Faculty of IT & Computer Science

Semester: 3 (BCA Honors)

Subject: Robotics
Assignment - 2 (I, J, K Division)

1. Explain the various generations of robots with example.

First Generation: Simple Mechanical Robots

 Time Period: 1950s–1970s
 Capabilities: The first generation of robots were designed to perform
simple, repetitive tasks, usually in controlled environments like factories.
These robots operated on pre-programmed instructions and had no
sensors or autonomy.
 Example: Unimate – the first industrial robot, which was used in General
Motors' factories to weld car parts and move heavy objects. It performed
tasks with great precision but had no sensing ability.

Second Generation: Sensor-Based Robots

 Time Period: 1980s
 Capabilities: Second-generation robots were equipped with sensors,
allowing them to perceive their environment. These sensors provided
feedback that enabled robots to interact with their surroundings in a
more dynamic way, improving flexibility and functionality.
 Example: Stanford Cart – a robot that used cameras and sensors to
navigate around obstacles. Though slow, it marked a significant
advancement in robot autonomy and environmental awareness.

Third Generation: Autonomous Robots

 Time Period: 1990s–2000s
 Capabilities: Autonomous robots of the third generation were able to
make decisions and function without continuous human input. These
robots had improved sensors, processors, and algorithms, allowing them
to perform tasks in real-world, unpredictable environments.
 Example: Roomba – a robotic vacuum cleaner developed by iRobot.
Roomba can autonomously clean floors by navigating around obstacles,
avoiding stairs, and even returning to its charging station when needed.
 Fourth Generation: Intelligent Robots (AI-Based)
 Time Period: 2010s–present
 Capabilities: The fourth generation of robots incorporates artificial
intelligence (AI) and machine learning. These robots can learn from
experience, adapt to new situations, and perform complex tasks such as
recognizing objects, navigating uneven terrain, and even communicating
with humans.
 Example: Boston Dynamics' Spot – a robot dog that uses AI and advanced
sensors to navigate through rough terrain, perform inspections, and assist
in search and rescue operations. Spot can operate autonomously or be
remotely controlled, demonstrating high levels of intelligence and
versatility.

2. (i) What is machine interference? (ii) What are the four basic robot
configurations available commercially? (iii) Classify the robot as per the
type of control and mobility.

(i) Machine interference in robotics refers to situations where

multiple machines or robots share the same workspace or
resources, and their operations overlap or conflict, leading to
delays, inefficiencies, or errors. This can happen when robots
rely on the same equipment or when their movements interfere
with each other, causing bottlenecks or collisions.
Example:
In a factory where two robots are working on an assembly line,
if both robots need to use the same tool or perform tasks in the
same area at the same time, it can lead to interference. One
robot may have to wait for the other, or they may need
coordination to avoid collisions, resulting in a loss of
productivity.
To prevent machine interference, strategies like task scheduling,
robot coordination algorithms, and proper workspace design
are employed, ensuring efficient and safe robot operations.

(ii) The four basic robot configurations available commercially are

based on the design of their arms and joints, each suited to
different tasks and applications. These configurations are:
 Cartesian (Linear) Robots
 Design: Consists of three linear joints (X, Y, and Z axes) arranged
at right angles to each other.
 Movement: Moves in straight lines along each axis.
 Application: Used for tasks like pick-and-place, assembly, and
3D printing.
 Example: Robotic arms in CNC machines or 3D printers.

Cylindrical Robots
 Design: Features one rotary joint at the base and linear joints
for vertical and radial movement, forming a cylindrical working
area.
 Movement: Moves up and down, rotates around a central axis,
and extends outward.
 Application: Suitable for assembly operations, handling at
machine tools, and spot welding.
 Example: Robots used in car manufacturing for tasks like
material handling.

SCARA (Selective Compliance Articulated Robot Arm) Robots

 Design: Has two parallel rotary joints that provide flexibility in
the horizontal plane and a linear joint for vertical movement.
 Movement: Moves in a horizontal plane with selective
compliance (flexibility), good for lateral movements.
 Application: Used for pick-and-place tasks, assembly, and
packaging.
 Example: Assembly line robots for electronic components.

Articulated (Jointed-Arm) Robots

 Design: Resembles a human arm with rotary joints, offering a
high degree of flexibility.
 Movement: Can rotate around multiple axes, allowing a wide
range of motion.
 Application: Ideal for complex tasks like welding, painting, and
material handling.
 Example: Industrial robots like the ABB IRB series used in
welding and painting in automotive industries.
(iii) Robots can be classified based on type of control motion and
mobility, reflecting how they are managed and how they move
in their environment.

1. Classification based on control motion

Point-to-Point (PTP) Control Motion
 Description: In this type of motion, the robot moves from
one predefined point to another, following the shortest path,
but without concern for the trajectory in between. The robot
focuses only on the start and end positions.
 Applications: Suitable for tasks where precision at specific
points is more important than the motion path.
 Examples:
o Pick-and-place operations.
o Spot welding, where the robot only needs to reach certain
points to weld specific spots.
Continuous-Path Control Motion
 Description: The robot moves along a continuous, controlled
path, following a specific trajectory. Every point along the
path is important, and the robot must maintain smooth
motion.
 Applications: Used where maintaining a precise, continuous
path is essential.
 Examples:
o Spray painting robots.
o Robotic arms used in arc welding and gluing applications.
o Robots for surface finishing.
 Controlled-Path Motion
 Description: Similar to continuous-path motion, but here, the
robot’s motion is predefined, and it must follow an exact path
while controlling its speed and orientation at every point. It
combines aspects of both PTP and continuous motion.
 Applications: Tasks that require both positional accuracy and
path control, often in complex operations.
 Examples:
o Robots used for assembly operations where parts need to
be manipulated along a specific path.
o Robots handling fragile materials or performing precise,
repetitive tasks.

2. Classification based on Mobility

a) Stationary Robots
Description: Robots fixed in one location, performing tasks
without the ability to move from place to place.
Examples:
Industrial robotic arms.
Robotic welders.

b) Mobile Robots
Description: Robots that can move freely in their environment,
either autonomously or under remote control.

Types of Mobile Robots:

Wheeled Robots: Move on wheels, suitable for smooth
surfaces.
Example: Delivery robots used in warehouses.

Legged Robots: Mimic walking, often used for uneven terrain.

Example: Boston Dynamics' Spot (quadruped robot).
 Tracked Robots: Use continuous tracks, like tanks, for stability
and manoeuvrability over rough terrain.
Example: Bomb disposal robots.

Flying Robots: Operate in the air, usually equipped with

propellers or rotors.
Example: Drones for aerial mapping.
Underwater Robots (ROVs): Operate underwater for
exploration, research, or repairs.
Example: Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) used for deep-sea
exploration.

c) Humanoid Robots
Description: Designed to mimic human shape and movement,
often with a focus on human-like interaction.
Examples:
Honda's ASIMO.
Softbank’s Pepper for customer service.

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of stepper motors over D.C.
servo motors?

Advantages of Stepper Motors over D.C. Servo Motors:

I. Open-Loop Control: Stepper motors typically don’t need feedback for
position control, simplifying the control system.
II. Precise Positioning: They provide precise control of angular position
without requiring sensors (open-loop).
III. Low Cost: Stepper motors are generally less expensive due to their
simpler design and control systems.
IV. No Tuning Required: No complex tuning is needed for stable
operation, unlike servo motors that may need PID tuning.
V. Better for Low-Speed Applications: Stepper motors perform well at
low speeds without needing gear reduction.
VI. Holding Torque: Stepper motors provide good holding torque when
stationary, useful in positioning applications.
 Disadvantages of Stepper Motors over D.C. Servo Motors:
I. Lower Efficiency: Stepper motors can consume more power,
especially at higher speeds, due to constant power draw.
II. Limited Speed and Torque: Stepper motors have limited torque and
speed capabilities, particularly at higher RPMs.
III. Prone to Stalling: They may lose steps or stall under excessive load
or high speeds, resulting in a loss of position accuracy.
IV. No Feedback: Without a feedback mechanism (unless used in closed-
loop systems), there's no error correction, leading to potential
inaccuracies.
V. Resonance Issues: Stepper motors may experience resonance at
certain speeds, affecting performance.
VI. Lower Dynamic Performance: D.C. servo motors generally offer
faster response and smoother performance for dynamic
applications.
In summary, stepper motors are simpler and cost-effective but may
fall short in terms of speed, efficiency, and dynamic control
compared to D.C. servo motors.

4. Explain with neat sketch the working of stepper motors used in robotics.

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical

pulses into discrete mechanical movements. It divides a full rotation into
a number of equal steps, allowing precise control over movement, which
makes it ideal for applications requiring accurate positioning.

Working Principle:
 Structure: The stepper motor has a rotor (the moving part) made of
permanent magnets or soft iron and a stator (stationary part) with
windings (coils).
 Step Movement: The stator windings are energized in a sequence,
creating a magnetic field that causes the rotor to align with it. By
controlling the sequence of current pulses sent to the motor, the rotor
moves in discrete steps.
 Control: The motor moves one step for each electrical pulse it receives.
The number of steps and step angle depends on the motor design (e.g.,
200 steps per revolution for a 1.8° step angle motor).
 Types of Stepper Motors:
1. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor: Uses a permanent magnet
rotor.
2. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor: Uses a soft iron rotor.
3. Hybrid Stepper Motor: Combines the features of both permanent
magnet and variable reluctance motors.
Neat Sketch:

Below is a simplified explanation of the stepper motor diagram:

1. Rotor: The rotating part, either a permanent magnet or ferromagnetic
material.
2. Stator: The stationary part, equipped with windings (coils).
3. Coils: Energized sequentially to create a magnetic field that pulls the rotor
to align with the field.

Applications of Stepper Motors in Robotics:

Stepper motors are widely used in robotics for precise control of
movement. Key applications include:
I. 3D Printers: Used for controlling the precise positioning of the print
head and the build platform.
II. CNC Machines: Common in automated manufacturing equipment for
precise control of cutting tools.
III. Robotic Arms: Used for controlling joint movements with high
precision.
IV. Camera Platforms: Pan-and-tilt mechanisms for precise orientation
control in cameras.
V. Automated Conveyor Systems: In manufacturing for controlling the
position of objects on conveyor belts.
VI. Medical Devices: Stepper motors are used in devices that require
precise control, like syringe pumps and other diagnostic machines.

Advantages in Robotics:
I. Precise Positioning: Ability to control each step ensures high precision.
II. Open-Loop Control: Simplifies control systems by not needing
feedback loops.
III. Reliable: Does not suffer from wear and tear as there are no brushes.
Stepper motors provide a cost-effective, reliable solution for robotic
applications requiring accurate, repeatable movements.

5. Explain with neat sketch the working of D.C. servo motors used in
robotics.
A D.C. servo motor is a highly precise motor used in control systems
where accurate positioning or speed control is critical. It operates based
on feedback, allowing it to adjust its performance according to the
requirements of the system.

Working Principle:
 Structure: A typical D.C. servo motor consists of a DC motor, gear
assembly, position sensor (usually a potentiometer), and a controller.
 Feedback Control: The servo motor operates based on a closed-loop
control system. The position or speed of the motor is measured by a
sensor and fed back to the controller, which compares the feedback with
the desired input (set point). If there's a difference between the actual
position and the desired position, the controller adjusts the motor's
operation to minimize the error.
 Control Signal: The controller sends a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
signal to control the motor’s speed and position. The width of the pulse
determines how much the motor should move.
 Torque Generation: The D.C. motor within the servo produces torque to
drive the load to the desired position, and the gear assembly reduces
speed while increasing torque, making precise control possible.

Neat Sketch:

The components include:

1. DC Motor: Converts electrical energy into mechanical motion.
2. Gear Assembly: Reduces speed and increases torque.
3. Position Sensor (Potentiometer): Provides feedback on the rotor's
position.
4. Controller: Compares feedback with the desired position and adjusts the
motor accordingly.
5. PWM Signal: Used for controlling speed and position.

Applications of D.C. Servo Motors in Robotics:

D.C. servo motors are used where precise control of position, speed, and
torque is needed. Some key applications in robotics include:
 I. Robotic Arms: D.C. servo motors control the movement of joints,
ensuring precise positioning and smooth operation.
II. Autonomous Robots: For controlling wheels or legs, providing
accurate movement and steering.
III. CNC Machines: Used in robotic arms and tools for precise cutting,
drilling, and milling operations.
IV. Medical Robotics: In surgical robots where high precision and smooth
motion control are critical.
V. Humanoid Robots: To control limb movements, allowing for smooth
and coordinated actions.
VI. Camera Gimbals: In robots or drones for controlling the orientation of
a camera for stabilization.

Advantages in Robotics:
I. Precise Control: Due to feedback, servo motors offer extremely accurate
positioning.
II. High Torque at Low Speeds: Gear assembly allows servo motors to
generate high torque even at lower speeds.
III. Smooth Operation: Provides smooth, precise motion, ideal for delicate
tasks.
IV. Speed Control: Capable of dynamic speed adjustment based on system
demands.

D.C. servo motors are preferred in robotics for tasks that require
precision, accuracy, and reliable performance, making them ideal for
sophisticated robotic applications like robotic arms, CNC machines, and
medical equipment.

6. Enlist various properties of grippers.

Key Properties of Grippers:

Gripping Force:
The strength with which the gripper holds an object, ensuring it doesn’t
slip or drop.
Dexterity:
The ability to perform complex movements, like rotating or tilting the
object.
Compliance:
The gripper’s ability to adapt to different shapes and surfaces, providing
a secure hold on irregularly shaped items.
Fingertip Design:
The shape and material of the gripper's tips, affecting how well it grips
various objects.
Range of Motion:
How far the gripper can open and close, which determines what types of
objects it can handle.
Payload Capacity:
The maximum weight the gripper can hold without failing.
Speed of Operation:
How quickly the gripper can open and close, impacting the efficiency of
operations.
Repeatability:
The precision with which the gripper can grasp the same object multiple
times.
Material Properties:
The materials used in the gripper that affect durability and grip
effectiveness (e.g., rubber for better friction).
Control Mechanism:
The type of actuation (electric, pneumatic, hydraulic) that influences
responsiveness.
Sensor Integration:
The ability to use sensors for feedback, enhancing grip and manipulation
capabilities.
Adaptability:
How well the gripper can adjust to different object shapes and sizes.
Stability:
The ability to maintain a secure grip during movement or under varying
loads.
Weight:
The overall weight of the gripper, which can affect the robot’s mobility
and energy use.
 These properties help determine how effective a gripper will be for
specific tasks in robotics, such as assembly, material handling, or medical
applications.

7. Enlist various types of grippers. With the help of sketches describe some
commonly used mechanical grippers. (Hint: Two jaws, Three jaws and
Four jaws)

Various types of grippers used in the robotics field:

1. Mechanical gripper
2. Vacuum gripper
3. Magnetic gripper
4. Hydraulic gripper
5. Pneumatic gripper
6. Adhesive gripper

Sketches of some commonly used mechanical grippers.

1. Two jaws mechanical gripper

 2. Three jaws mechanical gripper

8. Explain with a neat sketch magnetic grippers. State its advantages and
applications.
Magnetic grippers use magnetic forces to hold ferromagnetic objects.
They are particularly useful for handling metallic items in industrial
settings.

Working Principle:

 Electromagnets: Magnetic grippers typically use electromagnets that can

be turned on or off. When powered, the electromagnet generates a
magnetic field strong enough to attract and hold ferrous materials.
 Permanent Magnets: Some magnetic grippers use permanent magnets
that provide a constant magnetic force without requiring power, making
them useful for certain applications.
 Neat Sketch:

Components in the Sketch:

1. Robot Arm: Supports the magnetic gripper.
2. Magnetic Gripper: Contains either electromagnets or permanent
magnets.
3. Metal Object: The item being grasped, highlighted to show magnetic
attraction.

Advantages of Magnetic Grippers:

I. Quick and Easy Handling: Fast attachment and release of objects,
improving efficiency.
II. No Mechanical Parts: Fewer moving parts reduce wear and maintenance
needs.
III. Versatile: Can handle various shapes and sizes of ferromagnetic objects.
IV. Consistent Grip: Provides a strong, reliable hold on objects, reducing the
risk of dropping.
V. Low Power Consumption: Electromagnetic grippers can be designed to
consume power only when in use.
VI. Minimal Damage: Non-intrusive grip minimizes the risk of damaging
delicate surfaces.

Applications of Magnetic Grippers:

I. Material Handling: Commonly used in manufacturing for moving steel
sheets, pipes, and other metal components.
II. Automotive Industry: Employed in assembly lines for handling parts
during production.
III. Metal Fabrication: Used in workshops for lifting and positioning heavy
metal parts.
IV. Robotic Automation: Integrated into robotic systems for automated pick-
and-place operations in warehouses and factories.
V. Recycling: Used in scrap yards for sorting and moving metal waste
materials.

Magnetic grippers are efficient and reliable tools for various industrial
applications, offering quick handling and a strong grip on ferromagnetic
objects.

9. Explain with a neat sketch vacuum grippers. State its advantages and
applications.
Vacuum grippers use suction to hold objects, making them effective for
picking up flat or smooth surfaces. They create a vacuum that generates
negative pressure, allowing the gripper to lift and move items securely.

Working Principle:
 Vacuum Generation: A vacuum pump or a compressed air source is used
to create a low-pressure area inside the gripper.
 Sealing: The gripper has soft, flexible pads that conform to the surface of
the object, creating an airtight seal.
 Suction: When the vacuum is generated, the pressure difference between
the inside of the gripper and the outside atmosphere allows the gripper
to hold the object.
 Neat Sketch:

Components in the Sketch:

1. Robot Arm: Supports the vacuum gripper.
2. Vacuum Gripper: Features suction cups designed to create a vacuum.
3. Vacuum Pump: Generates the suction force.
4. Object: The item being lifted, highlighting the grip created by the vacuum.

Advantages of Vacuum Grippers:

1. Versatility: Can handle a variety of shapes and materials, including glass,
metal, and plastic.
2. Gentle Handling: Ideal for fragile or delicate objects as they can be lifted
without applying mechanical force.
3. Quick Operation: Fast attachment and release, improving efficiency in
automated processes.
4. Simple Design: Fewer moving parts compared to mechanical grippers,
leading to lower maintenance needs.
5. Adaptability: Suction cups can conform to the surface of the object,
allowing for secure gripping on uneven surfaces.

Applications of Vacuum Grippers:

1. Packaging: Used in automated systems to pick and place items like boxes,
bottles, and cartons.
2. Manufacturing: Common in assembly lines for handling flat components,
like panels and sheets.
3. Glass Handling: Employed in the construction and automotive industries
for lifting and positioning glass sheets.
4. Food Industry: Used to handle packaged food items, ensuring hygiene
and safety.
5. Robotic Automation: Integrated into robotic arms for pick-and-place
tasks in warehouses and logistics.

 Conclusion
Vacuum grippers are effective tools for lifting and moving a wide range of
objects, especially in environments where gentle handling is essential.
Their versatility and efficiency make them invaluable in various industrial
applications.

10.Enlist various characteristics of robotic sensors.

Key Characteristics of Robotic Sensors
Sensitivity:
The ability of a sensor to detect small changes in the measured variable,
such as light, sound, or distance.
Range:
The extent of values the sensor can measure, indicating the minimum
and maximum limits of operation.
Resolution:
The smallest change in input that a sensor can detect and respond to,
affecting the precision of measurements.
Accuracy:
The degree to which a sensor's measurements reflect the true value of
the variable being measured.
Response Time:
The time taken by a sensor to react to a change in the input signal, critical
for real-time applications.
Durability:
The ability of a sensor to withstand environmental conditions, such as
temperature, humidity, and physical impact.
Output Type:
The format in which the sensor provides data, such as analog or digital
signals, influencing how the information can be processed.
Power Consumption:
The amount of energy a sensor uses during operation, affecting the
overall efficiency of the robotic system.
Size and Weight:
The physical dimensions and mass of the sensor, which can impact the
design and mobility of the robot.
Calibration:
The process of adjusting the sensor to ensure accurate measurements,
which is essential for maintaining performance over time.
Field of View (FOV):
The extent of the observable area that a sensor can cover, particularly
relevant for cameras and LIDAR systems.
Integration Capability:
The ease with which a sensor can be integrated into existing robotic
systems or platforms, affecting overall design flexibility.
Cost:
The economic factor involved in acquiring and maintaining the sensor,
influencing the choice of sensors for specific applications.
Environmental Compatibility:
The ability of a sensor to operate effectively in different environmental
conditions, such as dust, moisture, or extreme temperatures.

These characteristics are critical for selecting the appropriate sensors for
robotic applications, ensuring that the robots can effectively perceive
and interact with their environment.
 11.Name some contact and non-contact type of sensors. Define sensitivity
and linearity in regard to sensors.

Contact Sensors
I. Limit Switches: Detect the presence or position of an object by physical
contact.
II. Pressure Sensors: Measure the force applied to a surface by direct
contact.
III. Tactile Sensors: Detect touch or pressure applied to a surface.

Non-Contact Sensors
I. Proximity Sensors: Detect the presence of an object without physical
contact (e.g., inductive, capacitive).
II. Infrared Sensors: Measure distance or detect heat using infrared
radiation.
III. Ultrasonic Sensors: Use sound waves to measure distance to an object.
IV. LIDAR: Uses laser beams to create detailed maps or measure distances.
o

Definitions:
Sensitivity
Sensitivity refers to the ability of a sensor to detect small changes in the
input signal. A highly sensitive sensor can respond to minor variations,
allowing for precise measurements. For example, in temperature sensors,
higher sensitivity means the sensor can detect slight changes in
temperature.

Linearity
Linearity describes how accurately a sensor's output corresponds to the
input across its operating range. A linear sensor produces a consistent and
proportional output throughout its range. For example, if a sensor
doubles the input, the output should also double if it is linear. Non-linear
sensors may exhibit curves or deviations in output, making them less
predictable.

These concepts are essential for understanding sensor performance and

ensuring accurate data collection in robotic applications.
12.Explain the use of tactile sensors in robots.

Tactile sensors help robots "feel" objects, similar to how humans use
touch. Here’s how they are used:

Object Detection
Function: Tactile sensors can tell if a robot is touching something and
help identify what it is.
Example: In robotic hands, they help recognize different shapes and
textures.

Grip Control
Function: These sensors provide feedback on how hard the robot is
holding an object, allowing it to adjust its grip.
Example: They ensure that delicate items, like glass, are held gently but
securely.

Navigation
Function: Tactile sensors help robots detect obstacles or surfaces they
come into contact with.
Example: Used in mobile robots to avoid crashing into things.

Robotic Surgery
Function: In surgical robots, tactile sensors give doctors a sense of touch
during operations.
Example: This makes it easier to handle tissues carefully and accurately.

Human-Robot Interaction
Function: Tactile sensors allow robots to respond to human touch.
Example: Used in service robots to make interactions feel more natural
and friendly.

Quality Control
Function: These sensors can check for defects on products by feeling
their surfaces.
Example: In factories, they ensure that products are made correctly.
 Learning and Adaptation
Function: Tactile sensors help robots learn from their experiences with
objects.
Example: They improve the robot’s ability to adapt and perform tasks
over time.

 Conclusion:
Tactile sensors make robots more capable and precise by allowing them
to interact with their environment effectively. They are used in many
areas, including manufacturing, healthcare, and service industries,
making them essential for advanced robotics.

13.Write a short note on potentiometer.

A potentiometer is an electrical device used to measure the potential
(voltage) difference between two points in a circuit or to adjust the level
of a voltage signal.
It consists of a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact
(wiper) that forms an adjustable voltage divider.
The potentiometer has a resistive element, and by moving the wiper along
this element, the resistance changes, which adjusts the output voltage.

Working Principle:
The potentiometer operates on the principle of a voltage divider. When a
voltage is applied across the two end terminals of the resistive element,
the potential difference across the entire length of the resistive material
is proportional to its length. As the wiper moves along the resistive
element, it divides the voltage into two parts, and the voltage between
the wiper and one end terminal can be measured, providing a variable
output based on the position of the wiper.
 Neat Sketch:

Applications:
 Used for adjusting signal levels, like volume controls in audio
systems.
 Measuring voltage in experimental setups.
 Used as input devices for various electrical and electronic systems.

In summary, a potentiometer allows for smooth control over voltage in a

circuit by varying resistance through mechanical adjustment.

14.Explain the construction of LVDT used in robotics for displacement

measurement.
Neat Sketch:
 Construction:
An LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) is an
electromechanical sensor used for precise displacement measurement.

It consists of the following key components:

1. Primary Coil: Positioned in the center, it is connected to an AC excitation
source.
2. Secondary Coils: Two identical coils (S1 and S2) placed symmetrically on
either side of the primary coil. These are wound in opposite directions and
connected in series opposition (differential mode).
3. Movable Core: A ferromagnetic core inside the coils that moves along the
linear axis. The position of this core determines the output voltage of the
LVDT.

Working Principle:
The LVDT operates on the principle of mutual induction. When an AC
voltage is applied to the primary coil, an alternating magnetic field is
generated, inducing voltages in the secondary coils due to the motion of
the core. The magnitude and phase of the induced voltage depend on the
position of the core relative to the coils.

I. Center or Null Position: When the core is in the central position, the
voltages induced in the two secondary coils (S1 and S2) are equal and
opposite, resulting in zero net output voltage.
II. Core Displacement to One Side: When the core moves toward one
secondary coil (say S1), the voltage in that coil increases while the
voltage in the opposite coil (S2) decreases, resulting in a net output
voltage. The magnitude of this voltage is proportional to the
displacement, and the phase indicates the direction of displacement.
III. Core Displacement to the Opposite Side: If the core moves towards
the other coil (S2), the output voltage again increases but with a
reversed phase, indicating opposite displacement.

Applications in Robotics:
LVDTs are commonly used in robotics for precise displacement
measurement, providing feedback on linear motion. They are ideal for
 controlling robotic arms, actuators, or in any situation where accurate
position feedback is necessary.
They are highly reliable, offering benefits like frictionless operation, high
accuracy, and long-term stability, making them ideal for demanding
environments like industrial robotics.

In summary, the LVDT is a robust sensor used in robotics to measure linear

displacement based on the mutual induction principle, converting
mechanical motion into electrical signals.

15.List out various sensors which can be interfaced with robots. Explain any
two sensors interface with robot in detail. (Hint: Encoders and Inductive
Proximity Sensor)
 Sensors Commonly Used in Robots
I. Proximity Sensors:
a. Infrared (IR) Sensor: Detects objects based on infrared light
reflection.
b. Ultrasonic Sensor: Measures distance by sending and receiving
ultrasonic sound waves.
c. Capacitive Sensor: Senses nearby objects through changes in
the electrical field.
II. Position and Displacement Sensors:
a. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT): Measures
linear displacement.
b. Rotary Encoders: Tracks rotational movement and angular
position.
c. Potentiometers: Measures angular or linear displacement
through resistance changes.
III. Force and Torque Sensors:
a. Strain Gauge: Measures force and strain on mechanical parts.
b. Piezoelectric Sensor: Senses pressure, force, or acceleration.
c. Load Cell: Detects weight or force applied to a structure.
IV. Temperature Sensors:
a. Thermocouples: Measures temperature changes through
voltage differences.
b. Thermistors: Detects temperature based on resistance
variation.
 c. Infrared (IR) Temperature Sensor: Measures temperature
without contact by detecting infrared radiation.
V. Tactile Sensors:
a. Pressure Sensors: Detects physical pressure or force on surfaces
(used in robotic grippers).
b. Capacitive Touch Sensors: Senses touch through capacitance
change.
VI. Vision Sensors:
a. Cameras (2D/3D): Captures visual data for image processing
and object recognition.
b. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Measures distance and
creates 3D maps by scanning environments with laser beams.
VII. Motion and Inertial Sensors:
a. Accelerometers: Detects acceleration and movement.
b. Gyroscopes: Measures angular velocity for orientation and
balancing.
c. Inertial Measurement Units (IMU): Combines accelerometers,
gyroscopes, and sometimes magnetometers for comprehensive
motion sensing.
VIII. Environmental Sensors:
a. Gas Sensors: Detects gases like carbon dioxide, methane, or
oxygen.
b. Humidity Sensors: Measures moisture levels in the air.
c. Barometric Pressure Sensors: Detects atmospheric pressure
changes.
IX. Magnetic Sensors:
a. Hall Effect Sensor: Detects magnetic fields for positioning and
movement tracking.
b. Magnetometers: Measures magnetic fields to determine
orientation relative to the Earth’s magnetic field (compass).
X. Audio Sensors:
a. Microphones: Captures sound for voice recognition or acoustic
analysis.
b. Sound Level Sensors: Measures noise intensity or loudness.
 Encoders
An encoder is a sensor that converts motion or position information into
electrical signals, which are used to determine the speed, position,
direction, or distance of a rotating or moving object. Encoders are
commonly used in automation, robotics, and industrial applications to
provide accurate feedback on mechanical motion.

Types of Encoders:
1. Rotary Encoders:
o Measures the rotational movement of an object, such as a motor
shaft.
o Incremental Encoder: Provides relative position by generating a set
number of pulses per revolution. It only tracks changes in position.
o Absolute Encoder: Provides unique position information for every
angle of rotation, giving the exact position of the object even after
power loss.
2. Linear Encoders:
o Measures linear displacement by converting the movement along
a straight path into an electrical signal.
Neat Sketch:
 Working Principle:
Encoders operate based on the principle of electromagnetic induction,
optical sensing, or magnetic sensing. In optical encoders, for instance, a
disk with alternating transparent and opaque sections rotates between
an LED light source and a photo detector. As the disk rotates, it interrupts
the light beam, and the detector produces pulses that correspond to the
movement, which are then processed to measure position or speed.

Applications of Encoders:
I. Robotics: Encoders are used to track the movement of robotic arms,
motors, and actuators, ensuring precise control over position and
speed.
II. CNC Machines: In computer numerical control (CNC) machinery,
encoders help ensure accurate positioning of cutting tools and
machinery parts.
III. Conveyor Systems: Encoders are used to monitor the speed and
position of conveyor belts in automation and material handling
systems.
IV. Motor Control: Encoders provide feedback for controlling the speed
and position of electric motors in various industrial applications.
V. Elevators: They are used to detect the position of the elevator and
ensure smooth operation.

In summary, encoders are essential for providing feedback on position

and motion in various automation, industrial, and robotics applications
where precision control is required.

 Inductive Proximity Sensor

An Inductive Proximity Sensor is a non-contact sensor used to detect
metallic objects within its sensing range.

The basic components of an inductive proximity sensor include:

1. Oscillator: Generates an alternating electromagnetic field at a specific
frequency.
2. Coil: An induction coil, usually wound around a ferrite core, is responsible
for creating an electromagnetic field.
3. Detector Circuit: Monitors changes in the electromagnetic field when a
metallic object is near.
4. Output Circuit: Processes the signal from the detector and provides a
corresponding output (digital or analog) to the control system.

The entire sensor is encased in a protective housing, typically made of

plastic or metal, with the sensing face exposed to the target.
Neat Sketch:

Working Principle:
The inductive proximity sensor operates based on Faraday's Law of
Electromagnetic Induction. Here’s how it works:
1. Electromagnetic Field Generation: When the oscillator is powered, it
generates an alternating current, which produces an electromagnetic
field around the coil.
2. Detection of Metallic Objects: When a metallic object (usually ferrous)
comes close to the sensor’s active face, the object enters the
electromagnetic field.
3. Induced Eddy Currents: The metal object causes eddy currents to form on
its surface. These eddy currents oppose the sensor’s magnetic field,
 leading to a reduction in the amplitude of the oscillations produced by the
oscillator.
4. Signal Processing: The sensor detects this change in the oscillation
amplitude and sends it to the detector circuit, which processes the signal.
If the reduction reaches a certain threshold, the sensor triggers an output
signal, indicating that a metal object is present.
5. Output Signal: Depending on the design, the sensor provides a digital
(on/off) or analog output (proportional to the distance of the object from
the sensor).

Applications:
Inductive proximity sensors are used in a wide range of industrial and
automation applications, particularly for detecting metallic objects.
Common applications include:
I. Position Sensing: Used to detect the presence or absence of metal
parts, such as in conveyor belts, assembly lines, and machinery.
II. Speed Sensing: Monitors the speed of rotating parts like gears or
shafts in motors and industrial equipment.
III. Limit Switching: Acts as a non-contact limit switch in automation
processes, ensuring that machine parts do not exceed their designated
range of motion.
IV. Metal Detection: Ideal for detecting metal objects in manufacturing
processes, such as in packaging, sorting, or part-feeding systems.
V. Robotics: Used in robotic systems for detecting metal objects or parts
and guiding movements with precision.
VI. Automotive Industry: Deployed for position sensing in vehicle
systems, such as in the detection of moving metal components.

In summary, inductive proximity sensors provide a reliable, contactless

method of detecting metallic objects, making them highly useful in
automation, robotics, and industrial control systems. They offer
advantages such as durability, long life, and the ability to work in harsh
environments.
 16. Explain proximity sensor in brief.
A proximity sensor is a type of sensor that detects the presence or
absence of an object (target) without making physical contact. These
sensors are widely used in industrial automation, robotics, consumer
electronics, and automotive applications.

Working Principle:
Proximity sensors work by detecting changes in the environment caused
by an approaching object. Depending on the type of proximity sensor,
detection methods vary, but the sensor typically emits a signal (such as
electromagnetic radiation, sound waves, or light) and measures the
response or change in the signal to determine the presence of an object.

Types of Proximity Sensors:

I. Inductive Proximity Sensors:
a. Detects metallic objects using electromagnetic fields.
b. Working range is short, typically within a few millimeters.
II. Capacitive Proximity Sensors:
a. Detects both metallic and non-metallic objects by sensing changes
in capacitance.
b. Can detect objects such as wood, plastic, and liquids.
III. Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors:
a. Uses sound waves to detect objects, measuring the time delay
between emission and reception of ultrasonic waves.
b. Suitable for detecting objects regardless of their material and works
over longer distances.
IV. Infrared (IR) Proximity Sensors:
a. Uses infrared light to detect objects based on the reflection of IR
light off the surface of the object.
b. Commonly used in consumer electronics, like touchless switches
and obstacle detection systems.
V. Magnetic Proximity Sensors:
a. Detects objects using magnetic fields, typically used for sensing the
position of magnetic materials.
 Applications:
 Industrial Automation: Used in manufacturing systems to detect the
presence of parts on conveyor belts, machines, and assembly lines.
 Robotics: Helps robots detect nearby objects for navigation and obstacle
avoidance.
 Consumer Electronics: Found in smartphones to detect when the device
is close to the user’s face (e.g., turning off the display during a call).
 Automotive Systems: Used in parking sensors to detect nearby objects
and assist in vehicle manoeuvring.

17. Write a short note on force and torque sensor.

A force sensor is a device that measures the amount of force applied to
an object. It converts mechanical force into electrical signals, which can
then be measured and analysed. These sensors are widely used in
applications like robotics, manufacturing, and testing to detect forces in
tension, compression, or shear.

A torque sensor, on the other hand, measures rotational forces or the

twisting action applied to an object. It quantifies how much force is being
applied in a rotational manner around an axis. Torque sensors are crucial
in applications such as motor performance testing, engine dynamics, and
various industrial machines where precise control of rotational force is
essential.

Both sensors play a critical role in automation, robotics, and precision

engineering by providing real-time feedback on force and torque to
optimize processes and ensure safety.

18.Draw a block diagram for components of a machine vision system.

Mention the function of each component. State any five applications of a
robot vision systems.
 Block diagram:

Components and Functions:

I. Image Sensor (Camera):
 Function: Captures the image of the object or scene to be analyzed.
The camera sensor can be a CCD or CMOS, converting light into a
digital image.
II. Lighting and Optics:
 Function: Provides proper illumination and focus for the object to
ensure the image is clear, reducing shadows and reflections. The
optics (lenses) focus the camera on the desired field of view.
III. Image Processing Unit:
 Function: Converts the raw image data into a digital format and
processes it, enhancing the image quality and removing noise. It is
responsible for tasks such as filtering, edge detection, and feature
extraction.
IV. Vision Algorithms:
 Function: Algorithms analyze the processed image to identify
objects, measure dimensions, inspect defects, or detect patterns.
These algorithms enable tasks like object recognition and decision-
making.
V. Output/Interface:
 Function: Provides feedback or control commands based on the
vision system’s analysis, interfacing with other machine
components for further action, such as rejecting defective parts or
aligning objects.
 Applications of Robot Vision Systems:
I. Quality Control and Inspection: Automated inspection of products in
manufacturing to detect defects, ensure quality standards, and
maintain consistency.
II. Object Sorting: Robots use vision systems to identify and sort objects
based on size, color, or shape, useful in industries like food processing
and recycling.
III. Guided Robotics (Pick and Place): Vision systems enable robots to
locate and pick up objects, used in automation processes such as
assembly lines.
IV. Automated Surveillance and Security: Robots with vision systems can
monitor areas for safety and security, detecting unusual activities or
intrusions.
V. Autonomous Navigation: Vision systems in autonomous robots or
vehicles help with path finding, obstacle detection, and navigation,
used in fields like autonomous cars and drones.

19.Explain On-line and Off-line robot programming. What is a meaning of

lead through programming? OR What is robot programming? Explain in
detail various types of robot programming.

Robot programming is the process of designing a set of instructions that

enable a robot to perform specific tasks autonomously or semi-
autonomously. These instructions guide the robot on how to perceive its
environment, manipulate objects, and execute tasks in a structured way.
Robot programming includes writing code or setting up motion sequences
to control the robot’s movements, interactions, and decision-making
processes.

The effectiveness of robot programming is determined by how well it

integrates sensing, movement, and control systems to allow the robot to
interact intelligently with its environment. Depending on the complexity
and type of robot, different programming methods may be used.
 Types of Robot Programming
 Manual Programming (Teach Pendant Programming):
Overview: In manual or teach pendant programming, an operator
physically guides the robot through its desired motions and operations,
using a teach pendant (a handheld control device) to record these
motions.
Procedure: The operator moves the robot's arm to the required positions,
and the control system records these positions as a series of points. These
recorded points serve as the robot’s path or motion program.
Advantages:
 Easy to implement for simple tasks.
 Requires minimal coding or complex knowledge.
Disadvantages:
 Not ideal for complex processes.
 Time-consuming for large operations or processes requiring precision.

 Online Programming:
Overview: This method involves directly programming the robot while it
is active in the operational environment. The robot is programmed by
sending commands from an interface in real time to control its actions.
Procedure: The user inputs instructions via a programming language or
interface, and the robot executes them immediately in real time. Online
programming provides immediate feedback.
Advantages:
 Immediate feedback helps in debugging.
 Real-time control allows for fine-tuning during operation.
Disadvantages:
 Can interrupt production processes.
 Less efficient for complex or highly dynamic systems.

 Offline Programming:
Overview: In offline programming, the robot is programmed on a
computer without directly interacting with the physical robot during the
programming process. The program is developed, tested, and simulated
virtually before being deployed to the robot.
 Procedure: Programming and simulation software (such as ROS, RoboDK,
or MATLAB) is used to create and verify programs. The final code is then
uploaded to the robot.
Advantages:
 Reduces downtime because programming can be done without halting
production.
 Complex tasks can be easily simulated and optimized before actual
deployment.
Disadvantages:
 May require detailed knowledge of the software and robot
kinematics.
 Simulated environments might not account for all real-world
variables.

 Lead-Through Programming:
Overview: In this method, the robot is physically moved through the
desired sequence of operations by an operator. The robot’s control
system records the motion for playback.
Procedure: The robot’s end-effector or arm is guided manually by the
operator through a series of motions. These motions are recorded and
replayed by the robot during the operational phase.
Advantages:
 Intuitive for human operators, especially for tasks like painting or
welding.
 Reduces the need for complex programming languages.
Disadvantages:
 Inaccuracies can arise from manual motion.
 Less flexible and scalable for complex tasks.

20.What are the points to be considered for selecting a robot for a

particular application? Explain in detail.

Selecting the right robot for a specific application is crucial for maximizing
efficiency, productivity, and cost-effectiveness. Several factors need to be
carefully evaluated when choosing a robot, depending on the task it will
perform, the environment it will operate in, and the integration
requirements.
 Here are the key points to consider for selecting a robot for a particular
application:
Type of Application
1. Nature of the Task:
The first and most critical point is the type of task the robot will perform
such as welding, painting, material handling, assembly, pick-and-place, or
inspection. The robot must be selected based on its capability to perform
the task effectively.
Example: For welding, you would choose a robot with precise motion
control and repeatability, while for heavy lifting, a robot with high payload
capacity is essential.

2. Payload Capacity
Definition: The payload capacity refers to the maximum weight the robot
can handle, including the tool or end-effector (e.g., gripper, welding gun).
Considerations:
o The robot's payload capacity must meet or exceed the weight of
the objects it will manipulate.
o Overloading a robot can reduce its lifespan, affect precision, and
even cause operational failures.
Example: If the robot needs to handle car parts weighing 100 kg, a robot
with a payload capacity of at least 120 kg (including the weight of the end-
effector) should be selected.

3. Reach and Work Envelope

Definition: Reach refers to the maximum distance the robot can extend
its arm, and the work envelope is the 3D space within which the robot can
operate.
Considerations:
o Ensure the robot can access all the necessary positions in its
operational area.
o If the robot needs to work on a large assembly, it should have a long
reach and a suitable work envelope.
Example: For palletizing large boxes, a robot with a wide horizontal and
vertical reach would be necessary to handle objects across a larger space.
4. Degrees of Freedom (DOF)
Definition: Degrees of freedom refer to the number of independent
movements the robot can perform. Most robots have 4-6 axes of
movement.
Considerations:
o More degrees of freedom provide greater flexibility, especially for
complex tasks like assembly or welding in hard-to-reach areas.
o Tasks requiring simple, repetitive movements (e.g., pick-and-place)
can be efficiently handled by robots with fewer DOF.
Example: A 6-axis robot is more suitable for tasks like painting, which
involves complex movements, while a 4-axis robot may suffice for simple
material handling.

5. Precision and Repeatability

Definition: Precision refers to how accurately a robot can position itself,
while repeatability is how consistently it can return to a specific position
or perform the same task.
Considerations:
o High precision and repeatability are crucial in applications like
electronics manufacturing, where small errors can lead to faulty
products.
o In applications where accuracy is less critical (e.g., palletizing), a
lower precision robot may suffice.
Example: For assembling miniature components in electronics, a robot
with a precision rating of ±0.02 mm is necessary, while for basic material
handling, ±0.1 mm precision may be acceptable.

6. Speed and Cycle Time

Definition: Speed refers to how fast the robot can move or complete an
operation, while cycle time is the total time required to complete one task
or cycle.
Considerations:
o High-speed robots are essential in industries where productivity is
critical, such as packaging or sorting.
o However, speed should not compromise the quality of the work,
especially in precision applications.
 Example: In high-speed pick-and-place applications in the food or
pharmaceutical industry, a robot with a short cycle time (e.g., less than a
second) is ideal.

7. Type of End-Effector
Definition: The end-effector is the tool attached to the robot's arm, such
as a gripper, welding torch, or suction cup.
Considerations:
o The type of end-effector should match the specific task, such as
gripping objects, welding, or applying paint.
o The robot's control system should support the end-effector's
functionality, such as applying force control for delicate operations.
Example: For handling fragile items like glass or electronics, a robot with
a soft-touch gripper or vacuum suction end-effector would be necessary.

8. Environmental Factors
Definition: The environment where the robot operates, including
temperature, humidity, dust, and other contaminants.
Considerations:
o Robots operating in harsh environments, such as those with
extreme temperatures or corrosive chemicals, must be designed
with appropriate protection (e.g., IP-rated enclosures).
o Cleanroom robots are required in environments like semiconductor
or pharmaceutical manufacturing, where contamination must be
minimized.
Example: For food production, robots with stainless steel exteriors and
high resistance to cleaning chemicals are preferred.

9. Control and Programming Requirements

Definition: The ease of programming and controlling the robot, including
interfaces, control systems, and software compatibility.
Considerations:
o Some applications require advanced control algorithms, such as
force control or vision systems, to guide the robot's actions.
o Consider the skill level of operators and ease of integration with
existing systems, such as PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers) or
SCADA systems.
 Example: In a dynamic warehouse sorting system, a robot integrated with
machine vision and AI-based programming might be required for adaptive
decision-making.

10.Collaborative vs. Industrial Robots

Definition: Collaborative robots (cobots) are designed to work alongside
humans safely, while industrial robots typically work in isolated
environments.
Considerations:
o Cobots are suitable for applications requiring human-robot
collaboration and typically feature built-in safety systems (e.g.,
force sensors).
o For high-speed or hazardous tasks, traditional industrial robots with
safety barriers are a better choice.
Example: In light assembly tasks where workers and robots share
workspace, cobots with reduced speed and safety sensors are ideal,
whereas for large-scale manufacturing, industrial robots with high speed
and strength are preferred.

11.Cost and ROI (Return on Investment)

Definition: The total cost of the robot, including purchase, maintenance,
and operational costs, as well as the expected return on investment.
Considerations:
o The robot should be cost-effective based on the expected
productivity gains, quality improvements, and labor cost
reductions.
o Consider ongoing maintenance costs, energy consumption, and the
longevity of the robot.
Example: For a small-scale production line, a cost-efficient, multi-
functional robot may provide better ROI than investing in multiple
specialized robots.

12.Safety and Compliance

Definition: Safety features and regulatory compliance based on industry
standards, such as ISO or ANSI standards.
Considerations:
o Ensure the robot meets the safety requirements for its intended
application and environment, including sensors, emergency stop
features, and safety barriers.
o Collaborative robots must comply with safety standards for human
interaction, including speed and force limitations.
Example: In a human-robot collaborative workspace, the robot must
comply with ISO/TS 15066 standards, ensuring safe operation around
human workers.

Conclusion:
Selecting the right robot for a specific application requires careful
evaluation of factors such as payload capacity, precision, reach,
environmental considerations, and safety. By thoroughly assessing these
criteria, companies can ensure they choose a robot that maximizes
efficiency, safety, and ROI for their specific tasks.