I Kings 1st Edition Mordechai Cogan - PDF Download

(2025)

https://ebookultra.com/download/i-kings-1st-edition-mordechai-
cogan/

Visit ebookultra.com today to download the complete set of

ebooks or textbooks
 We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebookultra.com
to discover even more!

Genie and the Shadow Kings 1st Edition Gina Manis

https://ebookultra.com/download/genie-and-the-shadow-kings-1st-
edition-gina-manis/

Empirical Methods in International Trade Essays In Honor

Of Mordechai Kreinin Michael G. Plummer

https://ebookultra.com/download/empirical-methods-in-international-
trade-essays-in-honor-of-mordechai-kreinin-michael-g-plummer/

Democratization in Malawi A Stocktaking Kings M. Phiri

https://ebookultra.com/download/democratization-in-malawi-a-
stocktaking-kings-m-phiri/

Pottery Recovered Near the Tombs of Seti I Kv 17 and

Siptah Kv 47 in the Valley of the Kings Aegyptiaca
Helvetica David Aston
https://ebookultra.com/download/pottery-recovered-near-the-tombs-of-
seti-i-kv-17-and-siptah-kv-47-in-the-valley-of-the-kings-aegyptiaca-
helvetica-david-aston/
Schindler Kings Road and Southern California Modernism
Robert Sweeney

https://ebookultra.com/download/schindler-kings-road-and-southern-
california-modernism-robert-sweeney/

The Laughter of Dead Kings Vicky Bliss Mystery 6 1ST

Edition Elizabeth Peters

https://ebookultra.com/download/the-laughter-of-dead-kings-vicky-
bliss-mystery-6-1st-edition-elizabeth-peters/

Joshua to Kings History Story Theology 3rd Edition Mary E.

Mills

https://ebookultra.com/download/joshua-to-kings-history-story-
theology-3rd-edition-mary-e-mills/

Kings and Camels An American in Saudi Arabia Grant C.

Butler

https://ebookultra.com/download/kings-and-camels-an-american-in-saudi-
arabia-grant-c-butler/

The Kings and Their Hawks Falconry in Medieval England 1st

Edition Robin S. Oggins

https://ebookultra.com/download/the-kings-and-their-hawks-falconry-in-
medieval-england-1st-edition-robin-s-oggins/
I Kings 1st Edition Mordechai Cogan Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Mordechai Cogan
ISBN(s): 9788006267825, 0300140533
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 33.40 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
“Wiliy
10011462199
 ©
The Library
of the

CLAREMONT
SCHOOL OF THEOLOG
Y

1325 North Coll

ege Avenue
Claremont, CA
917] 1-3199
1/800-626-7820
1 KINGS

alls

VOLUME 10
THE ANCHOR BIBLE is a fresh approach to the world’s greatest classic. Its object
is to make the Bible accessible to the modern reader; its method is to arrive at
the meaning of biblical literature through exact translation and extended expo-
sition, and to reconstruct the ancient setting of the biblical story, as well as the
circumstances of its transcription and the characteristics of its transcribers.
THE ANCHOR BIBLE is a project of international and interfaith scope: Protes-
tant, Catholic, and Jewish scholars from many countries contribute individ-
ual volumes. The project is not sponsored by any ecclesiastical organization
and is not intended to reflect any particular theological doctrine. Prepared
under our joint supervision, THE ANCHOR BIBLE is an effort to make available
all the significant historical and linguistic knowledge which bears on the inter-
pretation of the biblical record.
THE ANCHOR BIBLE is aimed at the general reader with no special formal
training in biblical studies; yet it is written with the most exacting standards of
scholarship, reflecting the highest technical accomplishment.

This project marks the beginning of a new era of cooperation among scholars in
biblical research, thus forming a common body of knowledge to be shared by all.

William Foxwell Albright

David Noel Freedman
GENERAL EDITORS
 2 )

THE ANCHOR BIBLE

1 KINGS
4

A New Translation
with Introduction and Commentary

MORDECHAI COGAN

li
THE ANCHOR BIBLE
: Doubleday
New York London Toronto Sydney Auckland
 LIBRARY
CLAREMONT SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY
1325 N. COLLEGE AVE.
CLAREMONT, CA 91711-3199

THE ANCHOR BIBLE

PUBLISHED BY DOUBLEDAY
a division of Random House, Inc.
1540 Broadway, New York, New York 10036

THE ANCHOR BIBLE DouBLepay, and the portrayal of an

anchor with the letters A and B are trademarks of
Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bible. O.T. Kings, Ist. English. Cogan. 2000.

1 Kings: a new translation with introduction and commentary /
Mordechai Cogan.— Ist ed.
p. cm. — (The Anchor Bible ; v. 10)
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN 0-385-02992-6 (alk. paper)
1. Bible. O.T. Kings, lst—Commentaries. I. Title: First Kings
II.Cogan, Mordechai. III. Title. III. Bible. English.
Anchor Bible. 1964; v. 10.

BS192.2.Al 1964 .G3 vol. 10

[BS1333]
220.77 s—de21
[222.5307] 00-043177
CIP
Copyright © 2001 by Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc.

All Rights Reserved

Printed in the United States of America

First Edition

IQ) 4) che iloge (Si ob) Mi Sh el

 PREFACE
©

The Anchor Bible commentary on the book of Kings began as the project of
Prof. Hayim Tadmor, who in 1980 invited me to collaborate with him, and in
1988, we completed the first volume, 2 Kings. Academic and public responsi-
bilities caused many delays in the continuance of this joint work, and in 1996,
J assumed the task of writing the commentary on | Kings and the Introduction to
both volumes. I wish to express my appreciation to Prof. Tadmor for many years
of stimulating research together and to thank him for commenting on the final
draft of the manuscript of the present volume.
The editor of the Anchor Bible series, Prof. David Noel Freedman, has been
a constant source of support and informed counsel. His critical and challeng-
ing comments, in a correspondence that has continued faithfully over several
years, have made this work a better book, for which I am most grateful. A num-
ber of his interpretations, where they differ from my own, are presented in his
name (with the initials DNF).
During the academic year 1999-1998, the composition of the book of Kings
was the topic of a graduate seminar at The Hebrew University; the student pre-
sentations clarified a number of important issues treated in the Introduction.
I owe special thanks to Judah Troen, a student at the Institute of Jewish Stud-
ies at The Hebrew University and a very dear personal friend, who prepared
the bibliography; in addition, he was a ready and wise interlocutor, with whom
a considerable number of thorny issues concerning Kings were threshed out.
Tésu’dt hén hén lékd.
A grant from the Research Committee of the Faculty of Humanities of The
Hebrew University of Jerusalem helped in preparing the final manuscript. Vogel
Alter and Patrice Kaminski were responsible for the illustrational reproductions.
The production of this book was carried through under the watchful and con-
siderate eye of Andrew R. Corbin, Editor at the Doubleday Religious Publish-
ing Division. The painstaking copy editing of Beverly Fields saved me many an
embarrassment, for which I am most grateful.
Finally, a personal reflection: Writing a commentary on a book of the Bible
is a humbling experience, for no sooner does one delve into the task than he is
confronted with the prodigious literary production that the millennium-old com-
mentary genre has generated. These works introduce the reader to the issues
that engaged earlier generations and, if attentive, he or she may observe the indi-
vidual behind the commentary, for a commentary is, by its very nature, an indi-
vidual reading of the text at hand, as it reflects both the interests and the training
of its writer. From my first days at the University of Pennsylvania close to four
vi PREFACE

decades ago, I found myself challenged by the proposition enunciated by E. A.

Speiser that the Bible can only be understood through the prism of the languages
and culture of ancient Mesopotamia. Much of my academic career has been
devoted to probing Speiser’s assertion, with the period of the Israelite monar-
chy serving as its prime testing ground. Indeed, the texts and archaeology of
the ancient Near East have made it possible for our generation, more than pre-
vious ones, to unravel the secrets of the sacred text. The historical-philological
examination has been extended beyond all imaginable limits through an on-
going intercourse with the world of Israel’s neighbors. Another lesson from my
school days, acquired at the feet of my esteemed mentor, Moshe Greenberg,
taught me the great value of consulting traditional Jewish biblical exegesis. So,
as a son of Israel and resident of the State of Israel, I culled untold insights from
this rich trove; from it and from the research published in Modern Hebrew, |
gained both knowledge and understanding. In the commentary that follows, I
share my personal engagement with Kings in the hope that it will contribute to
the contemporary discourse and perhaps even find its place in the continuum
of the exegetical tradition.
May He who “gives strength to the weary, fresh vigor to the spent” (Isa 40:29)
grant me wisdom and good health to continue “to magnify His Teaching and
to glorify it” (42:21).

Jerusalem and Beer-sheba

Adar Sheni 5760
March 2000
 CONTENTS
5

Preface to 1 Kings Vv
Principal Abbreviations xi
Other Abbreviations and Signs XV
List of Maps and Illustrations XV1i

1 AND 2 KINGS: A TRANSLATION

1 Kings 3
2 Kings 42

INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF KINGS

1. Foreword 83
2. Name of Book and Its Place in the Canon 84
3. Text and Versions 85
4. On the Translation 86
5. Language and Philology 87
6. Composition of the Book of Kings 88
7. Chronology 100
8. History: Biblical Text, Archaeology, and Extrabiblical
Documentation 103
9. Outline of Historical Events 105

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Commentaries on | Kings 109

2. Books and Articles 11]

TRANSLATION, NOTES, AND COMMENTS

The Reign of Solomon 153

I. The Accession of Solomon (1:1—53) 153
II. Solomon Takes Charge (2:1—46) 169
Il]. The King’s Visit to Gibeon and the Grant of Wisdom
(3:1-15) 183
viii CONTENTS

IV. The Judgment of a Wise King (3:16—28) 193

The Administration of Solomon’s Kingdom (4:1—5:8) 199
a Solomon’s Wisdom (5:9-14) 221
VU. Negotiations with Hiram (5:15-32) 225
VUI. The Construction of the Temple (6:1—38) 234
The Palace Complex (7:1—12) 204
. The Furnishings of the Temple (7:13—51) 259
XI. The Inauguration of the Temple (8:1—66) 274
XII. YHWH’s Second Appearance to Solomon (9:1—9) 294
XIII. The Further Works of Solomon (9:10-28) 298
XIV. The Visit of the Queen of Sheba (10:1-13) 310
XV. Concluding Notes on Solomon’s Wealth and Trade
(10:14-29) 316
XVI. Solomon’s Apostasy (11:1—13) 325
XVII. The Rebellions of Hadad and Rezon (11:14—25) 330
XVIII. Jeroboam — Intimations of Kingship; Solomon’s
Death (11:26—43) 336
History of the Divided Kingdom 345
XIX. Rehoboam’s Aborted Coronation (12:1—-19) oa
XX. An Independent Israel (12:20-24) 353
Excursus. THE ALTERNATIVE STORY OF THE RISE OF JEROBOAM:
LXX | KGs 12:24a-z 355
The Reign of Jeroboam (Israel) (12:25-32) 357
The Man of God from Judah (12:33-13:34) 365
A Prophetic Oracle of Doom against Jeroboam (14:1—20)376
The Reign of Rehoboam (Judah) (14:21-31) 385
The Reign of Abijam (Judah) (15:1-8) 392
The Reign of Asa (Judah) (15:9-24) 395
The Reign of Nadab (Israel) (15:25-32) 405
The Reign of Baasha (Israel) (15:33-16:7) 408
The Reign of Elah (Israel) (16:8—14) 431
The Reign of Zimri (Israel) (16:15—20) 41>
The Reign of Omri (Israel) (16:21—28) ae
The Reign of Ahab (Israel): Introduction (16:29-34) 420
Elijah and the Great Drought (17:1-24) AlA
The Contest on Mount Carmel (18:1—46) . 434
Elijah’s Journey to Horeb (19:1-21) 449
Ahab and Ben-hadad: The Early Wars (20:1—43) 459
Naboth’s Vineyard (21:1-29) ale
 Contents 1X

XXXVI. Ahab at Ramoth-gilead (22:1—40) 487

XXXIX. The Reign of Jehoshaphat (Judah) (22:41-51) 499

APPENDIXES

I. A Selection of Extrabiblical Texts Relating to 1 Kings 505

1. Shosheng I 505
2. Shalmaneser II] 505
3. Hazael 507
II. The Chronology of Israel and Judah 508
III. Chronologies of the Ancient Near East 509
1. Kings of Assyria 509
2. Kings of Babylonia 509
3. Kings of Egypt 509

INDEXES

Index of Subjects 511

Index of Scriptural and Other Ancient References ae)
Index of Hebrew and Other Ancient Languages DAT.
 Sey.
“ae
, : Pr pesae»

elie: et
compere Le
aa = “a ’
=.
: 7

vat to, Whe nadgotira

Ak 9aw er iia
eur He EG wlast: avin 1 eR
Ch Seem tics ee ¥ ae
j Y og. Pas em Hinges ' igh er % ie > ae
iy. eae spratet ers lteNntrad heute? a © Deere
a cuniad toned Ce
*ts9 dS eet ee wit] odrabel elt 4 ; oan 0 A=
"pl La itl geteks DS Tan SS er4F9 7 =
A LL oibol Se ceea ee
go?’ a. eh RET SRA NS Re A eT Gi Ree eT
Mit Rie, “Vth ae hort 6) ale ad Bee
OM Opole Sate eae pe eR ee e
Te. oe iit tregaie t Oe
te

es ee ee A a Se
OUT Whe et owl Poke qf Sete Se
ee ie dl ;
ot ie Dra fos ee Sieh what
0 FER et a ite Geel engin bow gages eel
AM © tem, ? Rex leilertipetirtieree rename h tri
rs PCR Jc eaves
San CD if - iz
a Catt Be negara Holle ce are BORA _Pe.
“s ExXA ii AE? va ene. is
: BRL thy Osigeai tenn Goel) iS aieltly 5 ’
OE: Abe lea! (ind Gap ree oe renee
9 ROE an pte: ocr ae
RR. Py Vaca obPaheetacionn|frobibec (Ath et
eR. «Fea Ree. ot.phony saan eae: _ =e
ey Ths Oiay otAas i ae (RA
aa "ihe Reign ofMaia. (Aienety ols
an _ ce

J :
7 Pt ;

a
i y Ri
- «

Bx
a>
 ABBREVIATIONS
©
PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS

AASF Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae

AASOR Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research
AB Anchor Bible
ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by D. N. Freedman. 6 vols. New York:
Doubleday, 1992
ABL Assyrian and Babylonian Letters Belonging to the Kouyunjik Collections of
the British Museum. Edited by R. F. Harper. 14 vols. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1892-1914
ADD Assyrian Deeds and Documents. C. H. W. Johns. 4 vols. Cambridge: Deigh-
ton-Bell, 1898-1923
AfO Archiv fiir Orientforschung
AHw Akkadisches Handworterbuch. W. von Soden. 3 vols. Wiesbaden: Harrass-
owitz, 1965-1981
AJBA Australian Journal of Biblical Archaeology
AJSL American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures
ANEP The Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament. Edited
by J. B. Pritchard. 2d ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969
ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Edited by
J. B. Pritchard. 3d ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969
AnOr Analecta Orientalia
AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament
AOS American Oriental Series
ARI Assyrian Royal Inscriptions. A. K. Grayson. 2 vols. RANE. Wiesbaden: Har-
rassowitz, 1972-1976
ArOr Archiv Orientdlni
AS Assyriological Studies
ASORDS American Schools of Oriental Research Dissertation Series
ASTI Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute
ATD Das Alte Testament Deutsch
BA Biblical Archaeologist
BAR Biblical Archaeology Review
BARead Biblical Archaeologist Reader. Vols. 2-3. Garden City: Doubleday, 1964—
1970
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BDB Brown, F., S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English Lexicon
of the Old Testament. Oxford: Clarendon, 1907
BH? Biblia Hebraica. Edited by R. Kittel. 3d ed. Stuttgart, 1937
BHS Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelstiftung, 1983
Bib Biblica
BibOr Biblica et’Orientalia
xil PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS

BIES Bulletin ofthe Israel Exploration Society (= Yediot)

BiOr Bibliotheca Orientalis
BIOSCS Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate
Studies
BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester
BJPES Bulletin of the Jewish Palestine Exploration Society (= Yediot, later BIES)
BKAT Biblischer Kommentar, Altes Testament. Edited by M. Noth and H. W.
Wolff
B-L Bauer, H., and P. Leander. Historische Grammatik der hebrdischen Sprache.
Halle: Niemeyer, 1918-1922
BWANT Beitrige zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament
BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
CAD The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
Edited by I. J. Gelb et al. Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1956-
CAH Cambridge Ancient History
CahRB Cahiers de la Revue biblique
CBC Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible
CBOQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CBOMS Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series
CBSC Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges
ConBOT Coniectanea Biblica: Old Testament
DDD Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Edited by K. van der Toorn,
B. Becking, and P. W. van der Horst. Leiden: Brill, 1995
DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert
EA El-Amarna Tablets. According to the edition of J. A. Knudtzon. Die el-
Amarna-Tafeln. VAB 2. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1908-1915. Reprint, Aalen,
1964. Continued in A. F. Rainey, El-Amarna Tablets 359-379. 2d revised
ed. Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker, 1978
EHAT Exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament
Erlsr Eretz-Israel
EncJud Encyclopaedia Judaica. 16 vols. Jerusalem: Keter, 1972
EnceMigr Encyclopedia Miqra’it (Encyclopaedia Biblica). 8 vols. Jerusalem, 1950
1982
FOTL The Forms of the Old Testament Literature
FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments
GKC Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Edited by E. Kautzch. Translated by A. E.
Cowley. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. Cited by section.
HAR Hebrew Annual Review
HAT Handbuch zum Alten Testament
HCOT Historical Commentary on the Old Testament
Hen Henoch
HSAT Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testament. Edited by E. Kautzsch and A. Ber-
tholet. 4th ed. Tiibingen: Mohr (Siebeck), 1922-1923
HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs
HSS Harvard Semitic Studies
HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual
IB Interpreter’s Bible. Edited by G. A. Buttrick et al. 12 vols. New York: Abing-
don, 1951-1957
ICC International Critical Commentary
 Principal Abbreviations xiii

IDB Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by G.A. Buttrick. 4 vols. Nash-
ville: Abingdon, 1962
IE] Israel Exploration Journal
Int Interpretation
JANES Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society of Columbia University
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
JB Jerusalem Bible
JBL Journal ofBiblical Literature
JBLMS Journal of Biblical Literature Monograph Series
JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies
JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies
JPOS Journal ofthe Palestine Oriental Society
JOR Jewish Quarterly Review
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series
JSS Journal of Semitic Studies
JTS Journal of Theological Studies
JWH Journal of World History
KAI Kanaandische und aramdische Inschriften. H. Donner and W. Rollig. 3 vols.
Wiesbaden: Harrossowitz,
1962
KB L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner. Hebrdisches und aramdisches Lexikon zum
Alten Testament. 3d ed. Leiden: Brill, 1967
KEHAT Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament
KHC Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament
KJV
ra King James Version
Lexikon der Agyptologie. Edited by W. Helck, E. Otto, and W. Westendorf.
Wiesbaden: Harassowitz, 1972
Les Lesonénu
inte: Lucianic recensions of Lxx
LXX Septuagint, according to Septuaginta. Edited by A. Rahlfs
MT Masoretic Text
MUS] Mélanges de l'Université Saint-Joseph
NAB New American Bible
NCB New Century Bible
NEAEHL New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. Edited
by E. Stern. 4 vols. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1993
NEB New English Bible
NIBC New International Bible Commentary
NJB New Jerusalem Bible
NJPSV New Jewish Publication Society of America Version
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
OBO Orbis biblicus et orientalis
OG Old Greek
OIP Oriental Institute Publications
OL Old Latin
OLP Orientalia lovaniensia periodica
O;; Orientalia
OTL Old Testament Library
OtSt Oudtestamentische Studién
Xiv PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS

PEO Palestine Exploration Quarterly

PJ Palédstina-Jahrbuch
RANE Records of the Ancient Near East
RB Revue biblique
RHJE Revue de histoire juive en Egypte
RHPR Reyue d/histoire et de philosophie religieuses
RIMA The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods
RIA Reallexikon derAssyriologie. Edited by E. Ebeling et al. Berlin: de Gruyter,
1928-
RSO Rivista degli studi orientali
RSV Revised Standard Version
SAA State Archives of Assyria
SAAS State Archives of Assyria Studies
SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series
SBLMS Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series
SBT Studies in Biblical Theology
ScrHier Scripta Hierosolymitana
Sem Semitica
SHCANE Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East
SOTSMS Society for Old Testament Studies Monograph Series
ST Studia Theologica
Syt. Syriac, according to The Old Testament in Syriac according to the Peshitta
Version. Edited by H. Gottlieb and E. Hammershaimb
TAPS Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
Tg. Targum, according to The Bible in Aramaic. Edited by A. Sperber
TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Edited by G. J. Botterweck
et al. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974—
TLZ Theologische Literaturzeitung
TWAT Theologisches Worterbuch zum Alten Testament. Edited by G. J. Botterweck
and H. Ringgren. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1970
TynBul Tyndale Bulletin
TZ Theologische Zeitschrift
UF Ugarit-Forschungen
VAB Vorderasiatische Bibliothek
VE Vetus Testamentum
VTSup Vetus Testamentum Supplements
WBC Word Bible Commentary
WH]P World History of the Jewish People
wo Die Welt des Orients
WSS Avigad, N. Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals. Jerusalem: Israel Academy
of Sciences and Humanities, 1997
ZA Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie
ZAW Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft
ZDPV Zeitschrift des deutschen Paldstina-Vereins
 Other Abbreviations and Signs XV

OTHER ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS

ad, ad loc. at, at the place

Akk Akkadian
ANE Ancient Near East(ern)
Ar Arabic
Aram Aramaic
BCE Before the Common Era (= Bc)
BH Biblical Hebrew
ea. circa, approximately
cf. “compare with” or “see”
col., cols. column, columns
D the Deuteronomic source
Dtr Deuteronom(ist)ic History
E the Elohistic source
e.g. for example
Eg Egyptian
esp. especially
ET. English Translation
et al. and others
fem. feminine
Fs. Festschrift (honorary volume)
Gk Greek
Heb Hebrew
ibid. in the same place
idem the same, previously mentioned
ce: that is
J the Yahwist source
Kh. Khirbet
LBH, LH Late Biblical Hebrew
lit. literally
loc. cit. in the place cited
masc. masculine
MH Mishnaic Hebrew
MS, MSS manuscript, manuscripts
NA Neo-Assyrian
NB Neo-Babylonian
n., nn. note, notes
n.b. note well
no. number
opp. opposite
OT Old Testament
P the Priestly source
part. participle
pass. passive
Phoen Phoenician
pl. plural
sg. singular”
xvi OTHER ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS

Sum Sumerian
8.V. under the word
Ug Ugaritic
V., WV. verse, verses
viz. namely
Vulg. Vulgate (Latin version of the Bible)
WSem West Semitic
(words) words added for purposes of translation
(words) words added to MT
« >» words omitted from MT
1Gne 74 fetes] asterisks denote page numbers of English-language part of Hebrew
collections
*Spt [etc.| asterisks on Hebrew words denote the consonants of verbal roots
Other documents randomly have
different content
 To explain this further, place the eye close to the glass, that as
much of the object may be seen at one view as is possible; then
remove the object to and fro, till it appear perfectly distinct, and well
defined; now remove the lens, and substitute in its place a thin
plate, with a very small hole in it, and the object will appear as
distinct, and as much magnified, as with the lens, though not quite
so bright; and it appears as much more magnified in this case, than
it does when viewed with the naked eye, as the distance of the
object from the hole, or lens, is less than the distance at which it
may be seen distinctly with the naked eye.
From hence we see, that the whole effect of the lens is to render
the object distinct, which it does by assisting the eye to increase the
refraction of the rays in each pencil; and that the apparent
magnitude is entirely owing to the object being seen so much nearer
the eye than it could be viewed without it.
Single microscopes magnify the diameter of the object,[26] as we
have already shewn, in the proportion of the focal distance (to the
limits of distinct vision with the naked eye) to eight inches. For
example, if the semi-diameter of a lens, equally convex on both
sides, be half an inch, which is also equal to its focal distance, we
shall have as 1⁄2 is to 8, so is 1 to 16; that is, the diameter of the
object in the proportion of sixteen to one. 2. As the distance of eight
inches is always the same, it follows, that by how much the focal
distance is smaller, there will be a greater difference between it and
the eight inches; and consequently, the diameter of the object will
be so much the more magnified, in proportion as the lenses are
segments of smaller spheres. 3. If the object be placed in the focus
of a glass globule or sphere, and the eye be behind it in the focus,
the object will be seen distinct in an erect situation, and magnified
as to its diameter, in the proportion of 3⁄4 of the diameter of the
globule to eight inches; thus suppose the diameter of the sphere to
be 1⁄10 of an inch, then 3⁄4 of this will be equal to 3⁄40; consequently,
the real diameter of the object to the apparent one, as 3⁄40 to 8, or
as 3 to 320, or as 1 to 106 nearly.
[26] Cyclopedia, Article Microscope.
 OF THE DOUBLE OR COMPOUND MICROSCOPE.

In the compound microscope, the image is viewed instead of the

object, which image is magnified by a single lens, as the object is in
a single microscope. It consists of an object lens N L, Fig. 5. Plate I.
and an eye glass F G. The object B O is placed a little further from
the lens than its principal focal distance, so that the pencils of rays
proceeding from the different points of the object through the lens,
may converge to their respective foci, and form an inverted image of
the object at Q P; which image is viewed by the eye through the eye
glass F G, which is so placed, that the image may be in its focus on
one side, and the eye at the same distance on the other. The rays of
each pencil will be parallel, after passing out of the glass, till they
reach the eye at E, where they will begin to converge by the
refractive powers of the humours; and after having crossed each
other in the pupil, and passed through the crystalline and vitreous
humours, they will be collected in points on the retina, and form a
large inverted image thereon.
It will be easy, from what has been already explained, to
understand the reason of the magnifying power of a compound
microscope. The object is magnified upon two accounts; first,
because if we viewed the image with the naked eye, it would appear
as much larger than the object, as the image is really larger than it,
or as the distance f R is greater than the distance f b; and secondly,
because this picture is again magnified by the eye glass, upon the
principle explained in the foregoing article on vision, by single
microscopes.
But it is to be noted, that the image formed in the focus of a lens,
as is the case in the compound microscope, differs from the real
object in a very essential particular; that is to say, the light being
emitted from the object in every direction, renders it visible to an
eye placed in any position; but the points of the image formed by a
lens, emitting no more than a small conical body of rays, which
arrives from the glass, can be visible only when the eye is situate
within its confine. Thus, the pencil, which emanates from o in the
object, and is converged by the lens to D, proceeds afterwards
diverging towards H, and, therefore, never arrives at the lens F G,
nor enters the eye at E. But the pencils which proceed from the
points o and b, will be received on the lens F G, and by it carried
parallel to the eye; consequently, the correspondent points of the
image Q P will be visible; and those which are situate farther out
towards H and I, will not be seen. This quantity of the image Q P, or
visible area, is called the field of view.
Hence it appears, that if the image be large, a very small part of it
will be visible; because the pencils of rays will for the most part fall
without the eye glass F G. And it is likewise plain, that a remedy
which would cause the pencils, which proceed from the extremes B
and O of the object, to arrive at the eye, will render a greater part of
it visible: or, in other words, enlarge the field of view. This is effected
by the interposition of a broad lens D E, Fig. 5, of a proper
curvature, at a small distance from the focal image. For, by those
means, the pencil D N, which would otherwise have proceeded
towards H, is refracted to the eye, as delineated in the figure, and
the mind conceives from thence the existence of a radiant point at
Q, from which the rays last proceeded. In like manner, and by a
parity of reason, the other extreme of the image is seen at P, and
the intermediate points are also rendered visible. On these
considerations it is, that compound microscopes are usually made to
consist of an object lens N L, by which the image is formed,
enlarged, and inverted; an amplifying lens D E, by which the field of
view is enlarged, and an eye glass or lens, by which the eye is
allowed to approach very near, and consequently to view the image
under a very great angle of apparent magnitude. It is now
customary to combine two or more lenses together at the eye glass,
in the manner of Eustachio Divinis and M. Joblot; by which means
the aberration of light from the figure is in some measure corrected,
and the apparent field increased.
 OF THE SOLAR MICROSCOPE.

In this instrument, the image of the object is refracted upon a

screen in a darkened room. It may be considered under two distinct
heads: 1st, the mirror and lens, which are intended to reflect and
transmit the light of the sun upon the object; and 2dly, that part
which constitutes the microscope, or which produces the magnified
image of the object, Fig. 10. Plate I. Let N O represent the side of a
darkened chamber, G H a small convex lens, fixed opposite to a
perforation in the side N O, A B a plane mirror or looking glass,
placed without the room to reflect the solar rays on the lens C D, by
which they are converged and concentrated on the object fixed at E
F.
2. The object being thus illuminated, the ray which proceeds from
E will be converged by the lens G H to a focus K, on the screen L M;
and the ray which comes from F will be converged to I, and the
intermediate points will be delineated between I and K; thus forming
a picture, which will be as much larger than the object, in proportion
as the distance of the screen exceeds that of the image from the
object; a small object, such as a mite, &c. may be thus magnified to
eight or ten feet in diameter.
From what has been said, it appears plainly, the advantages we
gain by microscopes are derived, first, from their magnifying power,
by which the eye is enabled to view more distinctly the parts of
minute objects: secondly, that by their assistance, more light is
thrown into the pupil of the eye, than is done without them. The
advantages procured by the magnifying power, would be exceedingly
circumscribed, if they were not accompanied by the latter: for if the
same quantity of light be diffused over a much larger surface, its
force is proportionably diminished; and therefore the object, though
magnified, will be dark and obscure. Thus, suppose the diameter of
the object to be enlarged ten times, and consequently the surface
one-hundred times, yet, if the focal distance of the glass were eight
inches, provided this were possible, and its diameter only about the
size of the pupil of the eye, the object would appear one-hundred
times more obscure when viewed through the glass, than when it
was seen by the naked eye; and this even on the supposition that
the glass transmitted all the light which fell upon it, which no glass
can do. But if the glass were only four inches focal distance, and its
diameter remained as before, the inconvenience would be vastly
diminished, because the glass could be placed twice as near the
object as before, and would consequently receive four times as
many rays as in the former case, and we should, therefore, see it
much brighter than before. By going on thus, diminishing the focal
distance of the glass, and keeping its diameter as large as possible,
we shall perceive the object proportionably magnified, and yet
remain bright and distinct. Though this is the case in theory, yet
there is a limit in optical instruments, which is soon arrived at, but
which cannot be passed. This arises from the following
circumstances.[27]
[27] Encyclopædia Britannica, last edition, vol. xiii, p. 357.
1. The quantity of light lost in passing through the glass.
2. The diminution in the diameter of the glass or lens itself, by
which it receives only a small quantity of rays.
3. The extreme shortness of the focal distance of great magnifiers,
whereby the free access of the light to the object we wish to view is
impeded, and consequently the reflection of the light from it is
weakened.
4. The aberration of the rays, occasioned by their different
refrangibility.
To make this more clear, let us suppose a lens made of such dull
kind of glass, that it transmits only one half the light that falls upon
it. It is evident, that supposing this lens to be of four inches focus,
and to magnify the diameter of the object twice, and its own
breadth equal to that of the pupil of the eye, the object will be four
times magnified in surface, but only half as bright as if it was seen
by the naked eye at the usual distance; for the light which falls upon
the eye from the object at eight inches distance, and likewise the
surface of the object in its natural size, being both represented by 1,
the surface of the magnified object will be 4, and the light which
makes it visible only 2; because, though the glass receives four
times as much light as the naked eye does at the usual distance of
distinct vision, yet one half is lost in passing through the glass. The
inconvenience, in this respect, can only be removed so far as it is
possible to increase the transparency of the glass, that it may
transmit nearly all the rays which fall upon it; and how far this can
be done, has not been yet ascertained.
The second obstacle to the perfection of microscopic glasses, is
the small size of great magnifiers; by which means, notwithstanding
their near approach to the object, they receive a smaller quantity of
light than might be expected. Thus, suppose a glass of only one-
tenth of an inch focal distance, such a glass would increase the
visible diameter eighty times, and the surface 6400 times. If the
breadth of the glass could at the same time be preserved as great as
the pupil of the eye, which we shall suppose one-tenth of an inch,
the object would appear magnified 6400 times, and every part
would be as bright as it appears to the naked eye. But if we suppose
the lens to be only 1⁄20 of an inch diameter, it will then only receive
one-fourth of the light which would otherwise have fallen upon it;
therefore, instead of communicating to the magnified object a
quantity of light equal to 6400, it would communicate an illumination
suited only to 1600, and the magnified object would appear four
times as dim as it does to the naked eye. This inconvenience can,
however, in a great degree be removed, by throwing a much larger
quantity of light on the object. Various methods of effecting this
purpose will be pointed out in the course of this work.
The third obstacle arises from the shortness of the focal distance
in large magnifiers; this inconvenience can, like the former, be
remedied in some degree, by artificial means of accumulating light;
but still the eye is strained, as it must be brought nearer the glass
than it can well bear, which in some measure supersedes the use of
very deep lenses, or such as are capable of magnifying beyond a
certain degree.
The fourth obstacle arises from the different refrangibility of the
rays of light, which frequently causes such deviations from truth in
the appearance of things, that many have imagined themselves to
have made surprising discoveries, and have communicated them as
such to the world; when, in fact, they have been only so many
optical deceptions, owing to the unequal refraction of the rays. In
telescopes, this error has been happily corrected by the late Mr.
Dollond’s valuable discovery of achromatic glasses; but how far this
invention is applicable to the improvement of microscopes, has not
yet been ascertained; and, indeed, from some few trials made, there
is reason for supposing they cannot be successfully applied to
microscopes with high powers; so that this improvement is yet a
desideratum in the construction of microscopes, and they may be
considered as being yet far from their ultimate degree of perfection.
[28]

[28] How many useful and ingenious discoveries have arisen from accidental
circumstances? To adduce one recent instance only—Aerostation, a
science, which after having baffled the skill and ingenuity of
philosophers for a series of years, and by many illiterate persons
deemed an idea bordering on absurdity, has been of late discovered,
and successfully applied to practice. Edit.

OF THE MAGNIFYING POWERS OF THE MICROSCOPE.

We have already treated of the apparent magnitude of objects,

and shewn that they are measured by the angles under which they
are seen, and that this angle is greater or smaller according as the
object is nearer to, or further from, the eye; and, consequently, the
less the distance at which it can be viewed, the larger it will appear:
but from the limits of natural vision, the naked eye cannot
distinguish an object that is very near to it; yet, when assisted by a
convex lens, distinct vision is obtained, however short the focus of
the lens, and, consequently, how near soever the object is to the
eye; and the shorter the focus of the lens is, the greater will be the
magnifying power thereof. From these considerations, it will not be
difficult to estimate the magnifying power of any lens used as a
single microscope; for this will be in the same proportion that the
limits of natural sight bear to the focus of the lens. If, for instance,
the convex lens is of one inch focus, and the natural sight of eight
inches, an object seen through that lens will have its diameter
apparently increased eight times; but, as the object is increased in
every direction, we must square this apparent diameter, to know
how much the object is really magnified; and thus multiplying 8 by
8, we find the superficies is magnified 64 times.
From these principles, the following general rule for ascertaining
the magnifying power of single lenses, is deduced. Place a small thin
transparent object on the stage of the microscope, adjust the lens
till the object appears perfectly distinct, then measure the distance
accurately between the lens and the object, reduce the measure
thus found to the hundredths of an inch, and calculate how many
times this measure is contained in eight inches, first reducing the
eight inches into hundredths, which will give you the number of
times the diameter of the object is magnified; which number
multiplied into itself, or squared, gives the apparent superficial
magnitude of the object.
As only one side of an object can be viewed at a time, it is
sufficient, in general, to know how much the surface thereof is
magnified: but when it is necessary to know how many minute
objects are contained in a larger, as for instance, how many given
animalculæ are contained in the bulk of a grain of sand, then we
must cube the first number, by which means we shall obtain the
solidity or magnified bulk.
The foregoing rule has been also applied to estimate the
magnifying power of the compound microscope. To this application,
Mr. Magny, in the “Journal d’Economie pour le mois d’Aout 1753,”
has made several objections: one or two of these I shall just
mention; the first is the difficulty of ascertaining with accuracy the
precise focus of a small lens; the second is the want of a fixed or
known measure, with which to compare the focus when ascertained.
These considerations, though apparently trifling, will be found of
importance in the calculations which are relative to deep magnifiers.
To this it may be further added, that the same standard or fixed
measure cannot be assumed for a short-sighted, that is used for a
well-constituted eye. To obviate these difficulties, and some errors in
the methods which were recommended by Mess. Baker and
Needham, Mr. Magny offers the following
Proposition. All convex lenses of whatsoever foci, double the
apparent diameter of an object, provided that the object be at the
focus of the glass on one side, and the eye be at the same distance,
or on the focus of the glass, at the opposite side.
Experiment. Take a double convex lens, of six or eight inches focus,
and fix it as at A, Fig. 1, Plate II. A, into the piece A, which is fixed
perpendicular to the rule F G, and may be slid along it by means of
its socket: the rule is divided into inches and parts. Paste a piece of
white paper, two or three tenths of an inch broad, and three inches
long, on the board D; draw three lines with ink on this piece of
paper, so as to divide it into four equal parts, taking care that the
middle of the paper corresponds with the center of the lens. There is
also a sliding eye-piece, which is represented at e.
Take this apparatus into the darkest part of the room, but opposite
to the window; direct the glass towards any remarkable and distant
object which is out of doors, and move the sliding piece B, until the
image of the object on the paper be sharp and clear. The distance
between the face of the paper and the lens (which is shewn on the
side of the rule by the divisions thereon) is the focus of the glass;
now set the eye-piece e E to the same distance on the other side of
the glass, then with one eye close to the sight at e, look at the
magnified image of the lines, and with the other eye at the lines
themselves: the image, seen by means of the glass, and expressed
in the figure by the dotted lines, will be double the breadth of the
same object seen by the natural eye. This will be found to be true,
whatsoever is the focus of the lens with which the experiment is
made.
This experiment is rendered more simple to those who are not
accustomed to observe with both eyes at the same time, by making
use of half a lens, and placing the diameter perpendicular to the
rule, as they may then readily view the magnified image and real
object with the same glance of the eye, and thus compare them
together with ease and accuracy.
 Let the angle A F B, Fig. 3. Plate II. A, represent that which is
formed at the naked eye, by the rays of light which pass from the
extremities of the object, and unite at the eye in the point F. The
angle D F E is formed of the two rays, which at first proceeded
parallel to each other from the extremities of the object, but that
were afterwards so refracted, or bent, by passing through the glass,
as to unite at its focal point F. C O is equal to the focal distance of
the lens on the side next the object, C F equal thereto on the side
next the eye, F O the distance of the eye.
From the allowed principles of optics, it is evident, that the object
would appear double the size to the eye at C, than it would to the
eye when placed at F; because the distance F O is double the
distance C O. We have only to prove then, that the angle A C B is
equal to the angle I F K, in order to establish the proposition.
The optical axis is perpendicular to the glass and the surface of
the object. The rays A I, B K, which flow from the points A B are
parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the glass, till they arrive
at it; they are then refracted and proceed to F, where they form the
triangle I F K, resting on the base I K: now as C F is equal to C O,
and I K is equal to A B, the two triangles A C B, I F K are similar, and
consequently the angle at C is equal to the angle F. If the visual rays
are continued to the surface of the object, they will form the triangle
D F E, equiangled to the triangle A B C; and therefore, as C O is to A
B, so is F D to D E; and consequently, the apparent diameter of the
object seen through the lens is double the size that it is when
viewed by the naked eye. No notice is here taken of the double
refraction of the rays, as it does not affect the demonstration.
If you advance towards M, half the focal distance, the apparent
diameter will be only increased one-third. If, on the contrary, the
point of sight is lengthened to double the distance of its focus, then
the magnified diameter will appear to be three times that of the real
object. Mr. Magny concludes from hence, that there is an impropriety
in estimating the magnifying power of the eye glass of compound
microscopes, by seeing how often its focus is contained in eight or
ten inches; and to obviate these defects, he recommends two
methods to be used, which reciprocally confirm each other.
 The first and most simple method to find how much any
compound microscope magnifies an object, is the same which is
described by Dr. Hooke in his Micrographia, and is as follows: place
an accurate scale, which is divided into very minute parts of an inch,
on the stage of your microscope; adjust the microscope, till these
divisions appear distinct; then observe with the other eye how many
divisions of a rule, similarly divided and held at the stage, are
included in one of the magnified divisions: for if one division, as seen
with one eye through the microscope, extend to thirty divisions on
the rule, which is seen by the naked eye, it is evident, that the
diameter of the object is increased or magnified thirty times.
For this purpose, we often use a small black ebony rule, (see Fig.
4. Plate II. A,) three or four tenths of an inch broad, and about
seven inches long; at each inch is fixed a piece of ivory, the first inch
is entirely of ivory, and subdivided into ten equal parts.
2. A piece of glass, Fig. 2, fixed in a brass or ivory slider; on the
diameter of this are drawn two parallel lines, about three-tenths of
an inch long; each tenth being divided, one into three, the second
into four, the third into five parts. To use this, place the glass, Fig. 2,
on the middle of the stage, and the rule, Fig. 4, on one side, but
parallel to it; then look into the microscope with one eye, keeping
the other open, and observe how many parts one-tenth of a line in
the microscope takes in upon the parts of the rule seen by the naked
eye. For instance, suppose with a fourth magnifier that one-tenth of
an inch magnified answers in length to forty-tenths or parts on the
rule, when seen by the naked eye, then this magnifier increases the
diameter of the object forty times.
This mode of actual admeasurement is, without doubt, the most
simple that can be used; by it we comprehend, as it were, at one
glance, the different effects of combined glasses; it saves the
trouble, and avoids the obscurity that attends the usual modes of
calculation; but many persons find it exceedingly difficult to adopt
this method, because they have not been accustomed to observe
with both eyes at once. We shall therefore proceed to describe
another method, which has not this inconvenience.
 OF THE NEEDLE MICROMETER.

Fig. 8. Plate II. A, represents this micrometer. The first of this kind
was made by my father, and was described by him in his
Micrographia Illustrata. It consists of a screw, which has fifty threads
to an inch; this screw carries an index, which points to the divisions
on a circular plate, which is fixed at right angles to the axis of the
screw. The revolutions of the screw are counted on a scale, which is
an inch divided into fifty parts; the index to these divisions is a
flower de luce marked upon the slider, which carries the needle point
across the field of the microscope. Every revolution of the
micrometer screw measures 1⁄50 part of an inch, which is again
subdivided by means of the divisions on the circular plate, as this is
divided into twenty equal parts, over which the index passes at
every revolution of the screw; by which means, we obtain with ease
the measure of one-thousandth part of an inch; for 50, the number
of threads on the screw in one inch, being multiplied by 20, the
divisions on the circular plate, are equal to 1000; so that each
division on the circular plate shews that the needle has either
advanced or receded one-thousandth part of an inch.
To place this micrometer on the body of the microscope, open the
circular part F K H, Fig. 8. Plate II. A, by taking out the screw G,
throw back the semicircle F K which moves upon a joint at K, then
turn the sliding tube of the body of the microscope, so that the small
holes which are in both tubes may exactly coincide, and let the
needle g of the micrometer have a free passage through them; after
this, screw it fast upon the body by the screw G.
The needle will now traverse the field of the microscope, and
measure the length and breadth of the image of any object that is
applied to it. But further assistance must be had, in order to
measure the object itself, which is a subject of real importance; for
though we have ascertained the power of the microscope, and know
that it is so many thousand times, yet this will be of little assistance
towards ascertaining an accurate idea of its real size; for our ideas of
bulk being formed by the comparison of one object with another, we
can only judge of that of any particular body, by comparing it with
another whose size is known: the same thing is necessary, in order
to form an estimate by the microscope; therefore, to ascertain the
real measure of the object, we must make the point of the needle
pass over the image of a known part of an inch placed on the stage,
and write down the revolutions made by the screw, while the needle
passed over the image of this known measure; by which means we
ascertain the number of revolutions on the screw, which are
adequate to a real and known measure on the stage. As it requires
an attentive eye to watch the motion of the needle point, as it
passes over the image of a known part of an inch on the stage, we
ought not to trust to one single measurement of the image, but
ought to repeat it at least six times; then add the six measures thus
obtained together, and divide their sum by six, or the number of
trials; the quotient will be the mean of all the trials. This result is to
be placed in a column of a table, next to that which contains the
number of the magnifiers.
By the assistance of the sectoral scale, we obtain with ease a
small part of an inch. This scale is shewn at Fig. 5, 6, 7. Plate II. A,
in which the two lines c a c b, with the side a b, form an isosceles
triangle; each of the sides is two inches long, and the base one-
tenth of an inch. The longer sides may be of any given length, and
the base still only of one-tenth of an inch. The longer lines may be
considered as the line of lines upon a sector opened to one-tenth of
an inch. Hence, whatever number of equal parts c a c b are divided
into, their transverse measure will be such a part of one-tenth as is
expressed by their divisions. Thus, if it be divided into ten equal
parts, this will divide the inch into one-hundred equal parts; the first
division next c will be equal to one-hundredth part of an inch,
because it is the tenth part of one-tenth of an inch. If these lines be
divided into twenty equal parts, the inch will be by those means
divided into two hundred equal parts. Lastly, if a b c a be made three
inches long, and divided into one-hundred equal parts, we obtain
with ease the one-thousandth part. The scale is represented as solid
at Fig. 6, but as perforated at Fig. 5 and 7; so that the light passes
through the aperture, when the sectoral part is placed on the stage.
 To use this scale, first fix the micrometer, Fig. 8. Plate II. A, to the
body of the microscope; then fit the sectoral scale, Fig. 7, in the
stage, and adjust the microscope to its proper focus or distance from
the scale, which is to be moved till the base appears in the middle of
the field of view; then bring the needle point g, Fig. 8, by turning
the screw L, to touch one of the lines c a exactly at the point
answering to 20 on the sectoral scale. The index a of the
micrometer, Fig. 8, is to be set to the first division, and that on the
dial plate to 20, which is both the beginning and end of its divisions;
we are then prepared to find the magnifying power of every
magnifier in the compound microscope which we are using.
Example. Every thing being prepared agreeable to the foregoing
directions, suppose you are desirous of ascertaining the magnifying
power of the lens marked No. 4; turn the micrometer screw, until
the point of the needle has passed over the magnified image of the
tenth part of one inch; then the division, where the two indices
remain, will shew how many revolutions, and parts of a revolution,
the screw has made, while the needle point traversed the magnified
image of the one-tenth of an inch; suppose the result to be twenty-
six revolutions of the screw, and fourteen parts of another
revolution, this is equal to 26 multiplied by 20, added to 14; that is,
534 thousandth parts of an inch.
The twenty-six divisions found on the strait scale of the
micrometer, while the point of the needle passed over the magnified
image of one-tenth part of an inch, were multiplied by 20, because
the circular plate C D, Fig. 8, is divided into twenty equal parts; this
produced 520; then adding the fourteen parts of the next revolution,
we obtain 534 thousandth parts of an inch, or 5-tenths and 34-
hundredth parts of another tenth, which is the measure of the
magnified image of 1-tenth of an inch, at the aperture of the eye
glasses, or at their foci. Now if we suppose the focus of the two eye-
glasses to be one inch, the double thereof is two inches; or if we
reckon in the thousandth part of an inch, we have two thousand
parts for the distance of the eye from the needle point of the
micrometer. Again, if we take the distance of the image from the
object at the stage at six inches, or six thousandths, and add thereto
two thousand, double the distance of the focus of the eye glass, we
shall have eight thousand parts of an inch for the distance of the eye
from the object; and as from the proposition, page 51, we gather
that the glasses double the image, we must double the number 534
found upon the micrometer, which then makes 1068: then, by the
following analogy, we shall obtain the number of times the
microscope magnifies the diameter of the object; say, as 240, the
distance of the eye from the image of the object, is to 800, the
distance of the eye from the object, so is 1068, double the measure
found on the micrometer, to 3563, or the number of times the
microscope magnifies the diameter of the object. By working in this
manner, the magnifying power of each lens used with the compound
microscope may be easily found, though the result will be different
in different compound microscopes, varying, according to the
combination of the lenses, their distance from the object, and one
another, &c.
Having discovered the magnifying power of the microscope, with
the different object lenses that are used therewith, our next subject
is to find out the real size of the objects themselves, and their
different parts; this is easily effected, by finding how many
revolutions of the micrometer-screw answer to a known measure on
the sectoral scale, or other object placed on the stage; from the
number thus found, a table should be constructed, expressing the
value of the different revolutions of the micrometer with that object
lens, by which the primary number was obtained. Similar tables
must be constructed for each object lens. By a set of tables of this
kind, the observer may readily find the measure of any object he is
examining; for he has only to make the needle point traverse over
this object, and observe the number of revolutions the screw has
made in its passage, and then look into his table for the real
measure which corresponds to this number of revolutions, which is
the measure required.
 ACCOUNT OF GLASS, PEARL, &c. MICROMETERS, BY THE EDITOR.

Having seen some glass, &c. micrometers with exquisite fine

divisions, for the purposes of applying to microscopes and
telescopes; and in accuracy, being equivalent to the micrometer just
described by our author, I judge, some account of their application
and uses here will be very acceptable to the curious and inquisitive
reader. A particular description of these as made by the ingenious
Mr. Coventry, has been already given in the Encyclopædia Britannica,
Vol. XI. p. 708.
The singular dexterity which Mr. Coventry and others now possess,
of cutting by an engine fine parallel lines upon glass, pearl, ivory,
and brass, at such minute distances as, by means of a microscope,
are proved to be from the 100th to the 5000dth part of an inch,
render this sort of micrometer the easiest and most accurate means
of obtaining the exact natural size of the object to be magnified, and
how many times that object is magnified. Mr. B. Martin, and other
opticians, many years ago applied divided slips of glass, ivory, and
horn to the body, in the focus of the eye glass of microscopes; but
the thickness of the whole medium of the glass was found to
diminish the distinct view of the object: ivory and horn, from their
variable texture, were found to expand and contract too readily to
be commodious. It is therefore to Mr. Cavallo that we are indebted
for the happy thought of adapting slips of divided pearl to
telescopes, to ascertain their power, &c. which substance the
opticians now find to be the best for microscopical micrometers. It
possesses a sufficient degree of transparency, when made about the
thickness of writing paper; is a steady substance; admits very easily
of the finest graduations, and is generally made in breadth about the
20th part of an inch.
Fig. 9. Plate II. A, is a representation of this scale, with divisions
of the 200ths of an inch, every fifth and tenth division being left
longer than the others, which only go to about the middle. If the eye
glass of the microscope or telescope, to which this micrometer is to
be applied, magnify very much, its divisions may be proportionably
minute.
 To measure by this micrometer the size of an object in a single
microscope, nothing more is required than to lay it on the
micrometer, and adjust it to the focus of the magnifier, noticing how
many divisions it covers or coincides with. Supposing the parallel
lines to be the 1000dths of an inch, and the object covers two
divisions, its real size is the 500th of an inch; if five, 200th of an
inch, &c.
To find how much the object is magnified, is not so easily done by
the single, as by the compound microscope, as has been before
explained. The following simple method has been adopted by Mr.
Coventry, and which may be considered tolerably accurate. Adjust a
micrometer under the microscope, suppose 100th of an inch of
divisions, with a small object on it, if square, the better; notice how
many divisions one side of the object covers, suppose ten; then cut
a piece of white paper something larger than the magnified
appearance of the object; fix one eye on the object through the
microscope, and the other at the same time on the paper, lowering it
down till the object and the paper appear level and distinct: then cut
the paper till it appear exactly the size of the magnified object; the
paper being then measured, suppose an inch square: now, as the
object under the magnifier, which appeared to be one inch square,
was in reality only ten hundredths, or the tenth of an inch, the
experiment proves that it is magnified ten times in length, one
hundred times in superficies, and one thousand times in cube, which
is the magnifying power of the glass; and in the same manner a
table may be made of the power of all the other glasses.
In using the compound microscope, the real size of the object is
found by the same method as in the single; but to demonstrate the
magnifying power to greater certainty, adopt the following method.
Lay a two-feet rule on the stage, and a micrometer level with its
surface, (an inch suppose, divided into 100 parts:) with one eye see
how many of those parts are contained in the field of the
microscope, suppose 50; and with the other, at the same time, look
for the circle of light in the field of the microscope, which with a little
practice will soon appear distinct; mark how much of the rule, from
the center of the stage, is intersected by the circle of light, which will
be half the diameter of the field. Suppose eight inches; consequently
the whole diameter will be sixteen. Now, as the real size of the field
by the micrometers appeared to be only 50 hundredths, or half an
inch, and as half an inch is only one 32d part of 16 inches, it shews
the magnifying power to be 32 times in length, 1024 superficies, and
32768 in cube or bulk. For accuracy, as well as for comparative
observations, the rule should always be a certain distance from the
eye; eight inches in general is a proper distance.
Another way, and the most easy for finding the magnifying power
of compound microscopes, is by using two micrometers of the same
divisions; one adjusted under the magnifier, the other fixed in the
body of the microscope in the focus of the eye glass. Notice how
many divisions of the micrometer in the body are seen in one
division of the micrometer under the magnifier, which again must be
multiplied by the power of the eye glass. Example: Ten divisions of
the micrometer in the body are contained in one division under the
magnifier; so far the power is increased ten times: now, if the eye
glass be one inch focus, such glass will of itself magnify about eight
times in length, which, with the ten times magnified before, will be
eight times ten, or 80 times in length, 6400 superficies, and 512000
cube.
Fig. 10. Plate II. A, represents the field of view of the compound
microscope, with the pearl micrometer, as applied to the aperture in
the body, called the eye stop; and a magnified micrometer that is
laid on the stage, shewing that one of the latter contains ten of the
former.
A set of ivory and glass micrometers, about six in number, besides
one or two pearl ones for the eye stops, are generally packed up
with the best sort of microscopes made by Messrs. W. and S. Jones,
Opticians, Holborn. They are divided into lines and squares, from the
100th to the 1000dth parts of an inch; and, besides measuring the
magnifying powers of microscopes, are generally found useful in
measuring the diameters, proportions, &c. of opake and transparent
objects, even of the minutest kind. The smallest divisions of the
glass micrometer to be useful, are those divided into the 4000dth
part of an inch; and as these may be crossed again with an equal
number of lines in the same manner, they form squares of the
SIXTEEN MILLIONTH part of an inch surface, each square of which
appearing under the microscope true and distinct. And, even small
as this is, animalculæ are found so minute as to be contained in one
of these squares!
Glass micrometers with squares, applied to the solar microscope,
divide the objects into squares on the screen in such a manner, as to
render a drawing from it very easy; and are employed with great
advantage in the lucernal microscope.
The micrometers are constructed with moveable frames or tubes,
so as to be either applied or taken away in the readiest manner.
For the uses of the pearl micrometer as applied to the telescope,
see Mr. Cavallo’s pamphlet descriptive of its use, 8vo. 1793, and the
Philosophical Transactions for 1791.
 CHAP. III.
A DESCRIPTION OF THE MOST APPROVED
MICROSCOPES, AND THE METHOD OF USING THEM.

In the preceding chapter I have endeavoured to give a

comprehensive view of the theory of the microscope, and the
principles on which the wonderful effects of this instrument depend.
I shall now proceed to describe the various instruments themselves,
their apparatus, and the most easy and ready mode of applying
them to use; selecting for description those that, from some peculiar
advantage in their construction, or from the reputation of the
authors who have recommended and used them, are in most
general use. What is said of these will, I hope, be sufficient to
enable the reader to manage any other kind that may fall in his way.

DESCRIPTION OF ADAMS’S IMPROVED AND UNIVERSAL LUCERNAL MICROSCOPE.

Fig. 1. Plate III.

This microscope was originally thought of, and in part executed by

my father; I have, however, so improved and altered it, both in
construction and form, as to render it altogether a different
instrument. The approbation it has received from the most
experienced microscopic observers, as well as the great demand I
have had for them, has fully repaid my pains and expenses, in
bringing it to its present state of perfection.
As the far greater part of the objects which surround us are
opake, and very few sufficiently transparent to be examined by the
common microscopes, an instrument that could be readily applied to
the examination of opake objects, has always been a desideratum.
Even in the examination of transparent objects, many of the fine and
more curious portions are lost, and drowned as it were in the light
which must be transmitted through them; while different parts of the
same object appear only as dark lines or spots, because they are so
opake, as not to permit any light to pass through them. These
difficulties, as well as many more, are obviated in the lucernal
microscope; by which opake objects of various sizes may be seen
with ease and distinctness; the beautiful colours with which most of
them are adorned, are rendered more brilliant, without in the least
changing their natural teints. The concave and convex parts of an
object retain also their proper form.
The facility with which all opake objects are applied to this
instrument is another considerable advantage, and almost peculiar
to itself; as the texture and configuration of the more tender parts
are often hurt by previous preparation, every object may be
examined by this instrument, first as opake, and afterwards, if the
texture will admit of it, as transparent.
The lucernal microscope does not in the least fatigue the eye; the
object appears like nature itself, giving ease to the sight, and
pleasure to the mind: there is also in the use of this instrument, no
occasion to shut that eye which is not directed to the object.
A further advantage peculiar to this microscope is, that by it the
outlines of every object may be taken, even by those who are not
accustomed to draw; while those who can draw well, will receive
great assistance, and execute their work with more accuracy, and in
less time than they would otherwise have been able to have
performed it in. Most of the designs for this work were taken with
the lucernal microscope; and I hope the accuracy with which they
are executed, will be deemed a sufficient testimony in favour of the
instrument. In this point of view it will, I think, be found of great use
to the anatomist, the botanist, the entomologist, &c. as it will enable
them not only to investigate the object of their researches, but to
convey to others accurate delineations of the subject they wish to
describe.
 By the addition of a tin lanthorn, transparent objects may be
shewn on a screen, as by the solar microscope.
Transparent objects may be examined with this instrument in
three or four different modes; from a blaze of light almost too great
for the eye to bear, to that which is perfectly easy to it.
When this instrument is fitted up in the best way, it is generally
accompanied with a small double and single microscope.
Fig. 1. Plate III. represents the IMPROVED LUCERNAL MICROSCOPE,
mounted to view opake objects; A B C D E is a large mahogany
pyramidical box, about fourteen inches long, and six inches square
at its larger end, which forms the body of the microscope; it is
supported firmly on the brass pillar F G, by means of the socket H,
and the curved piece I K.
L M N is a guide for the eye, in order to direct it in the axis of the
lenses; it consists of two brass tubes, one sliding within the other,
and a vertical flat piece, at the top of which is the hole for the eye.
The outer tube is seen at M N, the vertical piece is represented at L
M. The inner tube may be pulled out, or pushed in, to adjust it to
the focus of the glasses. The vertical piece may be raised or
depressed, that the hole, through which the object is to be viewed,
may coincide with the center of the field of view; it is fixed by a
milled screw at M, which could not be shewn in this figure.
At N is a dove-tailed piece of brass, made to receive the dove-tail
at the end of the tubes M N, by which it is affixed to the wooden box
A B C D E. The tubes M N may be removed from this box
occasionally, for the convenience of packing it up in a less compass.
O P a small tube on which the magnifiers are screwed.
O one of the magnifiers; it is screwed into the end of a tube,
which slides within the tube P; the tube P may be unscrewed
occasionally from the wooden body.
Q R S T V X a long square bar, which passes through the sockets Y
Z, and carries the stage or frame that holds the objects; this bar
may be moved backward or forward, in order to adjust it to the
focus, by means of the pinion which is at a.
b e is a handle furnished with an universal joint, for more
conveniently turning the pinion. When the handle is removed, the
nut, Fig. 2, may be used in its stead.
d e is a brass bar, to support the curved piece K I, and keep the
body A B firm and steady.
f g h i is the stage for opake objects; it fits upon the bar Q R S T
by means of the socket h i, and is brought nearer to, or removed
farther from the magnifying lens, by turning the pinion a; the objects
are placed in the front side of the stage, which cannot be seen in
this figure, between four small brass plates; the edges of two of
these are seen at k l. The two upper pieces of brass are moveable;
they are fixed to a plate, which is acted on by a spiral spring that
presses them down, and confines the slider with the objects; this
plate, and the two upper pieces of brass, are lifted up by the small
nut m.
At the lower part of the stage, there is a glass semiglobe n, which
is designed to receive the light from the lamp, Fig. 3, and to collect
and convey it to the concave mirror o, from whence it is to be
reflected on the object.
The upper part, f g r S, of the opake stage takes out, that the
stage for transparent objects may be inserted in its place.
Fig. 4. represents the stage for transparent objects; the two legs 5
and 6, fit into the under part r S of the stage for opake objects; 7 is
the part which confines or holds the sliders, and through which they
are to be moved; 9 and 10 a brass tube, which contains the lenses
for condensing the light, and throwing it upon the object; there is a
second tube within that, marked 9 and 10, which may be placed at
different distances from the object by the pin 11.
When this stage is used as a single microscope, without any
reference to the lucernal, the magnifiers or object lenses are to be
screwed into the hole 12, and to be adjusted to a proper focus by
the nut 13.
N. B. At the end A B of the wooden body there is a slider, which is
represented as partly drawn out at A; when quite taken out, three
grooves will be perceived, one of which contains a board that forms
the end of the box, the next contains a frame with a greyed glass;
the third, or that farthest from the end A B, two large convex lenses.
 OF THE LAMP.

Fig. 3, represents one of Argand’s lamps, which is the most

suitable for microscopic purposes, on account of the clearness, the
intensity, and the steadiness of the light. The following method of
managing it, with other observations, is copied from an account
given by Mr. Parker, with those he sells.
The principle on which the lamp acts, consists in disposing the
wick in thin parts, so that the air may come into contact with all the
burning fuel, by which means, together with an increase of the
current of air occasioned by rarefaction in the glass tube, the whole
of the fuel is converted into flame.
The wicks are circular, and, the more readily to regulate the
quantity of light, are fixed on a brass collar with a wire handle, by
means of which they are raised or depressed at pleasure.
To fix the wick on, a wood mandril is contrived, which is tapered
at one end, and has a groove turned at the other.
The wick has a selvage at one end, which is to be put foremost on
the mandril, and moved up to the groove; then putting the groove
into the collar of the wick-holder, the wick is easily pushed forward
upon it.
The wick-holder and wick being put quite down in their place, the
spare part of the wick should, while dry, be set alight, and suffered
to burn to the edge of the tubes; this will leave it more even than by
cutting, and, being black by burning, will be much easier lighted: for
this reason, the black should never be intirely cut off.
The lamp should be filled an hour or two before it is wanted, that
the cotton may imbibe the oil, and draw the better.
The lamps which have a reservoir and valve, need no other
direction for filling, than to do it with a proper trimming pot,
carefully observing when they are full; then pulling up the valve by
the point, the reservoir being turned by the other hand, may be
replaced without spilling a drop.
Those lamps which fill in the front like a bird-fountain, must be
reclined on the back to fill, and this should be done gently, that the
oil in the burner may return into the body when so placed and filled;
if, by being too full, any oil appear above the guard, only move the
lamp a little, and the oil will disappear; the lamp may then be placed
erect, and the oil will flow to its proper level.
The oil must be of the spermaceti kind, commonly called chamber
oil, which may generally be distinguished by its paleness,
transparency, and inoffensive scent; all those oils which are of a red
and brown colour, and of an offensive smell, should be carefully
avoided, as their glutinous parts clog the lamp, and the impurities in
such oil not being inflammable, will accumulate and remain in the
form of a crust on the wick. Seal oil is nearly as pale and sweet as
chamber oil, but being of a heavy sluggish quality, is not proper for
lamps with fine wicks.
Whenever bad oil has been used, on changing it, the wick must
also be changed, because, after having imbibed the coarse particles
in its capillary tubes, it will not draw up the fine oil.
To obtain the greatest degree of light, the wick should be trimmed
exactly even, the flame will then be completely equal.
There will be a great advantage in keeping the lamp clean,
especially the burner and air tubes; the neglect of cleanliness in
lamps is too common: a candlestick is generally cleaned every time
it is used, so should a lamp; and if a candlestick is not to be
objected to, because it does not give light after the candle is
exhausted, so a lamp should not be thought ill of, if it does not give
light when it wants oil or cotton; but this last has often happened,
because the deficiency is less visible.
The glass tubes are best cleaned with a piece of wash leather.
If a fountain lamp be left partly filled with oil, it may be liable to
overflow; this happens by the contraction of the air when cold, and
its expansion by the warmth of a room, the rays of the sun, or the
heat of the lamp when re-lighted: this accident may be effectually
prevented by keeping the reservoir filled, the oil not being subject to
expansion like air. On this account, those with a common reservoir
are best adapted for microscopic purposes.
 TO EXAMINE OPAKE OBJECTS WITH THE LUCERNAL MICROSCOPE.

The microscope is represented as mounted, and entirely ready for

this purpose, in Fig. 1. Plate III.
To render the use of this instrument easy, it is usually packed with
as many of the parts together as possible; it occupies on this
account rather more room, but is much less embarrassing to the
observer, who has only three parts to put on after it is taken out of
its box, namely, the guide for the eye, the stage, and the tube with
its magnifier.
But to be more particular, take out the wooden slide A, then lift
out the cover and the grey glass from their respective grooves under
the slide A.
Put the end N of the guide for the eye L M N into its place, so that
it may stand in the position which is represented in this figure.
Place the socket, which is at the bottom of the opake stage, on
the bar Q X T, so that the concave mirror o may be next the end D E
of the wooden body.
Screw the tubes P O into the end D E. The magnifier you intend to
use is to be screwed on the end o of these tubes.
The handle G b, or milled nut, Fig. 2, must be placed on the
square end of the pinion a.
Place the lamp lighted before the glass lump n, and the object you
intend to examine between the spring plates of the stage, and the
instrument is ready for use.
In all microscopes, there are two circumstances which must be
particularly attended to; the modification of the light, or the proper
quantity to illuminate the object; secondly, the adjustment of the
instrument to the focus of the glasses and the eye of the observer.
In the use of the lucernal microscope there is a third circumstance,
which is the regulation of the guide of the eye, each of which I shall
consider by itself.
1. To throw the light upon the object. The flame of the lamp is to
be placed rather below the center of the glass semiglobe n, and as
near it as possible; the concave mirror o must be so inclined and
turned, as to receive the light from the semiglobe; and reflect it
thence upon the object; the best situation of the concave mirror, and
the flame of the lamp, depends on a combination of circumstances,
which a little practice will best point out.
2. To regulate the guide for the eye, or to place the center of the
eye piece L, so that it may coincide with the focal point of the
lenses, and the axis of vision. Lengthen and shorten the tubes M N
by drawing out or pushing in the inner tube, and raising or
depressing the eye-piece M L, till you find the large lens, which is
placed at the end A B of the wooden body, filled by an uniform field
of light, without any prismatic colours round the edge; for, till this
piece be properly fixed, the circle of light will be very small, and only
occupy a part of the lens; the eye must be kept at the center of the
eye-piece L, during the whole of the operation; which may be
rendered somewhat easier to the observer, on the first use of the
instrument, if he hold a piece of white paper parallel to the large
lenses, removing it from or bringing it nearer to them, till he finds
the place where a lucid circle, which he will perceive on the paper, is
brightest and most distinct, then to fix the center of the eye-piece to
coincide with that spot; after which a very small adjustment will set
it perfectly right.
3. To adjust the lenses to their focal distance. This is effected by
turning the pinion a, the eye being at the same time at the eye-piece
L. I often place the grey glass before the large lenses, while I am
regulating the guide for the eye, and adjusting for the focal distance.
If the observer, in the process of his examination of an object,
advance rapidly from a shallow to a deep magnifier, he will save
himself some labour by pulling out the internal tube at O.
The upper part f g r s of the stage, is to be raised or lowered
occasionally, in order to make the center of the object coincide with
the center of the lens at O.
To delineate objects, the grey or rough ground glass must be
placed before the large lenses; the picture of the object will be
formed on this glass, and the outline may be accurately taken, by
going over the picture with a pencil.
The opake part may be used in the day-time without a lamp,
provided the large lenses at A B be screened from the light.
 TO USE THE LUCERNAL MICROSCOPE IN THE EXAMINATION OF TRANSPARENT
OBJECTS.

The microscope is to remain as before: the upper part f g r s of

the opake stage must be removed, and the stage for transparent
objects, represented at Fig. 4, put in its place; the end, Fig. 9 and
10, to be next the lamp.
Place the rough glass in its groove at the end A B, and the objects
in the slider-holder at the front of the stage; then transmit as strong
a light as you are able on the object, which you will easily do, by
raising or lowering the lamp.
The object will be beautifully depicted on the rough glass: it must
be regulated to the focus of the magnifier, by turning the pinion a.
The object may be viewed either with or without the guide for the
eye; a single observer will see an object to the greatest advantage
by using this guide, which is to be adjusted as we have described,
page 73. If two or three wish to examine the object at the same
time, the guide for the eye must be laid aside.
Take the large lens out of the groove, and receive the image on
the rough glass; in this case the guide for the eye is of no use: if the
rough glass be taken away, the image of the object may be
represented on a paper screen.[29]
[29] A tin cover is sometimes made to go over the glass chimney of the lamp,
Fig. 3, with only a small square aperture in front, sufficient to suffer the
rays to pass into the microscope: this, by excluding all extraneous rays,
adds in many cases most materially to the effect, particularly by day,
and when objects are to be represented on the rough glass or screen
only. Edit.
Take out the rough glass, replace the large lenses, and use the
guide for the eye; attend to the foregoing directions, and adjust the
object to its proper focus. You will then see the object in a blaze of
light almost too great for the eye, a circumstance that will be found
very useful in the examination of particular objects; the edges of the
object in this mode will be somewhat coloured, but as it is only used
in this full light for occasional purposes, it has been thought better
to leave this small imperfection, than by remedying it, to sacrifice
greater advantages; the more so, as this fault is easily corrected,
and a new and interesting view of the object is obtained, by turning
the instrument out of the direct rays of light, and permitting them to
pass through only in an oblique direction, by which the upper
surface is in some degree illuminated, and the object is seen partly
as opake, partly as transparent. It has been already observed, that
the transparent objects might be placed between the slider-holders
kl of the stage for opake objects, and then be examined as if opake.
Some transparent objects appear to the greatest advantage when
the lens at 9 and 10 is taken away; as, by giving too great a quantity
of light, it renders the edges less sharp.
The variety of views which may be taken of every object, by
means of the improved lucernal microscope, will be found to be of
great use to an accurate observer: it will give him an opportunity of
correcting or confirming his discoveries, and investigating those
parts in one mode, which are invisible in another.

TO TRANSMIT THE IMAGE OF TRANSPARENT OBJECTS ON A SCREEN, AS BY THE

SOLAR MICROSCOPE.

It has been long a microscopical desideratum, to have an

instrument by which the image of transparent objects might be
shewn on a screen, as by the common solar microscope; and this
not only because the sun is so uncertain in this climate, and the use
of the solar microscope requires confinement in the finest part of the
day, when time seldom hangs heavy on the rational mind, but as it
also affords an increase of pleasure, by displaying its wonders to
several persons at the same instant, without the least fatigue to the
eye.
This purpose is now effectually answered, by affixing the
transparent stage, Fig. 4, of the lucernal to a lanthorn containing
one of Argand’s lamps. The lamp is placed within the lanthorn, and
the end 9, 10 of the transparent stage is screwed into a female
screw, which is rivetted in the sliding part of the front of the
lanthorn; the magnifying lenses are to be screwed into the hole
represented at 12; they are adjusted by turning the milled nut. The
quantity of light is to be regulated, by raising and lowering the
sliding plate, or the lamp. N. B. This part, with its lanthorn and lamp,
may be had separate from the lucernal microscope.[30]
[30] This effect by the lanthorn and lamp is subject to much limitation in the
field of view, or circle of light thrown upon the screen. A circle of not
more than from 12 to about 15 inches can ever be obtained with any
tolerable strength of light, to shew the most transparent sort of objects
that can be found, such as the scale of a sole fish, a fly’s wing, &c. The
great difference between the light of the sun and a lamp is a natural
obstacle to great performances in this way, and renders them far short
of the effects of the solar microscope. The exhibition, however, is
considerable, and much deserving of the notice of any observer
disposed to this sort of apparatus. Probably, subsequent experiments
may yet produce more light on this instrument. The best sort of
apparatus for this purpose hitherto made, I shall describe in a following
section. Edit.

APPARATUS WHICH USUALLY ACCOMPANIES THE IMPROVED LUCERNAL

MICROSCOPE.

The stage, Fig. 1, f g h i, for opake objects, with its glass

semiglobe, and concave mirror, which is moveable upon the bar Q R
S T, and set readily to any distance by the screw at a. The glasses o
and n are also moveable upon the bar for regulating and adjusting
the light upon the object.
The stage, Fig. 4, for transparent objects, which fits on the upper
part P S of the foregoing stage. When this is to be applied
occasionally to a lanthorn for shewing transparent objects on a
screen, &c. it is made of a much larger diameter, to admit of the
illuminating lenses at 9, 10, and 11, of greater power of condensing
the rays from the lamp.
The sliding tube O P, to which the magnifiers are to be affixed;
one end of this is to be screwed on the end B of the wooden body;
the magnifier in use is to be screwed to the other end on the inner
tube. This tube slides inwards or outwards; it is first used to set the
magnifier at nearly the right distance from the object, before the
exact adjustment for the focus is made, by turning the pinion at a
with Hook’s joint and handle b e.
Eight magnifying lenses in brass cells, Fig. 5. Plate III. these are
so constructed that any two of them may be combined together, and
thus produce a very great variety of magnifying powers. The cells
unscrew to admit of the glasses being cleaned.
A fish-pan, such as is represented at Fig. 6, whereon a small fish
may be fastened in order to view the circulation of its blood; its tail
is to be spread across the oblong hole at the smallest end, and tied
fast by means of the attached ribbon. The knob on its back is to be
put through a slit hole on the brass piece, No. 5, of Fig. 4. The tail of
the fish is to be brought then immediately before the magnifier.
A steel wire, Fig. 7, with a pair of nippers at one end, and a steel
point at the other; the wire slides backwards or forwards, in a spring
tube which is affixed to a joint at the bottom, on which is a pin to fit
the hole in the leg, No. 6, Fig. 4. This is used to confine small
objects.
A slider of brass, Fig. 8, containing a flat glass slider and a brass
slider, into which are fitted some small concave glasses. It is for
confining small living objects, and when used is placed between the
two plates, No. 7, Fig. 4.
A pair of forceps, Fig. 9, by which any occasional small object may
be conveniently taken up.
Six large ivory sliders, with transparent objects placed between
two plates of talc, and confined by brass rings, and six small ditto
with ditto. Fig. 10. The larger ones usually contain a set of
Custance’s fine vegetable cuttings.
Fourteen wood sliders, containing on each four opake objects, and
two spare sliders for occasional objects; all fitted to the cheeks kl of
the stage. Fig. 11.
Some capillary tubes, Fig. 12, to receive small fish, and for
viewing small animalcula. They are to be placed between the two
plates of the stage No. 7, Fig. 4.
A small ivory double box, containing spare plates of talc and brass
rings, for replacing any in the small ivory sliders, when necessary.
 A single lens mounted in a tortoiseshell case, to examine minute
objects previous to their being applied to the sliders.
Opake objects are easily put on the spare sliders by a wetted
wafer; and, for good security, gum water may be added.
For the prices of the lucernal, as well as all the other sorts of
microscopes, see the list annexed to these Essays.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL IMPROVEMENTS MADE UPON MR. ADAMS’S

LUCERNAL MICROSCOPE. BY THE EDITOR.

The lucernal microscope being unquestionably the only instrument

for exhibiting all sorts of opake objects under a brilliant and
magnified appearance, was, as formerly constructed by the late Mr.
G. Adams, attended with some inconveniences and imperfections.
Upon a proper inquiry into various improvements, and from some
observations made by myself, I can recommend, as a complete
instrument, one with the following emendations, being, in my
opinion, the best of any hitherto made known.
The lucernal microscope, when placed up for use, as represented
in Fig. 1. Plate III. is of some considerable length. When the eye at L
is viewing the image of the object upon the glasses, the objects
themselves in the sliders placed at kl at the stage, are without the
reach of the hand; so that the indispensible change of the parts of
an object, or of one object to another, can only be obtained by the
observer’s moving himself from the object to the eye-piece, and vice
versa. This adjustment, therefore, proves uncertain and
troublesome. The application of rack-work motion to the stage has
been contrived and applied to the lucernal microscope by Mr. W.
Jones, of Holborn, accompanied with Hooke’s joint and handle, and
a lever rod; so that, without altering his position, the observer may
change both the horizontal and vertical position of the sliders, and
thereby readily investigate all the variety of the objects, and their
parts, and with the same exactness as by other microscopes.
For persons who may not wish to be at the expense of the
lucernal, as formerly mounted by Mr. Adams, Mr. Jones has altered
the manner of its support; which, as well as the other particulars,
and the method of using it, may be understood from the following
description.
Plate IX. Fig. 3, is a representation of the instrument as placed up
for use. AA, the top of a mahogany chest, about two feet long,
thirteen inches and an half high, and eight inches broad, which
serves both as a case to contain the instrument, and to support and
preserve it steady when in use. A groove is cut in the top of the box,
and another in the inside at the bottom, in both of which the base of
the instrument is made to slide. When the instrument is placed
inside, a long slip of mahogany slides in at the top, to secure the
groove, and make the top perfect. Thus the instrument may be most
readily slid out of its case, and then into the groove at top for use,
and in much less time than by the brass frame and jointed stand
adopted by Mr. Adams. Fig. 3 B, is the stage for the objects, with the
condensing lens a, and concave mirror b, the same as in Mr.
Adams’s. C, the brass slider case for opake objects, with a rack cut
into its lower edge, and which is turned by a pinion. To this pinion is
applied an handle, D, with Hooke’s universal joint; this contrivance
gives a certain horizontal motion to the objects while viewing. The
stage at C is also made to slide vertically, and a lever-rod or handle,
E, to apply through the top, to bring the objects to a just height.
Hence, by applying the left hand to the handle, E, and the right to
the rod D, the adjustment or the changing of the objects, while
under exhibition on the large lenses at F, is produced in the most
convenient and accurate manner, and the observer has no occasion,
for one slider, to shift from his seat or position.
Rack-work might be applied to the vertical motion, but it is not
essentially necessary; for when once the center of the slider is
observed, there requires very little change from that position for the
complete exhibition of the objects. The whole of the stage, with the
lense and mirror, is fixed to a brass dove-tailed slider at G, which
slides in another brass piece fixed to the wooden slider or base of
the instrument. A long brass rod, H, with an adjusting screw at its
end, passes through the two brass pillars, K, K, to the stage at f,
upon which it acts; and according as it is turned to the right or left
hand while examining the objects, moves the objects nearer to or
farther from the magnifiers screwed on at L, and produces the just
distance for rendering the appearance of the objects the most
distinct and brilliant upon the glasses at F.
The management of the light from the lamp, through the lens, a,
and from the concave mirror, b, to the objects, is exactly the same
as before directed by Mr. Adams. For the exhibiting of transparent
objects, the stage, C, is to be slid away, and the body, Fig. 4, applied
in its place, in that position, with the large lens outwards next the
lamp. The slider with the objects passes through at a, and the focus
for the different magnifiers is adjusted by turning the long rod, D, to
the right or left, as with the opake objects. In this case the lamp is
to be raised to the center of the body of the microscope, or even
with the magnifiers at L. The image of the objects may also, as in
Mr. Adams’s, be best received on the rough glass placed at F, for the
simple reflected light through the body will sometimes be so strong,
as to irritate the eye; the operator must, therefore, both modify that
from the lamp, and place the roughed glass to his own ease and
pleasure. The guide for the eye, N, in this instance is not necessary.
Care being taken that the roughed glass at F be kept in as dark a
situation as possible, there will be a certainty of a clear and well-
defined view of the object.
A tin chimney placed over the glass of the lamp about ten inches
long, with a suitable aperture to admit the light to pass through it to
the glasses, is of material service; it excludes all superfluous light
from the eye of the observer, keeps the room sufficiently darkened,
and enables the observer to view his object with the proper
brilliancy. As a pleasing relief to the eye, the interposition of a small
piece of blue or green glass at the sight hole, N, Mr. Jones has
sometimes found necessary, but it gives rather a false teint to the
colour of the objects.
In the year 1789 the same artist applied a brass screw pillar and
arm to the top of the box at O, on which is occasionally slid the
condensing lens, a. The lamp being then applied at the side of the
box at O, instead of the end, and the lens, a, moved to such a
distance as to give the strongest possible light upon the opake
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookultra.com