néophyte jure sur l'Évangile de rester fidèle, jusqu'à
son dernier soupir, à la foi qu'il vient d'embrasser. Aussitôt après, le
prêtre l'absout de ses péchés et lui donne sur-lechamp la
confirmation. Cf. A. v. Maltzew, Die Sacramente, etc., p. 128-146. IX.
Abjuration des princesses impériales or royales. — Je donne ici, à
leur place naturelle, quelques renseignements sur les abjurations qui
se produisent en Russie comme en Grèce, à l'occasion du mariage
des princesses hétérodoxes avec les héritiers du troue. On sait, en
effet, que ces nobles recrues de l'orthodoxie sortent toutes, ou peu
s'en faut, du protestantisme allemand ou anglais. Aucune loi
officielle n'exige, dans les unions de ce genre, la communauté de
religion entre les conjoints ; ce n'en est pas moins un usage, auquel
les princesses allemandes n'ont garde de se soustraire. Pour elles, la
confession religieuse n'est qu'un article de mode. Le rituel usité en
Russie a été publié par le saint synode, en 1866, lors du mariage de
la princesse MarieSophie-Frédéric-Dagmar de Danemark avec le
tsaréwitch Alexandre Alexandrowiteh. Au lieu de procéder comme
dans les autres abjurations, par questions et réponses, le formulaire
est lu d'un seul trait par la néophyte elle-même, sur une simple
invitation de l'évêque. Il s'ouvre, comme toujours, par la récitation
du symbole de Nicée-Constantinople. Le reste de la profession de foi
est visiblement imité de celle de Pie IV : c'est, de part et d'autre, le
même ordre dans l'exposé des doctrines, et, quand la théologie
orthodoxe le permet, ce sont des expressions identiques. La
princesse déclare embrasser les traditions des apôtres, les canons
des premiers conciles, les règlements de l'Église orthodoxe, recevoir
la sainte Écriture comme la reçoit l'Église orthodoxe, admettre les
sept sacrements, sources de la grâce ; elle professe le dogme de la
présence réelle, de l'invocation des saints, du culte rendu à leurs
reliques et aux saintes images, des suffrages pour les défunts; elle
reconnaît à l'Église le pouvoir de remettre les péchés et n'accepte
d'autre chef de cette Église que JésusChrist, son divin époux, tout en
promettant une obéissance parfaite au saint synode dirigeant de
toutes les Russies et à la hiérarchie établie. Elle prête ensuite le
serment d'usage, reçoit l'absolution (le rituel ne parle pas de la
confession), puis la confirmation et la sainte communion. Voir A. v.
Maltzew, Die Sacramenle, etc., p. 164-181. L'Eglise du royaume de
Grèce ne possède pas, pour ces sortes d'abjurations, de rituel
particulier. Lorsque le 20 avril (vieux style) 1891, jour du samedi
saint, la princesse Sophie, épouse du duc héritier Constantin, abjura
le luthéranisme pour devenir orthodoxe, le métropolite d'Athènes se
contenta de lui poser, au début de la cérémonie, les trois questions :
« Voulez-vous embrasser le dogme orthodoxe? — Embrassez-vous le
symbole sacré de la foi orthodoxe? — Promettez-vous de rester à
l'avenir dans le sein de la foi orthodoxe ? » Sur les réponses
affirmatives de la royale néophyte, le métropolite l'invita à réciter le
symbole. Aussitôt après, elle reçut la confirmation et la sainte
communion. Ce fut tout. A dater de ce jour, l'Église de Grèce, au lieu
de prier pour la très pieuse Sophie (btoas.êt(jxâzrl), comme
précédemment, multiplia des oraisons pour la très religieuse
princesse (s-JaeëeffTaTï;) : le protocole orthodoxe découvre, entre
ces deux épilhètes, une différence de religion. On peut voir les
circulaires du saint synode d'Athènes relatives a cette affaire dans
tous les journaux de l'époque, parexemple, dansl' AnatolikosAstir,X.
XXX, (1890-1891), p. 150. En général, l'Église grecque proprement
dite est restée fidèle, pour ces sortes de cas, au cérémonial du
synode de 1484. C'est ainsi qu'elle n'exige pas seulement une
profession de foi orale; elle la veut encore par écrit. La princesse
Sophie remit la sienne, signée de sa main, au métropolite d'Athènes,
avant de recevoir la communion. Analolicos Astir, loc. cit., p. 158. X.
Arjuration des nestoriens. — Au début de celle l'Inde, j'ai cité le nom
des nesloriens parmi les hérétiques que l'on admettait dans l'Eglise
par la simple onction du chrême; quant à l'abjuration qu'ils devaient
faire, aucun document ne nous l'a conservée. Un événement tout
récent, dont les publicistes européens n'ont guère parlé, nous oblige
à compter désormais les nesloriens au nombre des plus importantes
recrues de l'or 
89 ABJURATION DANS L'EGLISE GRECQUE ACLUSIIS 90
thodoxie moderne. Ce serait le moment, si nous faisions de la
politique, de dire un mot de l'expansion russe parmi ces populations
lointaines des hauts plateaux asiatiques, si profondément ignorées
de nos gouvernants. A défaut de politique, l'événement auquel je
fais allusion nous fournit du moins un document intéressant pour
l'histoire des doctrines. Voici le fait. A plusieurs reprises, dans ces
dernières années, les nestoriens du Kurdistan et de l'Aserbaïdjan ont
essayé d'un rapprochement avec les orthodoxes. Un prêtre, nommé
Michel, entreprit dans ce but, en 1859, le voyage de Constantinople
et de Pétersbourg ; mais les graves difficultés politiques auxquelles
la Russie était alors exposée firent échouer cette tentative. Elle fut
reprise en 1895, sur l'initiative du saint synode russe, et, cette fois,
couronnée de succès. L'évèque de Soupourgan, Mar Jonas, passa à
l'orthodoxie avec tout son troupeau. Le 21 mai 1897, en présence
des envoyés russes, on donna lecture à la population de Soupourgan
d'un projet d'union, que l'évèque Jonas, trois prêtres et un diacre,
devaient aller consommer à Saint-Pétersbourg. Arrivés dans la
capitale russe au mois de février 1898, Mar Jonas et ses
compagnons furent admis solennellement dans l'orthodoxie le 25
mars suivant, fête de l'Annonciation. La veille de cette fête, le saint
synode se réunit dans la grande salle des séances : Mar Jonas se
présenta devant l'assemblée et lut, à haute voix, une profession de
foi signée de sa main. Le prélat nestorien y demandait son
admission dans l'Église orthodoxe, dont il embrassait la doctrine et à
laquelle il promettait obéissance. Il maudissait toutes ses anciennes
erreurs, en particulier l'hérésie de Nestorius et de Théodore « qui
ont soutenu, par leur doctrine mensongère, la dualité des personnes
dans le Christ notre Dieu et n'ont voulu donner à Marie que le titre
de Christotocos ou d'Anlhropotocos ». Pour lui, il voyait dans Jésus-
Christ « un seul Christ, un seul Fils, un seul Seigneur, un seul
HommeDieu, en deux natures, en une seule personne ou en une
seule hypostase » ; consubstantiel au Père par sa divinité,
consubstantiel aux hommes par son humanité, le Verbe a pris, au
sein de Marie, « la nature humaine dans son intégrité, c'est-à-dire
une àme raisonnable (Xoyix-îjv) et intellectuelle (voy]tixy]v) et un
corps, avec les propriétés humaines, l'activité humaine, la volonté
humaine. » En s'unissant l'un à l'autre dans l'incarnation, les deux
natures ont gardé chacune leur propriété respective, en sorte qu'il y
a en Notre-Seigneur « deux natures, deux propriétés particulières
(î3iôty)t£;), deux activités (ivspyetou), deux volontés subsistant en
lui sans mélange, sans changement, sans séparation, sans division
». De là encore les appellations diverses données à Notre-Seigneur
sans préjudice pour son unité personnelle. Passant du fils à la mère,
Mar Jonas proclamait Marie ôeotôxoç, « comme ayant vraiment
enfanté le Christ notre Dieu. » Il admettait les conciles
œcuméniques, non reconnus jusqu'à ce jour par ses coreligionnaires,
savoir les conciles d'Éphèse, de Chalcédoine, les deuxième et
troisième de Constantinople, le second de Nicée, et recevait toutes
leurs décisions particulières, non moins que les canons généraux des
sept premiers conciles œcuméniques et des neuf synodes
provinciaux. Il déclarait ne vouloir entretenir de communion «
qu'avec ceux qui sont eux-mêmes en communion avec la sainte
Église de toute la Russie » ; pour les autres, il les rejetait tous. Il
terminait en priant « le grand premier pasteur Notre-Seigneur Jésus-
Christ de bénir son entreprise ». Après la lecture de sa profession de
foi, Mar Jonas fut admis dans l'orthodoxie avec sa dignité épiscopale,
« en vertu du 95e canon du concile in Trullo. » Restait à le recevoir
dans l'Église, avec le cérémonial d'usage. C'est ce qui eut lieu le
lendemain, fête de l'Annonciation. Pour la première fois on vit
paraître, entre les mains des pieux orthodoxes, une brochure avec ce
titre : Rituel d'après lequel on doit recevoir ceux qui viennent de la
confession nestorienne à l'Eglise orthodoxe. Je n'insisterai pas
davantage sur ce cérémonial; on y procède, comme dans les autres,
par demandes et réponses, disposées de façon à faire abjurer
successivement au récipiendaire toutes ses erreurs. Cette catéchèse
officielle terminée, le néophyte prêtesurl'Évangileleserment habituel,
assiste à lamesse etcommunie. Voir Vérité ecclésiastique (en grec),
Constantinople, t. xvni (1898), p. 141-144; A. v. Maltzew,
Begriibniss-R'tus und einige specielle und alterthûmliclie
Gotlesdienste, in-8°, Berlin, 1898, Ire partie, p. 420-444. XI.
Abjuration des ecclésiastiques. — On vient de voir que l'évèque
nestorien Mar Jonas fut reçu dans l'orthodoxie avec sa dignité et son
rang hiérarchique. L'Église russe, en pareil cas, en agit toujours de
même : à ses yeux, les ordinations des hétérodoxes sont
parfaitement valides, encore que les raisons qu'en fournissent ses
théologiens les plus autorisés soient absolument dépourvues de
valeur. Cf. Apostolos Christodoulou, Essai de droit ecclésiastique, p.
408. La conduite de l'Église de Constantinople vis-à-vis des
néophytes déjà revêtus des ordres sacrés n'est point aussi
constante. Sans remonter aux anciens canons, que tout le monde
peut consulter, je me borne à quelques exemples tout récents.
Lorsque, en 1846, l'évèque Macaire demanda d'être admis dans
l'orthodoxie, on examina longtemps, au Phanar, quelle attitude il
convenait d'adopter à l'endroit de ses ordinations. Un ex-patriarche,
Grégoire VI, se prononça résolument pour la réordination et
développa sa thèse dans un mémoire fort curieux dont on a publié
seulement la seconde partie. M. Gédéon, Constitutions canoniques,
t. II, p. 373-377. C'est son avis qui l'emporta, et Macaire fut reçu
comme un simple laïque. Au contraire, en 1860, d'autres prêtres et
évêques melchites furent admis sur la simple présentation d'une
profession de foi, suivie de l'onction du chrême. Si étrange qu'il nous
paraisse de voir donner la confirmation à des évêques et à des
prêtres, il faut bien convenir que cet usage est absolument commun
dans l'Église orthodoxe : c'est, je l'ai dit déjà, une des plus grosses
difficultés de son rituel traditionnel. Ce n'est pas tout : en vertu
d'une double décision synodale du 15 février 1868 et du 2 août
1869, un prêtre bulgare catholique dut recevoir ànouveau tous les
ordres pour devenir orthodoxe authentique. Même décision le 28
septembre 1872, le 30 mai 1885, le 11 mai 1889. Cf. Théotocas,
Législation du patriarcat, p. 373-374. Pour mettre fin aux
divergences existant à cet égard entre les diverses fractions de
l'orthodoxie, le saint synode de Constantinople provoqua, en 1880,
une sorte de consultation générale : toutes les Églises autocéphales
furent invitées à envoyer leur avis sur cette grave question. Des
diverses réponses lues en séance synodale, le 19 novembre de la
même année, il résulte que toutes les Eglises orthodoxes, sauf celle
de Grèce, reconnaissaient la validité des ordinations hétérodoxes. En
dépit de cette presque unanimité, la grande Église n'osa se
prononcer, sans doute pour n'avoir pas à se déjuger; les décisions
mentionnées ci-dessus disent assez quelle est, aujourd'hui, sa
conduite habituelle. Une note insérée dans son journal officiel, lors
de l'abjuration de Mar Jonas, laisse bien entendre que certaines de
ses traditions ne sont plus en harmonie avec les circonstances
actuelles. Cf. Vérité ecclésiastique, 1898, t. xvm, p. 144. Mais le jour
où l'Église de Constantinople reconnaîtra ses errements trop souvent
contradictoires, elle ne sera plus l'Église orthodoxe. L. Petit. ABLE
Thomas. Voir Abel 2, col. 35-36. ABLUSIISou ABLUVIIS(de) Geoffroy,
né à Abluies ou Abluis, diocèse de Chartres, aujourd'hui Ablis; de là
son nom. Il entra dans l'ordre de saint Dominique, à Chartres.
Envoyé comme inquisiteur général à Carcas 
91 ABLUSIIS - ABLUTIONS DE LA MESSE 92 sonne, il fit
preuve d'une grande fermeté. 11 eut beaucoup à soullïir des
habitants irrités contre lui. A la fin de sa vie, Geoffroy dut, pour ce
motif, abandonner Carcassonne et se retirer à Lyon ; il mourut dans
cette dernière ville entre 1315 et 1319. Il a composé un ouvrage
intitulé : Commentaria in IV librosSentenliariim. Echard, Scriptores
ordinis ]T.vdicatorum, Paris, 1719, t. I. V. Oblet. 1. ABLUTION
(Baptême par). Voir Baptême. 2. ABLUTIONS de ta messe. - I.
Histoire. II. Oraisons. III. Pratique. Il n'est question ici que des
ablutions qui se pratiquent à la tin de la messe, après la communion.
Nous en parlons parce qu'elles témoignent du respect de l'Église
pour l'eucharistie, et de sa foi en la présence réelle. Elles sont au
nombre de deux : la première faite avec du vin pur pour purifier le
calice et la bouche du prêtre, et la seconde avec du vin et de l'eau
pour purifier les doigts de la consécration. Toutes deux sont
consommées par le prêtre, à moins qu'il ne doive célébrer une autre
messe le même jour, comme cela se présente en cas de binage et le
jour de Noël. Les évêques et les prélats qui ont l'usage des
pontificaux y ajoutent encore le lavement des mains qu'on trouve
indiqué dans le VIe ordo romain (xie siècle), P. L., t. i.xxvm, col. 994,
usage qui était d'ailleurs pratiqué îiussi au moyen âge par les simples
prêtres, comme en témoignent Yves de Chartres, De convcnientia
vêler, et novi sacrif., P. L., t. clxii, col. 560; Innocent III, De sacrif.
missx, 1. VI, c. vm, P. L., t. ccxvn, col. 910; Alexandre de Haies,
part. IV, q. xxxvn, m. v, 1I« p., a. 2i, S ';, 1482, i-ans pagin.; Durand
de Mende, Jlationale divinor. offic, 1. IV, c. lv, p. 315, Naples, 1859,
in-4°; les Coutumes de Cluny, Martène, De antiquis monach. ritib., 1.
II, c. îv, § 3, n. 15, p. 182, de saint Bénigne de Dijon, ibid., p. 183,
et de Citeaux. lbid., p. 186. I. Histoire. — Ni les plus anciens ordos
romains, ni les liturgisles antérieurs au xie siècle, ne font mention de
ces ablutions qui ont été pratiquées diversement, suivant les
coutumes locales, jusqu'à l'introduction du missel de saint Pie V
(1570), où elles ont été établies définitivement dans leur forme
actuelle. Les liturgistes du moyen âge se servent ordinairement du
terme perfundere ou perfusio pour désigner l'ablution du calice ou
des doigts, après la communion. La purification du calice est
indiquée dans saint Pierre Damien, 1. V, Epist.,xvm,adUbertum
presb.,P. L., t. cxuv, col. 370, et dans saint Thomas, Sum. theol.,
IIIa, q. lxxxiii, a. 5, ad 10um, qui s'appuie à ce propos, sur un texte
d'Innocent III, c. Ex parte, de celebratione missx. D'après ce texte,
l'ablution était consommée par le prêtre, nui cum eodem die aliam
missam debuerit celebrare. Dans ce cas il la réservait pour la
dernière messe, ou la faisait prendre à une personne à jeun, comme
l'ordonne un concile de Cologne (1280), vel clet honestse pcrsonx
jejunai quant noverit ad hoc esse paratam. Cf. Sala, t. m, p. 428. Le
Xe ordo romain vers (1200) mentionne une ablution du calice pour
deux circonstances particulières, le vendredi saint et aux messes des
morts, P. L., t. lxxviii, col. 1014; c'est seulement dans le XIVe ordo
(commencement du xive siècle) qu'elle est prescrite sous forme de
rubrique : Quo (scilicet sanguine Christi) sumpto, recipiat episcopus
rnodicum de vino in calice, hifundcnte illud xiibiliarutio, cl illud sumal
ad abluendum os suum. Ibid., p. 1168. L'ablution du calice était
généralement pratiquée aussi dans les ordres religieux. Cf. Martène,
loc. cil. Pour l'ablution des mains ou des doigts, en elle-même, est
certain qu'elle se pratique au moins depuis le xi" siècle, comme nous
l'avons dit plus haut, mais les usages ont beaucoup varié suivant les
lieux. D'aprèsYves de Chartres, Alexandre de liai 's, Innocent III et
Durand de Mende, loc. sup. cit., elle avait lieu avec de l'eau que l'on
jetait dans un lieu propre et honnête, appelé la piscine ou le lavoir
(lavatorium), selon le P. Le Brun, t. i, p. 618. Dans certains endroits,
l'ablution des doigts était pratiquée avec du vin dans un calice
spécial. Ainsi en est-il dans le rite de la messe décrit par Jean
d'Avranches (xie siècle) pour le diocèse de Rouen, cf. Bona, 1. II, c.
xx, p. 372, et Sala, t. m, p. 427 ; ainsi que dans les Coutumes de
Cluny et de saint Bénigne de Dijon. Martène, loc. cit. Après avoir pris
cetle ablution, le prêtre purifiait encore le calice avec du vin qu'il
prenait aussi. Outre l'ablution des doigts sur le calice, on se lavait
généralement les mains à la piscine que l'on voit encore près de
l'autel, du côté de l'épitre, dans certaines églises. Cela ressort des
ordonnances ecclésiastiques, prescrivant d'avoir à cet effet une
piscine près de l'autel, cf. Sala, loc. cit., p. 428, et de quelques
anciens missels, ibid., qui indiquent des prières à réciter en se
rendant de l'autel à la piscine : aginius tibi grattas, etc., et le
cantique Nunc dimillis. Actuellement ce lavement des mains a
disparu de la messe privée pour les simples prêtres ; il est remplacé
par l'usage communément reçu de se laver les mains, après avoir
déposé les vêtements sacrés, usage déjà pratiqué au temps de
Durand de Mende, loc. cit., pour mettre selon lui une démarcation
visible entre la fonction sacrée et les occupations journalières. On a
encore appelé ablution, le vin non consacré que le diacre donnait
aux fidèles après la communion, lorsque l'euchristie cessa d'être
administrée sous les deux espèces. Au siècle dernier, on donnait
encore l'ablution aux fidèles, à Notre-Dame de Paris, aux
communions générales de Noël, Pâques, la Pentecôte, l'Assomption
et la Toussaint, et à Saint-Martin de Tours également aux
communions générales. Cf. Le Brun, t. I, p. 635; de Moléon [Lebrun
des Marettes], Voyages liturg. de France, in-8», Paris, 1718, p. 127,
246. Au témoignage du P. Le Brun, on la donnait encore dans bien
d'autres endroits, dans diverses circonstances, soit au clergé seul,
soit au clergé et aux laïques. Loc. cit., p- 636. Aujourd'hui cette
ablution est presque partout tombée en désuétude, sauf aux messes
d'ordination pour les ordinands seulement. Cependant elle est de
droit commun à toute communion, même pour les simples fidèles.
Cf. Miss. rom. rit. celeb. missam, x, 6, 9; Cxrcm. episcop., 1. II, c.
xxix, 4. Dans l'ordre bénédictin, elle est encore présentée dans
quelques circonstances solennelles, par exemple : aux messes
pontificales quand les ministres sacrés y communient, à la
consécration des vierges, aux professions monastiques et aux
vêtures novitiales. IL Oraisons. — Les deux ablutions sont
accompagnées de deux oraisons secrètes, toutes deux très
anciennes. La première Quod ore sumpsimus, se trouve comme
postcommunion, avec une légère variante, dans le sacramentaire
léonien, Mense jul. orat. et prec. diurn. ,ser. xvine, messe 20e, P. L.,
t. lv, col. 75; dans le sacramentaire gélasien, fer. vu, hebd. lll,
Quadrag., P. L., t. lxxiv, col. 1078; dans le sacramentaire grégorien,
fer. v, hebd. Passion., p. 50 ; et alia missaquotid., édit. Muratori,
Venise, 1748, t. a, p. 178; dans le Missale got/iicum, m, in vigil.
Natal. Dhi, P. L., t. lxxii, col. 226; dans le sacramentaire ambrosien
(xic siècle) du Trésor de la cathédrale de Milan, in ordine missx, p.
195 v° (cf. notice lxxiv dans Delisle, Mémoire sur d'anciens
sacramentaires, in-4°, Paris, 1886, et dans Tlte Leofric Missal (XIe
siècle), 6e des Missx colidianx, édit. Warren, in-4
or ABLUTIONS DE LA MESSE - ABRAHAM (VOCATION D') 9-
£ dites de Charles le Chauve (ixe siècle), les fidèles disaient cette
oraison après avoir communié, et comme chacun se l'appliquait en
particulier, on y lit au singulier : Quod ore sumpsi, Domine, mente
capiam, etc., ainsi que dans plusieurs anciens missels. Cf. Le Brun,
loc. cit., p. 620, not. 11. La deuxième ablution est accompagnée de
l'oraison : Corpus luum Domine quod sumpsi, etc., empruntée avec
de légères variantes au Missale gothicum (loc. cit. Missa
<2ormnicaZ.,Postcommunion, col. 315) ; elle se trouve aussi dans la
Missa tot«a de Flaccuslllyricus, P. L., t.cxxxvm, col. 1333, et dans le
missel de Hereford (1502) in canon, miss., p. 195. Cf. Will. Maskell,
The ancient Lit. of the Church ofEngland, 3eédit., in-S°, Oxford,
1882. Jusqu'à l'introduction du missel officiel de saint Pie V, il y eut
une grande variété d'usages, notamment pour les oraisons. Ainsi,
outre les deux oraisons actuelles, il y en avait parfois une troisième,
à laquelle on ajoutait encore les paroles suivantes : Vidi Dominum
facie ad faciem, et salva facla est anima mea, etc. Lutum fecit
Dominus exsputo,et linivit oculos meos,etabii, et îavi, et vidi et
credidi Deo. En disant ces mots, le prêtre, selon un usage très
répandu, se touchait les yeux avec les doigts de l'ablution, pour
exprimer les effets merveilleux de guérison et d'illumination que le
Sauveur produit sur L'âme par la communion. Cf. Thalhofer, t. il, p.
292. Actuellement encore, les dominicains ne disent l'oraison Quod
ore sumpsimus, qu'à l'ablution des doigts. La liturgie milanaise
pratique les ablutions comme l'Église romaine, avec une oraison
différente pour l'ablution des doigts : Confirma Itoc Deus, etc., et la
liturgie mozarabe aussi, avec une seule oraison : Domine Deus,
Pater et Filius et SpiritusSanctus, etc. Cf. P.L.,t lxxxv, col. 566, in
nota, 567. III. Pratique. — D'après les rubriques du missel (rit. celeb.
miss., x, 5, et in corp.) le prêtre en disant : Quod ore sumpsimus,
présente le calice au servant, qui y verse un peu de vin avec lequel il
se -purifie; puis avec du vin et de l'eau il se lave, sur le calice, les
pouces et les index, les essuie avec le purificatoire, prend l'ablution,
et après s'être essuyé la bouche, purifie le calice. D'après de Herdt,
Sacr. lit. praxis, in-12, Louvain, 1852, t. i, p. 30'*, il faut autant que
possible, pour la seconde ablution, prendre autant de liquide que
pour la première, mais toujours plus d'eau que de vin, sans doute
pour être bien certain que l'espèce du vin a cessé d'exister. Se servir
du vin ou d'eau seulement, pour l'ablution des doigts, est une faute
vénielle en soi, mais le manquement à cette rubrique n'est jamais
que véniel; une cause raisonnable accidentelle excuse
complètement, de telle sorte qu'à défaut de vin, on peut se servir
d'eau seulement pour la purification. Cf. Lehmkuhl, Theologia
moralis, Fribourg-en-Brisgau, 1898, t. il, n. 245, 4, p. 183. D. Joan.
Bona, Opéra omnia, Rerum liturijicarum libri H; 1. II, c. xx, in-fol.,
Anvers, 1694, p. 372; id. Rerum liturgicarum libri duo cum notis et
observ. R. Sala, in-fol., Turin, 1753, p. 427 sq.; Domin. Giorgi, De
liturgia Romani pontifias, 1. III, c. xxi, in-4°, Rome, 1744, p. 196
sq.; Martène, De antiguis monachor. rilib., 1. II, c. IV et VI, in-fol.,
Anvers, 1738; P. Le Brun, Explication littérale, Itistorique et
dogmatique des prières et des cérémonies de la messe, in-8", Paris,
1777, t. I, p. 618 sq. ; D' Valentm Thalhofer, Handbuch der
katholischen Liturgik, in-8", Fribourg-én-Brisgau, 1890, t. n, p. 291,
292. V. Maurice. ABLUVIIS (de) Geoffroy. Voir Ablushs, col. 90-92.
ABRA DE RACONBS (d') Charles-François naquit vers 1680 au
château de Raconis, diocèse de Chartres. Sa famille, qui était
calviniste, passa tout entière au catholicisme en 1592. Il enseigna
successivement la philosophie au collège du Plessis (1609), la
théologie au collège de Navarre (1615); en 1618, il fut nommé
prédicateur et aumônier du roi. A cette époque, il s'occupait aussi de
polémique contre les protestants et publiait divers ouvrages de
controverse : 1° Réponse aux quatre ministres de Charenlon et à
deux autres écrits de Pierre du Moulin, in-8°, Paris, 1617 ; — 2"
Triomphe de la vérité forçant le sieur du Moulin à confesser sa fuite
en la conférence qu'il a eue arec le sieur de Raconis, Paris, 1618; —
3° Les actes de la conférence du sieur de Raconis, professeur en
théologie, et du sieur du Moulin, ministre de Charenlon, en la maison
du sieur du Moulin, signés de part et d'autre, in-8°, Paris, 1618; —
4° Traité pour se trouver en conférence avec les hérétiques, in-12,
Paris, 1618; — 5° La confession de foy des ministres percée à jour
et son bouclier mis en pièces ou l'Examen de la confession de foy
des ministres, 2 vol., Paris, 1620, 1621. Désigné en 1637 pour
l'évèché de Lavaur, il ne séjourna pas longtemps dans son diocèse;
en 1643, il était de retour à Paris. La polémique contre les
jansénistes l'occupa jusqu'à la fin de sa vie. Saint Vincent de Paul
l'excitait et l'encourageait. En 1644, il fit paraître un Examen et
jugement du livre de la fréquente communion fait contre la
fréquente communion, et publié sous le nom du sieur Arnauld, 3 in-
4°, Paris; en 1645, une Briève analomie du libelle anonyme intitulé :
Réponse au livre de MT l'évêque de Lavaur, in-4°, Paris; une
Continuation des examens de la doctrine de l'abbé de Saint-Cyran et
de sa cabale, in-4°, Paris; La primauté et souveraineté singulière de
saint Pierre, contre l'hérésie des deux chefs de l'ÉgUse, formulée par
Martin de Barcos. Cette attitude valut à Raconis les colères et les
rancunes du parti. Vers la fin de cette même année 1645, le bruit se
répandit à Paris que l'évêque de Lavaur avait dénoncé au pape les
dangereuses doctrines contenues dans le livre de la Fréquente
communion et l'avait averti que des évêques français toléraient et
approuvaient ces impiétés. L'évêque de Grasse informa de ce fait
l'assemblée générale du clergé. Les prélats s'en montrèrent d'autant
plus émus que quelques-uns avaient publiquement recommandé
l'ouvrage d'Arnauld; ils s'en plaignirent au nonce, puis ils firent
demander à Raconis s'il avait réellement écrit cette lettre, et, malgré
sa réponse négative, ils adressèrent à Innocent X une protestation
commune contre les accusations dont ils étaient l'objet. Collection
des procès-verbaux des assemblées générales, t. ni. Abra de Raconis
mourut quelques mois après, le 16 juillet 1646. Launoy, Regii
Navarrx gymnasii Parisiensis historia, Paris, 1677; dom Liron,
Bibliothèque générale des auteurs de France, Bibliothèque
chartraine, Paris, 1719; Moreri, Dictionnaire historique ; Feller,
Biographie universelle ; Hœfer, Nouvelle biographie générale ;
Hurter, Nomenclator literarius, Inspruck, 1893, t. n; Wetzer et Welte,
Kirchenlexicon, Fribourg, 1882. V. Odlet. 1. ABRAHAM. Parmi les
questions qui regardent le patriarche Abraham, nous nous
contenterons d'étudier celles qui intéressent plus particulièrement les
théologiens. Nous allons consacrer des articles : 1° à la vocation; 2°
au sacrifice d'Abraham; 3° à la promesse du Messie faite à Abraham;
enfin, 4° au séjour des justes désigné sous le nom de sein
d'Abraham. I. ABRAHAM (vocation d'). Nous étudierons
successivement le fait, l'objet et les raisons de cette vocation. I. Fait.
— Abraham, qui se nommait d'abord Abram, était fils de Tharé et
vraisemblablement frère puiné de Nachor et d'Aran, quoiqu'il soit
nommé le premier en sa qualité d'ancêtre du peuple hébreu. Gen.,
xi, 26, 27. Il était né à Ur en Chaldée, la Mughéir actuelle, où sa
famille, qui était de race sémitique, semble avoir occupé une des
premières places et s'être trouvée à la tète d'une tribu importante. Il
y épousa Sara, sa parente. Gen., xi, 29. Or, Tharé, son père, le prit
avec Lot et les fit sortir d'Ur pour les conduire dans la terre de
Cbanaan. Ils
95 ABRAHAM (VOCATION D') 9G vinrent jusqu'à Ilaran, au
nord de la Mésopotamie, ils y séjournèrent et Tharé y mourut. Gen.,
xi, 31, 32. A cet endroit de la Genèse, l'émigration de Tharé et de
son fils est racontée comme un fait naturel, dont les motifs ne sont
pas indiqués, sans qu'il soit parlé d'aucune intervention divine. S'il
n'en était question qu'en ce passage seulement, on pourrait conclure
qu'elle a eu lieu sans un ordre exprès de Dieu, et uniquement par
une disposition particulière et sous la direction de la providence. H.
J. Crelier, La Genèse, Paris, 1889, p. 153. « Sous quelle impulsion
Tharé et sa famille quittèrent-ils la contrée d'Ur Kasdini ? Dieu leur
inspira de chercher des pâturages plus ahondants pour leurs
troupeaux; de fait, il voulait rapprocher Abraham de la terre de
Chanaan. » Card. JVIeignan, L'Ancien^ Testament dans ses rapports
avec le Nouveau, De l'Éden à Moïse, Paris, 1895, p. 309. Ailleurs,
toutefois, l'Écriture attribue explicitement cette émigration à
l'intervention divine. Jéhovah lui-même rappela plus tard à Abraham
qu'il l'avait fait partir d'Ur. Gen., xv, 7. Il dit aux Israélites par la
bouche de Josué qu'il a emmené leur père Abraham des contrées de
la Mésopotamie dans la terre de Chanaan. Josué, xxiv, 3. La Chaldée
n'était, en effet, qu'une portion de la Mésopotamie. A la restauration
du culte mosaïque à Jérusalem, après la fin de la captivité des Juifs
à Babylone, les lévites, résumant les bienfaits divins accordés à leur
nation, affirmèrent dans une prière au Seigneur qu'il avait lui-même
choisi Abraham et l'avait tiré d'Ur de Chaldée. II Esd., IX, 7. Dans ce
passage, la leçon latine : De igné Chaldœorum correspond à Ur
Kasdim, « la ville des Chaldéens. » Elle traduit le nom propre, Ur, en
le faisant dériver de la racine sémitique s'ôr, « feu. » Cf. F.
Vigouroux, La Bible et les découvertes modernes, 6e édit., Paris,
1896, t. I, p. 418. Achior, le chef des Ammonites, apprit le même fait
à Holoferne et il lui dit que Dieu ordonna aux ancêtres des Juifs de
quitter le pays de la Chaldée et de venir habiter à Haran. Judith, v,
9. Enfin, le diacre saint Etienne, dans son discours au sanhédrin,
affirma expressément que le Dieu de gloire apparut à Abraham en
Mésopotamie, avant qu'il demeurât à Haran, et lui donna l'ordre de
sortir de la terre des Chaldéens. Act., vu, 2-4. En présence
d'affirmations aussi nombreuses et aussi positives, il semble
nécessaire d'admettre qu'Abraham reçut de Dieu à Ur en Chaldée
l'ordre de quitter cette ville. Après un séjour prolongé à Haran,
Tharé étant mort, Dieu ordonna de nouveau à Abraham de se diriger
vers le pays de Chanaan. Gen., xn, 1. Philon, De Ahra/iamo, dans
Opéra, in-fol., Paris, 1640, p. 362, admet deux vocations d'Abraham
: « Obéissant de nouveau à un oracle, dit-il, cet homme aimable part
de nouveau pour une seconde émigration, non plus d'une ville à une
autre ville, mais vers un pays désert où il menait une vie errante. »
De leur côté, pou raccorder les divers passages de l'Écriture, saint
Augustin, De civilate Dei, VI, xv, 2, jP. L., t. xu, col. 495-496, et saint
Je; n Chrysostome, In Gen., homil. xxxi, 3, P. G., t. lui, col. 285-286,
ont abouti à la même conclusion, qui est acceptée par de bons
commentateurs modernes. J. T. Beelen, Comment.
inActaaposlolorum, Louvain, 1850, 1. 1, p. 1 18-119; J. V. Van
Steenkiste, Actus apostolorum , 4' édit., Bruges, 1882, p. 125; H. J.
Crelier, Les Actes des apôtres, Paris, 1883, p. 79-80; T. J. Lainy,
Comment, in librum Geneseos, Malines, 188i, t, il, p. 2; F. de
Hummelauer, Comment, in Genesim, Paris, 1895, [i. '■>(>').
Cependant, suivant la remarque de Ma» Lamy, d'autres exégètes ne
reconnaissent qu'une seule vocation, faite à Abraham à Ur; ils voient
dans le récit de Gen., xu, 1, une prolepse et traduisent le verbe
hébreu par le plus-que-parfait : « Le Seigneur avait dit à Abraham. »
11. 0-rjf.t. — Quoi qu'il en soit du double fait de la vocation
d'Abraham, Dieu commanda au saint patriarche de quitter non
seulement le lieu de sa naissance, la ville d'Ur, et sa patrie, la riche
et opulente Chaldée, où sa famille était établie et où il trouvait de
gras pâturages pour ses troupeaux, mais encore sa parenté et la
maison de son père. Gen., xu, 1. Il lui imposait ainsi un grand
sacrifice, dont les circonstances accumulées dans le récit biblique
font ressortir le mérite. Abraham obéit généreusement à l'ordre
divin. Une première fois, il quitta avec son père la ville des
Chaldéens; il y laissa son frère Nachor et n'emmena avec lui que
Sara, sa femme, et Lot, son neveu. Gen., xi, 31. Une seconde fois,
sur l'appel de Dieu, après la mort de Tharé, il s'éloigna encore de sa
patrie et de ses parents et sortit d'Haran, où il avait fait quelque
séjour. En lui imposant de tout abandonner, patrie, famille, maison
paternelle, Dieu ne lui indique pas le terme de son émigration ; il lui
fait connaître seulement la direction qu'il doit suivre dans sa lointaine
pérégrination. Plein de foi dans la parole de son Dieu, Abraham
dirige ses pas vers le pays de Chanaan, qui devait être le lieu de son
héritage, mais qui ne lui était pas désigné comme le point d'arrêt de
son voyage. Jéhovah ordonnait d'aller vers la terre qu'il montrerait,
Gen., xn, I, et Abraham partit, sans savoir où il aboutirait. Hebr., xi,
8. Les Pères ont admiré et célébré en termes éloquents la foi et
l'obéissance d'Abraham. S. Clément de Rome, I Cor., x, Funk, Opéra
Patrum apostolicorum, 2e édit., Tubingue, 1887, t. i, p. 72-74; S.
Ambroise, De Abraham, I, il, 3, P. L., t. xiv, col. 421; S. Chrysostome,
De beato Abrahamo oratio, n. 1, P. G., t. l, col. 737-738; id., In Gen.,
homil. xxxi, n. 36, t. lui, col. 286-290; S. Cyrille d'Alexandrie, De
adoratione in Spirilu et veritate, I, P. G., t. lxviii, col. 168-169; Basile
de Séleucie, Oral., vu, n. 1, P. G., t. lxxxv, col. 104. Abraham était
déjà parvenu dans la terre de Chanaan, quand Dieu lui révéla qu'elle
était le terme de son voyage. Toutefois, il ne devait pas la posséder
lui-même; la possession en était destinée seulement à sa postérité.
Gen., xu, 6-9. De fait, Abraham ne fit que traverser en nomade la
terre promise à ses descendants, et il n'y eut d'autre propriété que
son tombeau qu'il acheta d'Éphron à la mort de Sara. Gen., xxm, 3-
20. Aussi saint Etienne a-t-il pu dire que Dieu ne donna à Abraham,
au pays de Chanaan, ni héritage, ni même la place suffisante pour
poser le pied, Act., vu, 5, et saint Paul a célébré la foi du patriarche
qui l'a fait habiter dans la terre de la promesse comme sur une terre
étrangère, sous des tentes, avec Isaac et Jacob, héritiers de la
même promesse. Hebr., xi, 9. III. Raisons. — On a indiqué plusieurs
motifs différents pour lesquels Dieu a fait sortir Abraham de sa patrie
et de la maison paternelle. 1° Raison religieuse. — Pour préserver
Abraham de l'idolâtrie et faire de lui l'ancêtre du peuple choisi.
Depuis leur dispersion, les descendants de Noé avaient formé des
tribus et des peuples distincts et en s'écartant les uns des autres, ils
oubliaient les traditions primitives et le Dieu qui s'était révélé à nos
premiers parents. La notion du vrai Dieu s'obscurcissait de plus en
plus; son culte était remplacé par celui des fausses divinités et des
idoles, et la vraie religion était sur le point de disparaître de la face
de la terre. Saint Épiphane, Hœr., i,6, P. G., t. xli, col. 188, a recueilli
une ancienne tradition d'après laquelle l'idolâtrie aurait commencé à
se répandre parmi les hommes au temps de Sarug. A l'origine, dit-il,
les hommes n'avaient pas poussé la superstition jusqu'à rendre un
culte aux statues de pierre, de bois, d'or ou d'argent; les images
n'étaient d'abord qu'un moyen d'exciter la dévotion des humains à
l'égard des faux dieux. Quelle que soit la valeur de ce
renseignement, à cause du polythéisme qui dominait partout à
L'époque d'Abraham, Dieu résolut de conserver le dépôt delà
révélation el de la vraie foi au moins che/. un peuple, qui serait
spécialement consacré à son culte. C'est pourquoi
97 ABRAHAM (VOCATION D') — ABRAHAM (SACRIFICE D')
C8 il choisit pour être la souche fie ce peuple d'élite un homme qui
fût fidèle et qui méritât de devenir le père des croyants. Mais il fallait
soustraire cet ancêtre de la nalion sainte aux funesles intluences de
l'exemple, aux séductions qu'il aurait rencontrées dans sa patrie et
même dans le sein de sa famille. Dieu isola donc Abraham et lui
ordonna de quitter la Chaldée et la maison de son père. Saint
Ambroise,EY)ist., L, n.5, P. L., t. xvi, col. 1156, avait bien compris
que c'était à cause de la superstition des Chaldéens qu'Abraham
était venu au pays de Chanaan. Les anciens documents de la
Chaldée, qui ont été en partie déchiffrés de nos jours, nous ont
renseignés sur l'état religieux de ce pays à l'époque d'Abraham. La
contrée était habitée simultanément par des Chamites et des
Sémites, qui étaient polythéistes. Les Chamites étaient les premiers
possesseurs du sol. La plupart des textes qui proviennent d'eux et
qui sont rédigés en suméroaccadien, sont des textes religieux, des
dédicaces ou inscriptions votives à leurs dieux. La lecture des noms
divins qu'ils contiennent est encore très incertaine, sinon au point de
vue du sens, du moins pour la prononciation. Les dieux des premiers
Chaldéens ont été identifiés plus tard avec ceux des Sémites qui
occupèrent le pays et soumirent à leur domination les habitants
primitifs. Ainsi, Ana est devenu l'Anu assyrien, l'esprit du ciel; En-
liUa, ouMul-lil-a, l'esprit du monde, est Bel l'ancien; En-Ki-a ou Ea
est l'esprit des abîmes de la terre. De ces dieux et de leurs épouses
sont issus beaucoup d'autres; les plus célèbres sont En-Zu, fils de
En-lil-a, qui devint le Sin des Sémites, ou dieu-lune; Nina ou Nana,
fille d'Ea, identifiée avec Istar- Vénus; Nin-Girsu, confondu avec
Nergal ou avec Adar; Babar, rapproché du Samas sémitique, le dieu
soleil, fils de la lune, etc. Les Chaldéens adoraient donc les astres et
les esprits des éléments de l'univers. Chaque ville avait
généralement un dieu particulier, dont le culte n'excluait pas celui
des autres dieux. Ibr adorait spécialement En-Zu; Tell-Loh, Nin-Girsu
et son épouse Bau; Arach, la 'déesse Nana. E. Pannier, Chaldée,
dans le Dictionnaire de la Bible de M. Vigouroux, t. il, col. 508;
Assyrie, ibid., t. I, col. "1153-1158. Cf. F. Lenormant, Les origines de
l'histoire, 2" édit. , Paris, 1880, t. i, p. 523-529; Histoire ancienne de
l'Orient, 9e édit., Paris, 1887, t. v, p. 227-312; G. Maspero, Histoire
ancienne des peuples de l'Orient, 5- (dit., Paris, 1893, p. 135-142. La
famille elle-même d'Abraham partageait les erreurs des tribus
sémitiques auxquelles elle se rattachait par l'origine, et sans avoir
complètement abandonné le culte du vrai Dieu, elle était atteinte par
l'idolâtrie. Jéhovah nous l'apprend par la bouche de Josué : « A
l'origine, vos ancêtres et, en particulier, Tharé, père d'Abraham et de
Nachor, ont habité au delà de l'Euphrate, et ils servaient des dieux
étrangers. Alors, je pris votre père Abraham et je le fis passer dans
la terre de Chanaan. » Josué', xxiv, 2, 3. On a découvert à Mughéir
les ruines d'un temple élevé au dieu Sin et plus ancien qu'Abraham.
C'est là sans doute que Tharé et les autres ancêtres des Hébreux ont
commis les actes idolàtriques que leur reprochait Josué. F.
Vigouroux, La Bible et les découvertes modernes, 6e ('dit., t. i, p.
431-438. De son côté, Achior fournit à Holoferne les renseignements
suivants sur le peuple juif : « Ce peuple est de race chaldéenne. Il
habita d'abord en Mésopotamie, parce qu'ils ne voulurent pas
honorer les dieux de leurs pères qui étaient au pays des Chaldéens.
Abandonnant donc les cérémonies de leurs pères, qui
reconnaissaient une multitude de dieux, ils honorèrent l'unique Dieu
du ciel, qui leur commanda de partir et d'aller à Haran. » Judith, v,
6-9. Tout en reconnaissant le Dieu d'Abraham, Gen., xxiv, 50, 51;
xxxi, 29, 42, Laban, fils de Nachor, avait des teraphims que Bachel
lui ravit. Gen., xxxi, 19, 30, 35. Jéhovah arracha donc Abraham à la
maison paternelle, afin de le préserver de l'idolâtrie qui avait déjà
pénétré parmi les siens. Une fable rabbiDICT. DE THÉOL. CAT1IOL.
nique, rapportée par les Targums du pseudo-Jonathan et de
Jérusalem, prétend même qu'Abraham, pour avoir refusé de rendre
les honneurs divins au feu que les Chaldéens adoraient, fut jeté dans
une fournaise ardente aux flammes de laquelle il échappa
miraculeusement, tandis que son frère Aran y périt. Saint Jérôme,
Qumst. hebraic. in Gen., q. xi,xn, P. L., t. xxm, col. 950, £57, et saint
Augustin, De civilate Dci, VI, xv, n. 1, P. L.,t.xu, col. 495, ont connu
cette faille. Saint Eph rem, Opéra syr., t.i, p. 146-157, et Jacques
d'Edesse, Scholiacn i assagc < { tlieold Testament, Londres, 1864, p.
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